The Xiongnu (Turkish: Doğu Hun (Eastern Huns), Chinese: 匈奴; pinyin: Xiōngnú; Wade-Giles: Hsiung-nu) were a nomadic people from Central Asia. Turkish ( tr Türkçe IPA) is a language spoken by over 63 million people worldwide making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages. Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use Wade-Giles (ˌweɪdˈʤaɪlz) sometimes abbreviated Wade, is a Romanization system (phonetic notation and Transcription) for the Mandarin Nomadic people, (from the νομάδες nomádes, "those who let pasture herds" also known as nomads, are communities of people that Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south "Xiongnu" was the most ancient name that was given to the Turkic clans of Central Asia by the Chinese ^{[1][2][3][4][5][6]}. The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south They appear in Chinese sources from the 3rd century BC as controlling an empire (the "Asian Hun Empire" under Modu Shanyu) stretching beyond the borders of modern day Mongolia. The 3rd century BC started the first day of 300 BC and ended the last day of 201 BC Modun Shanyu (Chinese 冒頓單于 Baatur Bator Baghadur Bahadır(in modern Turkish Bahadır (born 234 BC) was the founder of the Asian Hun Empire ( Mongolia (mɒŋˈɡoʊliə, literally Mongol country/nation,) is a Landlocked Country in East They were active in the areas of southern Siberia, western Manchuria and the modern Chinese provinces of Inner Mongolia, Gansu, and Xinjiang. Siberia (Сиби́рь Sibir) is the name given to the vast region constituting almost all of Northern Asia and for the most part currently serving Manchuria ( Romanized Manchu: Manju,, Маньчжурия Mongolian: Манж is a historical name given to a vast geographic region in northeast China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National A province, in the context of China, is a translation of sheng ( which is an administrative division Inner Mongolia ( Mongolian:, Öbür mongɣul; occasionally romanized to Nei Mongol is the Mongol ( is a province located in the northwest of the People's Republic of China. Xinjiang ( Uyghur: شىنجاڭ Shinjang;; Postal map spelling: Sinkiang; Turkish: Sincan, Sincan Uygur Özerk These nomadic people were considered so dangerous that the Qin Dynasty ordered the construction of the Great Wall to protect China from Xiongnu attacks. Not to be confused with the Qing Dynasty, the last dynasty of China The Great Wall of China ( or ( is a series of stone and earthen Fortifications in China, built rebuilt and maintained between the 6th century BC and the 16th

The bulk of information on the Xiongnu comes from Chinese sources. What little is known of their titles and names comes from transliterations of Chinese character phoneticizations of their language. Only about 20 Xiongnu words^[7] belonging to the Altaic languages are known,^[8] and only a single Xiongnu sentence survives from the Chinese documents. Altaic, according to its proponents is a language family that includes 66 Languages ref> Altaic languages spoken by about 348 million people mostly in and around Relations between early Chinese dynasties and the Xiongnu were complicated and included military conflict, exchanges of tribute and trade, and marriage treaties. A military is an Organization authorized by its Nation to use force usually including use of Weapons in defending its Country (or by attacking A tribute (from Latin tribulum, contribution is wealth one party gives to another as a sign of respect or as was often case in historical contexts of submission

Contents 1 Origins and languages 2 Archaeology 3 Early history 3.1 Confederation under Modu 3.1.1 Nature of the Xiongnu state 3.2 Xiongnu Hierarchy 3.3 The marriage treaty system 3.4 War with Han Dynasty 3.5 Leadership struggle among the Xiongnu 3.6 Tributary relations with the Han 4 Late history 4.1 Northern Xiongnu 4.2 Southern Xiongnu 4.2.1 After the Han Dynasty 4.2.1.1 Liu Yuan's Northern Han (304-318) 4.2.1.2 Liu Yao's Former Zhao (318-329) 4.2.1.3 Tiefu & Xia (260-431) 4.2.1.4 Juqu & Northern Liang (401-460) 5 Northern Xiongnu becoming the Huns 6 Notes 7 References 7.1 Primary sources 7.2 Secondary sources

Origins and languages

The language of the Xiongnu reflects without any scholarly consensus, based on the analysis between early 19th century to 20th century different opinions were proposed; proponents of the Turkic languages included Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat, Julius Klaproth, Shiratori Kurakichi, Gustaf John Ramstedt, Annemarie von Gabain, and Omeljan Pritsak. The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar The twentieth century of the Common Era began on The Turkic languages constitute a Language family of some thirty languages spoken by Turkic peoples across a vast area from Eastern Europe and the Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat ( September 5, 1788 &ndash June 4, 1832) was a French Sinologist. Julius Heinrich Klaproth (1783-1835 German Orientalist and traveller Gustaf John Ramstedt born in Ekenäs October 22, 1873, died in Helsinki November 25 1950, was a Finland-Swedish Omeljan Pritsak ( 7 April 1919, Luka Sambir County eastern Galicia – May 29, 2006, Boston MA) was the first Mykhailo Others, like Paul Pelliot, insisted on a Mongolic origin. Paul Pelliot ( May 28, 1878 &ndash October 26, 1945) was a French Sinologist and Explorer of Central The Mongolic languages are a group of languages spoken in Central Asia. Albert Terrien de Lacouperie considered them to be multi-component groups. ^[9]

