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Zhuangzi (traditional Chinese: 莊子; simplified Chinese: 庄子; pinyin: Zhuāng Zǐ; Wade-Giles: Chuang Tzŭ) was an influential Chinese philosopher who lived around the 4th century BCE during the Warring States Period, corresponding to the Hundred Schools of Thought philosophical summit of Chinese thought. Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions Tao ( 道, Pinyin Dào) is a metaphysical concept found in Taoism, Confucianism, and more generally in ancient Chinese philosophy De ( is a key concept in Chinese philosophy, usually translated "inherent character inner power integrity" in Taoism, "moral character virtue morality" Wuji (無極 is the primordial state of non-being a state of Nothingness and boundlessness or that which is without Bounds or Limits. Taiji (太極 is a state of being from Tao and Wuji. It is a state of absolute and of infinite potentiality In Chinese philosophy, the concept of yin and yang ( is used to describe how seemingly opposing forces are bound together intertwined and interdependent in the In traditional Chinese philosophy, natural phenomena can be classified into the Wu Xing ( or the Five Phases, usually translated as five elements, In traditional Chinese culture, qi (zh [[wikt氣 氣]] Pinyin qì, Wade-Giles ch'i Jyutping Neidan (内丹 a Chinese method of Internal alchemy. Part of the Chinese alchemical meditative tradition that is said to have been separated into internal and external Wu wei ( is an important tenet of Taoism that involves knowing when to act and when not to act The Tao Te Ching or Dao De Jing ( originally known as Laozi or Lao tzu ( is a Chinese classic Note This article is about the Liezi text For the author Liezi please see Lie Yukou. Daozang ( meaning "Treasury of Dao " or " Daoist Canon" consists of almost 5000 individual texts that were collected circa C The Three Pure Ones ( also translated as the Three Pure Pellucid Ones, the Three Pristine Ones, the Three Clarities, or the Three Purities Guan Yu ( Chinese: 關羽 Guān Yǔ was a general under the warlord Liu Bei during the late Eastern Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era of The Eight Immortals ( are a group of legendary xian ("immortals transcendents fairies" in Chinese mythology. Huangdi, or the Yellow Emperor, is a Legendary Chinese sovereign and cultural hero who is considered in Chinese mythology to be the The Queen Mother of the West (西王母 Pinyin: Xīwángmǔ Japanese: Seiōbo) in Chinese mythology, is the ruler of the western Paradise The Jade Emperor ( or 玉帝 Yù Dì) is the Taoist ruler of Heaven and all realms of existence below including that of Man and Hell Chang'e, Ch'ang-O or Chang-Ngo ( also known as Heng-E or Heng-O ( 姮[[wiktionary 娥|娥]] Héng'é is the Chinese Goddess Classical Chen Po (Chen Tuan Chen Hsi I 871-989 Ge Hong 284–364 Guo Xiang (Kuo Hsiang d Laozi ( also Lao Tse, Lao-Tzu, Laotze, Lao Zi, Laocius, and other variations was a philosopher of ancient Zhang Daoling (張道陵 Pinyin Zhāng Dàolíng, Wade-Giles Chang Tao-ling) also commonly called Zhang Ling, was an Eastern Zhang Jiao or Zhang Jue (d 184 was the leader of the Yellow Turbans during the late Eastern Han Dynasty of China. Ge Hong ( 284–364 Courtesy name Zhichuan (稚川 was a minor southern official during the Jìn Dynasty (263-420 best known for his interest in Chen Tuan (陳摶 (birthname Chen Tuan name as a sage Chen Hsi I Chen Xi Yi (871-989 was a legendary Taoist sage Wang Chongyang ( 11 January 1113 – 22 January 1170) calendar] 宋徽宗政和二年十二月廿二 – 金世宗大定十年正月初四] The Yellow Turban Rebellion, sometimes also translated as the Yellow Scarves Rebellion, ( was a AD 184 peasant rebellion against Emperor Ling of Han The Shangqing School (Chinese上清 or Supreme Clarity is a Daoist movement that began during the aristocracy of the Western Jin dynasty The Lingbao School (Simplified Chinese 灵宝派 Traditional Chinese 靈寶派 pinyin Ling Bao Pai also known as the School of the Sacred Jewel or the School The Quanzhen ( School is a major sect of Taoism that originated in Northern China. Zhenyi Dao (Chinese正一道 pinyin Zheng Yi Dào or the Way of Complete Orthodoxy is a Chinese Daoist movement that emerged during the Tang Dynasty Xuanxue ( Chinese: 玄[[wikt 學|學]] or Neotaoism is a sub-discipline of Confucianism and Taoism, its main theme is to study the Grotto-heavens (Chinese洞天 Pinyin Dongtian are a type of sacred Daoist site Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use Wade-Giles (ˌweɪdˈʤaɪlz) sometimes abbreviated Wade, is a Romanization system (phonetic notation and Transcription) for the Mandarin Chinese philosophy is Philosophy written in the Chinese tradition of thought The 4th century BC started the first day of 400 BC and ended the last day of 301 BC. The Warring States Period ( also known as the Era of Warring States covers the period from some time in the 5th century BC to the unification of China by the The Hundred Schools of Thought ( were philosophers and schools that had flourished from 770 to 221 BC an era of great cultural and intellectual expansion in China. The Culture of China (traditional Chinese 中國文化 simplified Chinese 中国文化 is home to one of the world's oldest and most complex Civilizations covering a history His name is sometimes spelled Chuang Tsu, Chuang Tzu, Zhuang Tze, Chouang-Dsi, Chuang Tse or -- in English -- Master Chuang.
