Yue (Traditional Chinese: 越,粵,鉞; Simplified Chinese: 越,粤,钺; pinyin: Yuè; Cantonese Yale: Yuht; Wade-Giles: Yüeh4; Vietnamese: Việt; also seen as Yueh, Yuet) refers to ancient semi-Sinicized or non-Sinicized peoples of southern China, originally those along the eastern coastline of present-day Zhejiang province. Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use The Yale romanizations are four systems created during World War II for use by United States military personnel. Wade-Giles (ˌweɪdˈʤaɪlz) sometimes abbreviated Wade, is a Romanization system (phonetic notation and Transcription) for the Mandarin Vietnamese ( tiếng Việt, or less commonly Việt ngữ) formerly known under French colonization as Annamese ( see Annam) China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Zhejiang ( is an eastern coastal province of the People's Republic of China. In archaic Chinese, a number of characters (越,粵,鉞) were often used interchangeably to represent the same meaning.
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Origins and ancient usage
In ancient times, the northern Han Chinese referred to the peoples to their south collectively as the Yue. Han Chinese ( are an Ethnic group native to China and by most modern definitions the largest single Ethnic group in the world. Historical texts often refer to the Hundred Yue tribes (Traditional Chinese: 百越; pinyin: Bǎi Yuè; Cantonese Yale: Baak Yuht; Vietnamese: Bách Việt). Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use The Yale romanizations are four systems created during World War II for use by United States military personnel. Vietnamese ( tiếng Việt, or less commonly Việt ngữ) formerly known under French colonization as Annamese ( see Annam) Historian Luo Xianglin has suggested that these peoples shared a common ancestry with the Xia Dynasty. Lo Hsiang-lin ( 1906-1978 is one of the most renowned researchers in Hakka language and culture. The Xia Dynasty ( of China is the first dynasty to be described in ancient historical records such as Records of the Grand Historian and There is little evidence, however, that the Yue peoples held any common identity. The "Treatise of Geography" in Han Shu notes: "In the seven or eight thousand li from Jiaozhi to Kuaiji (modern southern Jiangsu) the Hundred Yue are everywhere, each with their own clans. This article is about two traditional Chinese units of length Tonkin (Đông Kinh in Vietnamese) also spelled Tongkin, Tonquin or Tongking, is the northernmost part of Vietnam, south of ( Postal map spelling: Kiangsu) is a province of the People's Republic of China, located along the east coast of the country " Just as the term Celt was used by the Greeks to describe what they perceived to be a broad cultural group, so the term Yue was a culturally relative term for the ancient Chinese. Celts (ˈkɛlts or /ˈsɛlts/, see Names of the Celts The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions Also like "Celt", Yue is now used in a number of different ways. (see Modern usage below).
Ethnolinguists have suggested that the pronunciaton of Yue may be related to a type of hemp produced in what is now Zhejiang. The character itself is related to the character for "ceremonial axe" (Traditional Chinese: 鉞; Simplified Chinese: 钺), usually considered a symbol of royal or imperial authority. A number of stone axes have been found in the area of Hangzhou, and there is evidence that the ceremonial axe was a southern invention. ( Postal map spelling: Hangchow) is a Sub-provincial city located in the Yangtze River Delta in the People's Republic of China,
Ancient texts mention a number of Yue peoples. Most of these names survived into early imperial times and can be roughly construed as cultural groupings:
| Chinese | Hanyu Pinyin | Cantonese Yale | Vietnamese | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 句吳/句吴 | Gōuwú | Geui'ngh | Câu Ngô | Hmong-Mien |
| 於越/于越 | Yūyuè | Yūyuht | Ư Việt | Major Yue |
| 揚越/扬越 | Yángyuè | Yèungyuht | Dương Việt | Ocean Yue |
| 幹越/干越 | Gānyuè | Gonyuht | Cán Việt | Main Yue |
| 閩越/闽越 | Mǐnyuè | Mànyuht | Mân Việt | River Yue |
| 夜郎 | Yèláng | Yehlòng | Dạ Lang | Night Yue |
| 南越 | Nányuè | Naàhmyuht | Nam Việt | Southern Yue |
| 東越/东越 | Dōngyuè | Dōngyuht | Đông Việt | Eastern Yue |
| 山越 | Shānyuè | Saānyuht | Sơn Việt | Mountain Yue |
| 雒越 | Luòyuè | Lokyuht | Lạc Việt | Sea Bird Yue |
| 甌越/瓯越 | Ōuyuè | Āuyuht | Âu Việt | (East) Valley Yue |
| 西甌 | Xī'ōu | Sāi'āu | Tây Âu | West Valley Yue |
| 滇越,盔越 | Diānyuè, Kuīyuè | Dīnyuht, Kwaīyuht | Điền Việt, Khôi Việt | Heavenly Yue, Basin Yue |
Sinification and displacement
From the Ninth century BC, two northern Yue peoples, the Gou-Wu and Yu-Yue, were increasingly influenced by their Chinese neighbours to their north. Minyue ( was an ancient kingdom located what is now the province of Fujian in Southern China Yelang ( was a minor kingdom in what is today Guizhou, China. Nanyue ( was an ancient kingdom that consisted of parts of the modern Chinese provinces of Guangdong, Guangxi, Yunnan and much of modern northern The Kam-Tai languages, or Be-Kam-Tai, are a proposed primary branch of the Tai-Kadai language family, and include all major languages of that family These two states were based in the areas of what is now southern Jiangsu and northern Zhejiang respectively. Their aristocratic elite learnt the written Chinese language, adopted Chinese political institutions and military technology. Traditional accounts attribute the cultural change to the Grand Earl of Wu (吳太伯), a Zhou prince who had fled to the south. The Zhou Dynasty ( POJ: Chiu Tiau 1122 BC to 256 BC was preceded by the Shang Dynasty and followed by the Qin Dynasty in China. The marshy lands of the south gave Gou-Wu and Yu-Yue unique characteristics. They did not engage in extensive agrarian agriculture, relying instead more heavily on aquaculture. Aquaculture is the farming of freshwater and saltwater organisms including Molluscs Crustaceans and aquatic plants Water transport was paramount in the south, so the two states became advanced in shipbuilding and developed riverine warfare technology. They were also known for their fine swords.
In the Spring and Autumn Period, the two states, now called Wu and Yue, were becoming increasingly involved in Chinese politics. The Spring and Autumn Period ( was a period in Chinese history which roughly corresponds to the first half of the Eastern Zhou dynasty (from the second half of the 8th century BC Wu (吳 was a state during the Spring and Autumn Period in China. In 512 BC, Wu launched a large expedition against the large state of Chu, based in the Middle Yangtze River. Chǔ ( 楚) was a kingdom in what is now central and southern China during the Spring and Autumn period ( 722 - 481 BC) and A similar campaign in 506 succeeded in sacking the Chu capital Ying. Also in that year, war broke out between Wu and Yue and continued with breaks for the next three decades. In 473 BC, the Yue king Goujian finally conquered Wu and was acknowledged by the northern states of Qi and Jin. King Goujian of Yue ( Chinese: 越王勾踐 (reigned 496 BC - 465 BC) was the king of the Kingdom of Yue (present-day Shanghai, northern Qi ( 齊; Pinyin: Qí was a powerful state during the Spring and Autumn Period and Period of the Warring States. Jin ( Traditional Chinese: 晉 Simplified Chinese: 晋 Pinyin: Jìn was one of the most powerful states in the Spring and Autumn Period In 333 BC, Yue was in turn conquered by Chu.
After the unification of China by Qin Shi Huang, it became incorporated into the Chinese empire. Qin Shi Huang ( (259 BC – September 10 210 BC personal name Yíng Zhèng, was king of the Chinese State of Qin from 247 BCE to 221 BCE (during the The Qin armies also advanced south along the Xiang River to modern Guangdong and set up commanderies along the main communication routes. The Xiang River (also as Xiangjiang, Xiangjiang River, or simply as Xiang, Chinese: 湘江 湘水 or 湘 Pinyin: Xiāng Jiāng Throughout the Han Dynasty period two groups of Yue were identified, that of the Nan-Yue in the far south, who lived mainly in the area of what is now Guangdong, Guangxi, and Vietnam; and that of the Min-Yue who lay to the southeast, centred on the Min River in modern Fujian. The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. Guangdong ( EFEO: Kouangtong; Pinyin Guǎngdōng; Postal map spelling: Kwangtung) is a province on the Guangxi (or Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region;) is a Zhuang autonomous region of the People's Republic of China. Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially This article is about the People's Republic of China province
Sinification of these peoples was brought about by a combination of imperial military power, regular settlement and Chinese refugees. The difficulty of logistics and the malarial climate in the south made the displacement and eventual sinification of the Yue peoples a slow process. Malaria is a vector -borne Infectious disease caused by Protozoan Parasites It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions including When the Chinese came into contact with local Yue peoples, they often wrested control of territory from them or subjugated them by force. When a serious rebellion broke out in 40 AD by the Trung Sisters in what is now modern Vietnam, a force of some 10,000 imperial troops was dispatched under General Ma Yuan. For other uses see Ma Yuan. Ma Yuan ( Traditional Chinese: 馬[[wikt 援|援]] Pinyin: Mǎ Yuán Vietnamese Between 100 and 184 no less than seven outbreaks of violence took place, often calling for strong defensive action by the Chinese. Events By place Roman Empire The Antonine Wall is permanently abandoned
As Chinese migrants gradually increased, the Yue were gradually forced into poorer land on the hills and in the mountains. Unlike the nomadic peoples of Central Asia, such as the Xiongnu or the Xianbei, however, the Yue peoples never posed any serious threat to Chinese expansion or control. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south The Xiongnu ( Turkish: Doğu Hun were a confederation of nomadic tribes from Central Asia with a ruling class of unknown origin and other subjugated tribes The Xianbei ( were a significant nomadic people residing in Manchuria and eastern Mongolia, or Xianbei Shan. Sometimes they staged small scale raids or attacks on Chinese settlements - termed "rebellions" by traditional historians. The Chinese for their part regarded them as being highly uncivilised and prone to fight one another.