Zhuangzi allegedly lived during the reign of King Hui of Liang and King Xuan of Qi, in the span from 370 to 301 BCE. King Hui of Wei ( Simplified Chinese and Traditional Chinese: 魏惠王 or King Hui of Liang ( Simplified Chinese and Traditional Chinese Zhuangzi was from the Town of Meng (蒙城, Méng Chéng) in the State of Song (now Shāngqiū 商邱, Henan). Sòng (宋國 was a state during the Eastern Zhou Spring and Autumn Period ( 770 - 476 BC) Shangqiu ( is a Prefecture-level city in eastern Henan province, People's Republic of China. Henan ( is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the central part of the country His given name was Zhou (周, Zhōu). He was also known as Meng Official, Meng Zhuang, and Meng Elder (蒙吏, Méng Lì; 蒙莊, Méng Zhuāng, and 蒙叟, Méng sǒu, respectively).
Contents |
The book
The Taoist book Zhuangzi (莊子) was named after its purported author. Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions An author is defined both as "the person who originates or gives existence to anything" and that authorship determines responsibility for what is created Since 742 CE, when Emperor Xuanzong of Tang mandated honorific titles for Taoist texts, it has also been known as the Nán huá zhēn jīng (南華眞經), literally meaning "True Classic of Southern (Cultural) Florescence," alluding to the tradition that Zhuangzi came from South China. Emperor Xuanzong of Tang ( ( September 8, 685 Background Li Longji was born at the Tang Dynasty eastern capital Luoyang Another explanation is that the place that Zhuangzi was born was placed within the administrative unit Nán huá (南華) County during the Tang dynasty. The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by
The text is a composite of writings from various sources. The traditional view is that Zhuangzi himself wrote the first seven chapters (the "inner chapters") and his students and related thinkers were responsible for the other parts (the "outer" and "miscellaneous" chapters). Strong proof of direct authorship by Zhuangzi of any of the text is difficult. The recension by Guo Xiang (circa 300 CE) is the basis for practically all extant editions of the Zhuangzi. Guo Xiang ( d 312 CE is credited with the first and most important revision of the text known as the Zhuangzi which along with the Laozi, forms the textual
The inner chapters have great grammatical and conceptual coherence and are believed to have been primarily written by one hand, even if not by Zhuangzi himself. Zhuangzi has been categorized as a "Taoist" by the Chinese tradition, but especially in the inner chapters, he stands out from the rest. Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions He also writes comparatively little about Tao in the inner chapters of the work, even less than Mencius and other prominent Confucians, prompting scholar A. Life Mencius also known by his birth name Meng Ke or Ko, was born in the State of Zou (simp Confucianism ( is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of the fifth century B C. Graham to note, "Zhuangzi never knew he was a Taoist".
Zhuangzi's philosophy
In general, Zhuangzi's philosophy is mildly skeptical, arguing that our life is limited and the amount of things to know is unlimited. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language In ordinary usage skepticism or scepticism ( Greek 'σκέπτομαι' skeptomai, to look about to consider see also spelling differences To use the limited to pursue the unlimited, he said, was foolish. Our language and cognition in general presuppose a dao to which each of us is committed by our separate past—our paths. A language is a dynamic set of visual auditory or tactile Symbols of Communication and the elements used to manipulate them Cognition is a concept used in different ways by different disciplines but is generally accepted to mean the process of awareness or thought Tao ( 道, Pinyin Dào) is a metaphysical concept found in Taoism, Confucianism, and more generally in ancient Chinese philosophy Consequently, we should be aware that our most carefully considered conclusions might seem misguided had we experienced a different past. "Our heart-minds are completed along with our bodies. " Natural dispositions to behavior combine with acquired ones—including dispositions to use names of things, to approve/disapprove based on those names and to act in accordance to the embodied standards. Thinking about and choosing our next step down our dao or path is conditioned by this unique set of natural acquisitions.