While most Yue peoples were eventually sinicized, the Kam-Tai (Daic):Zhuang, Buyi, Dai, Sui(Shui), Kam(Dong), Hlai(Li), Mulam, Maonan, Ong-Be(Lingao), Thai, Lao, Shan and the Vietnamese peoples retained their ethnic identities. The Kam-Tai languages, or Be-Kam-Tai, are a proposed primary branch of the Tai-Kadai language family, and include all major languages of that family Daic (or Tai-Kadai) is a Language family that is distributed in Thailand, China, Vietnam, Laos, Burma and In particular, the Vietnamese people broke free from Chinese rule in the 10th century and have their own state to this day.
Legacy
The fall of the Han Dynasty and the succeeding period of division sped up the process of sinification. Periods of instability and war in northern China, such as the Northern and Southern Dynasties and during the Song Dynasty led to mass migrations of Chinese. This article is about the Southern and Northern Dynasties in China. The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Intermarriage and cross-cultural dialogue has led to a mixture of Chinese and non-Chinese peoples in the south. By the Tang Dynasty, the term "Yue" had largely become a regional designation rather than a cultural one. The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by A state in modern Zhejiang province during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, for example, called itself "Wu-Yue". Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms ( 907-960 was an era of political upheaval in China, beginning in the Tang Dynasty and ending in the Song Dynasty. Kingdom of Wuyue ( Traditional Chinese: 吳越國 Simplified Chinese: 吴越国 Pinyin Wúyuè Guó 907 - 978, was a small independent Likewise, the "Viet" in "Vietnam" (literally, "Viet South") is a cognate of the "Yue". Cognates in Linguistics are words that have a common origin They may occur within a language such as shirt and skirt as two English words descended from
The impact of Yue culture on Chinese culture has not been determined authoritatively but it is clear that it is significant. The languages of the ancient states of Wu and Yue form the basis the modern Wu language and to some extent the Min languages of Fujian. Linguistic anthropologists have also determined that a number of Chinese words can be traced to ancient Yue words. An example is the word "jiang" (江), meaning river. To some extent, some remnants of the Yue peoples and their culture can also be seen in some minority groups of China and the Vietnamese people. The following is a list of ethnic groups in China where "China" is taken to mean areas controlled by either of the two states using "China" in their formal
Modern usage
In modern Chinese, the characters of "越" and "粵" (both yuè) are differentiated. The former is used to refer to the original territory of the Yue Kingdom, the area of what is now northern Zhejiang, southern Jiangsu, and Shanghai, especially the areas around Shaoxing and Ningbo. Zhejiang ( is an eastern coastal province of the People's Republic of China. ( Postal map spelling: Kiangsu) is a province of the People's Republic of China, located along the east coast of the country Shanghai ( 上[[wikt 海|海]] is the largest city in China in terms of population and one of the largest urban areas in the world with over 20 million Administration The Prefecture-level city of Shaoxing administers 1 district, 3 county-level cities and 2 counties. Ningbo ( literally "Tranquil Waves" is a Seaport with sub-provincial administrative status. The opera of Zhejiang, for example, is called "Yue Opera" (yueju, 越劇). The first character "越" is also associated with Vietnam. Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially The second character "粵" (yuè) is associated with the southern province of Guangdong. Guangdong ( EFEO: Kouangtong; Pinyin Guǎngdōng; Postal map spelling: Kwangtung) is a province on the Popularly called "Cantonese", both the standard form and regional dialects of the Yue language are spoken in Guangdong, Guangxi, Hong Kong, Macau and in many Cantonese communities around the world. Guangdong ( EFEO: Kouangtong; Pinyin Guǎngdōng; Postal map spelling: Kwangtung) is a province on the Guangxi (or Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region;) is a Zhuang autonomous region of the People's Republic of China. Hong Kong ( officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, is a territory located on China 's south coast on the Pearl River Delta, and borders For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Macau topics.
See also
- Zhonghua Minzu
- Chinese people
- Cantonese people
- Southern Min ("Fujianese" and "Taiwanese" people)
- Hakka people
- Teochiu (Teochew or Chaozhou) people
- Austro-Tai
- Daic
- Vietnamese people
External links
- The power of language over the past: Tai settlement and Tai linguistics in southern China and northern Vietnam
- Introduction to Yuet Culture
- Tai-Kadai Linguistic Classification
- Dr.Hui Li, A Genetics Anthropologist on Daic populations
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