Zhuangzi's thought can also be considered a precursor of relativism in systems of value. Compare Moral relativism, Aesthetic relativism, Social constructionism, Cultural relativism, and Cognitive relativism. His relativism even leads him to doubt the basis of pragmatic arguments (that a course of action preserves our lives) since this presupposes that life is good and death bad. In the fourth section of "The Great Happiness" (至樂 zhìlè, chapter 18), Zhuangzi expresses pity to a skull he sees lying at the side of the road. Zhuangzi laments that the skull is now dead, but the skull retorts, "How do you know it's bad to be dead?"
Another example about two famous courtesans points out that there is no universally objective standard for beauty. This is taken from Chapter 2 (齊物論 qí wù lùn) "On Arranging Things", or "Discussion of Setting Things Right" or, in Burton Watson's translation, "Discussion on Making All Things Equal". Burton Watson (born 1925 is an accomplished translator of Chinese and Japanese literature and poetry
Men claim that Mao [Qiang] and Lady Li were beautiful, but if fish saw them they would dive to the bottom of the stream; if birds saw them they would fly away, and if deer saw them they would break into a run. Of these four, who knows how to fix the standard of beauty in the world? (2, tr. Watson 1968:46)
However, this subjectivism is balanced by a kind of sensitive holism in the conclusion of the section called "The Happiness of Fish" (魚之樂, yúzhīlè). Distinguish from the suffix -holism, which describes addictions The names have been changed to pinyin romanization for consistency:
Zhuangzi and Huizi were strolling along the dam of the Hao Waterfall when Zhuangzi said, "See how the minnows come out and dart around where they please! That's what fish really enjoy!"
Huizi said, "You're not a fish — how do you know what fish enjoy?"
Zhuangzi said, "You're not I, so how do you know I don't know what fish enjoy?"
Huizi said, "I'm not you, so I certainly don't know what you know. Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use For other uses see Huizi (currency Hui Shi ( fl 4th century BCE or Huizi (惠子 Hui-tzu "Master Hui" was a Chinese philosopher On the other hand, you're certainly not a fish — so that still proves you don't know what fish enjoy!"
Zhuangzi said, "Let's go back to your original question, please. You asked me how I know what fish enjoy — so you already knew I knew it when you asked the question. I know it by standing here beside the Hao. " (17, tr. Watson 1968:188-9)
The butterfly dream
Another well-known part of the book, which is also found in Chapter 2, is usually called "Zhuangzi dreamed he was a butterfly" (莊周夢蝶 Zhuāng Zhōu mèng dié). Again, the names have been changed to pinyin romanization for consistency:
Once Zhuangzi dreamt he was a butterfly, a butterfly flitting and fluttering around, happy with himself and doing as he pleased. Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use He didn't know he was Zhuangzi. Suddenly he woke up and there he was, solid and unmistakable Zhuangzi. But he didn't know if he was Zhuangzi who had dreamt he was a butterfly, or a butterfly dreaming he was Zhuangzi. Between Zhuangzi and a butterfly there must be some distinction! This is called the Transformation of Things. (2, tr. Burton Watson 1968:49)
This hints at many questions in the philosophy of mind, philosophy of language, and epistemology. Philosophy of mind is the branch of Philosophy that studies the nature of the Mind, Mental events Mental functions mental properties Philosophy of language is the reasoned inquiry into the nature origins and usage of Language. Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge The name of the passage has become a common Chinese idiom, and has spread into Western languages as well. SpecialShortpages.-- It appears, inter alia, as an illustration in Jorge Luis Borges' famous essay "A New Refutation of Time", and may have inspired H. P. Lovecraft's 1918 short story "Polaris". "A New Refutation of Time" is an essay by Argentinian writer Jorge Luis Borges in which he argues that the negations of idealism may be extended to time Howard Phillips Lovecraft ( August 20, 1890 – March 15, 1937) was an American author of horror, fantasy " Polaris " is a Short story by H P Lovecraft, written in 1918 and first published in the December 1920 issue of the amateur journal the
Zhuangzi's philosophy was very influential in the development of Chinese Buddhism, especially Chán (also known as Zen). Chinese Buddhism ( Pinyin fójiào refers collectively to the various schools of Buddhism that have flourished in China proper since ancient times Zen is a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism, referred to in Chinese as Chan. Zen is a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism, referred to in Chinese as Chan.
Anarchy
According to Murray Rothbard, Zhuangzi was "perhaps the world's first anarchist"; Zhuangzi said, the world "does not need governing; in fact it should not be governed," and, "Good order results spontaneously when things are let alone. Murray Newton Rothbard (March 2 1926 – January 7 1995 was an American economist of the Austrian School who helped define modern Libertarianism Anarchism is a Political philosophy encompassing theories and attitudes which support the elimination of all compulsory Government, i " Rothbard claims that Zhuangzi was the first to work out the idea of spontaneous order, before Proudhon and Hayek. See also the closely related articles Emergence and Self-organization. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (ˈpruːd ɒn in British English, dɔ̃ in French) ( 15 January 1809 – 19 January 1865) was Friedrich August von Hayek CH ( May 8, 1899 March 23, 1992) was an Austrian British Economist [1]
Alan Watts, who in his mature and later years was sympathetic to minarchical libertarianism, declared that Zhuangzi was a libertarian, though this is probably an anachronistic misinterpretation of Zhuangzi. Alan Wilson Watts ( January 6, 1915 &ndash November 16, 1973) was a British Philosopher, Writer, speaker and In Civics, minarchism, sometimes called minimal Statism, small government, or limited-government Libertarianism Libertarianism is a term used by a broad spectrum of political philosophies which prioritize individual Liberty and seek to minimize or even abolish the
Evolution
In Chapter 18, Zhuangzi also mentions life forms have an innate ability or power (机) to transform and adapt to their surroundings. While his ideas don't give any solid proof or mechanism of change such as Alfred Wallace and Charles Darwin, his idea about the transformation of life from simple to more complex forms is along the same line of thought. Alfred Russel Wallace OM, FRS (8 January 1823 &ndash 7 November 1913 was an British naturalist, Explorer, Geographer Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life Zhuangzi further mentioned that humans are also subject to this process as humans are a part of nature. [2]
-Points that Zhuangzi makes-
- everything is everything
- there is no good or bad, only thinking makes it so
- The world around us may be perceived as an illusion from our senses our experiences and our interpretations, thus illusions are irrelevant to conclude a definite right or wrong way.
- Death is just a passage of the illusion of life.
Translations
The Zhuangzi text is widely regarded as both deeply insightful in thought and as an achievement of the Chinese poetical essay form. It uses the Chinese language in complex, multi-layered, and often playful ways, and is notoriously difficult to translate. Nevertheless, some sinologists have tried. Sinology in general use is the study of China and things related to China but especially in the American academic context refers more strictly to the study of classical language There are complete English translations of all thirty-three chapters by Frederic Balfour, James Legge, Herbert Giles, James Ware, Burton Watson, Martin Palmer, Victor H. Mair, Wang Rongpei, and Nina Correa. Life James Legge was born at Huntly, Aberdeenshire, and educated at Aberdeen Grammar School and then Kings College Aberdeen. Herbert Allen Giles ( 8 December, 1845 – 13 February, 1935) was a British diplomat and Sinologist, educated at Charterhouse Burton Watson (born 1925 is an accomplished translator of Chinese and Japanese literature and poetry Martin Giles Palmer (born 14 October 1953) is the translator of several popular books on Sinology, including Zhuangzi, the I Ching Victor H Mair (born 1943 is Professor of Chinese Language and Literature in the Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations at the There are selected translations of the seven "inner chapters" by Fung Yu-lan, Burton Watson, Gia-Fu Feng, A. Feng Youlan or Fung Yu-Lan ( 1895–1990 was a Chinese philosopher who was important for reintroducing the study of Chinese philosophy. Burton Watson (born 1925 is an accomplished translator of Chinese and Japanese literature and poetry Gia-Fu Feng (1919 - 1985 was prominent as both an English translator (with his wife Jane English) of Daoist classics and a Daoist teacher in the United C. Graham, Thomas Cleary, and David Hinton. There is also a translation of the seven "inner chapters" and twelve additional chapters by Jerome Seaton and Sam Hamill. There are interpretations of selected Zhuangzi passages by Thomas Merton and Brian Bruya. Thomas Merton ( 31 January 1915 – 10 December 1968) was one of the most influential Catholic writers of the 20th century Graham's is, to date, the most academically thorough, but Watson's is highly praised for its poetic style. Mair's translation also has its highlights, including his decision to translate the poetic parts of the text into English poetry.
References
- Balfour, Frederic Henry (translator). (1881). The Divine Classic of Nan-Hua; Being the Works of Chuang Tsze, Taoist Philosopher. Shanghai: Kelly & Walsh.
- Bruya, Brian (translator). (1992). Zhuangzi Speaks: The Music of Nature. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-00882-0.
- Cleary, Thomas (translator). (1992). The Essential Tao: An Initiation into the Heart of Taoism Through the Authentic Tao Te Ching and the Inner Teachings of Chuang-Tzu. HarperSanFrancisco. ISBN 978-0-06-250177-6 (one of several)
- Feng, Gia-Fu and English, Jane (translators). (1974). Chuang Tsu: Inner Chapters. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 0394719905.
- Fung, Yu-lan (translator). (1933). Chuang-tzǔ: a new selected translation with an exposition of the philosophy of Kuo Hsiang. Shanghai: The Commercial Press. Reprint: 1964. A Taoist Classic: Chuang-Tzu. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press. ISBN 978-7-119-00104-3.
- Giles, Herbert Allen (translator). (1926). Chuang Tzǔ: Mystic, Moralist, and Social Reformer. Shanghai: Kelly & Walsh. Reprint: 1974. New York: AMS Press. ISBN 0404569153.
- Graham, A. C. (translator). (1981). Chuang-tzǔ: The Seven Inner Chapters and other writings from the book Chuang-tzǔ. London: George Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-0-04-299010-1. Reprint: 2001. Chuang-tzǔ: The Inner Chapters. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. ISBN 978-0-87220-582-6; ISBN 978-0-87220-581-9 (paper).
- Hinton, David. (1997). Chuang Tzu: the Inner Chapters. New York: Counterpoint. ISBN 978-1-887178-34-1.
- Legge, James (translator). (1891). The Sacred Books of China: The Texts of Taoism, Part I. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Reprint: 1962. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0486209906.
- Mair, Victor H. (translator). (1994). Wandering on the Way: Early Taoist Tales and Parables of Chuang Tzu. New York: Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0-553-37406-3.
- Merton, Thomas. (1969). The Way of Chuang Tzu. New York: New Directions.
- Palmer, Martin et al. (translators). (1996). The Book of Chuang Tzu. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-019488-3.
- Seaton, Jerome and Hamill, Sam. (1998). The Essential Chuang Tzu. Boston: Shambhala Press. ISBN 1-57062-336-8.
- Waltham, Clae (editor). (1971). Chuang Tzu: Genius of the Absurd. New York: Ace Books.
- Wang Rongpei (translator). (1999). Zhuangzi (Library of Chinese Classics: Chinese-English edition). Beijing: Foreign Languages Press. ISBN 978-7-5438-2087-6.
- Ware, James R. (translator). (1963). The Sayings of Chuang Chou. New York: Mentor Classics.
- Watts, Alan with Huan, Al Chung-liang (1975). Tao: The Watercourse Way. New York: Pantheon Books. ISBN 0-394-73311-8.
- Watson, Burton (translator). (1964). Chuang Tzu: Basic Writings. New York: Columbia University Press. Reprint: 1996. ISBN 978-0-231-08606-6; ISBN 978-0-231-10595-8 (paper).
- Watson, Burton (translator). (1968). The Complete Works of Chuang Tzu. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0231031479.
Notes
- ^ Rothbard, Murray. Concepts of the Role of Intellectuals in Social Change Toward Laissez Faire, The Journal of Libertarian Studies, Vol IX No. 2 (Fall 1990)
- ^ "A Source Book In Chinese Philosophy", Chan, Wing-Tsit, Princeton University Press, p. 204 1963. ISBN 0691019649
See also
External links
- Zhuangzi Bilingual Chinese-English version (James Legge's translation)
- The Zhuangzi "Being Boundless", Complete translation of Zhuangzi by Nina Correa
- Chuang Tzu at Taoism.net, Chuang Tzu's Stories and Teachings - translations by Derek Lin
- Zhuangzi, The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- Zhuangzi, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- The Chuang-tzu, translated by Lin Yutang
- Selection from The Zhuangzi, translated by Patricia Ebrey
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