Lajos Ligeti was the first to suggest that the Xiongnu spoke a Yeniseian language. The Yeniseian Language family (sometimes known as Yeniseic or Yenisei-Ostyak; occasionally spelt with - ss - is spoken in central Siberia In the early 1960s Edwin Pulleyblank was the first to expand upon this idea with credible evidence. In 2000, Alexander Vovin reanalyzed Pulleyblank's argument and found further support for it by utilizing the most recent reconstruction of Old Chinese phonology by Starostin and Baxter and a single Chinese transcription of a sentence in the language of the Jie (a member tribe of the Xiongnu confederacy). Alexander Vovin is currently an interim chair and professor at the Ruhr University Bochum and a professor of East Asian Languages at the University of The Jie ( were members of a small tribe in the Xiongnu Confederation in the 4th and 5th centuries CE. Previous Turkic interpretations of the aforementioned sentence do not match the Chinese translation as precisely as using Yeniseian grammar. ^[10]

The original geographic location of Xiongnu is generally placed at the Ordos. The Ordos Desert ( is a Desert and Steppe region lying on a Plateau in the south of the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region of the People's Recent genetics research dated 2003^[11] confirms the studies^[12] indicating that the Turkic peoples,^[13] originated from the same area and therefore are possibly related. The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family

The rock art of the Yinshan and Helanshan is dated from the 9th millennium BC to 19th century. The Yin Mountains ( Yin Shan or Yinshan) are Mountains in the Steppe forming the southern border of the eastern Gobi Desert of the The Helan Shan ( Alaša aɣula frequently called Alashan Mountains in older sources is a mountain range forming the border of Inner Mongolia 's Alxa League and The 9th millennium BC marks the beginning of the Neolithic period The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar It consists mainly of engraved signs (petroglyphs) and only minimally of painted images. ^[14] Ma Liqing compared the petroglyphs (which he presumed to be the sole extant example of possible Xiongnu writings), and the Orkhon script (the earliest known Turkic alphabet) recently, and argued a new connection between both of them. The Old Turkic script (also Göktürk script, Orkhon script, Orkhon-Yenisey script; Turkish: Orhun Yazıtları, 鄂爾渾文字 Old Turkic (also East Old Turkic, Orkhon Turkic, Old Uyghur) is the earliest attested Turkic language, found in inscriptions by the ^[15]

Excavations conducted between 1924-1925, in Noin-Ula kurgans located in Selenga River in the northern Mongolian hills north of Ulan Bator, produced objects with over twenty carved characters, which were either identical or very similar to that of to the runic letters of the Turkic Orkhon script discovered in the Orkhon Valley. The Noin-Ula kurgans are located by the Selenga River in the northern Mongolia hills north of Ulan Bator. The Selenga (Селенга or Selenge (Сэлэнгэ гол Сэлэнгэ мөрөн is a river in Mongolia and Russia. Mongolia (mɒŋˈɡoʊliə, literally Mongol country/nation,) is a Landlocked Country in East Ulan Bator, or Ulaanbaatar (Улаанбаатар is the Capital and largest city of Mongolia. The Old Turkic script (also Göktürk script, Orkhon script, Orkhon-Yenisey script; Turkish: Orhun Yazıtları, 鄂爾渾文字 Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape sprawls along the banks of the Orkhon River in Central Mongolia, some 360 km west from the capital Ulaanbaatar. ^[16]

Archaeology

In the 1920s, Pyotr Kozlov's excavations of the royal tombs dated to about 1st century CE at Noin-Ula in northern Mongolia provided a glimpse into the lost world of the Xiongnu. Pyotr Kuzmich Kozlov (Пётр Кузьми́ч Козло́в October 3, 1863 near Smolensk - September 26, 1935, Peterhof The Noin-Ula kurgans are located by the Selenga River in the northern Mongolia hills north of Ulan Bator. Mongolia (mɒŋˈɡoʊliə, literally Mongol country/nation,) is a Landlocked Country in East Other archaeological sites have been unearthed in Inner Mongolia and elsewhere; they represent the Neolithic and historical periods of the Xiongnu's history. Inner Mongolia ( Mongolian:, Öbür mongɣul; occasionally romanized to Nei Mongol is the Mongol ^[17] Those included the Ordos culture, many of them had been identified as the Xiongnu cultures. The Ordos culture comprises the period from Upper Paleolithic to the late Bronze age at the Ordos Desert, in the south of the Inner Mongolian Autonomous The region was occupied predominantly by peoples showing Mongoloid features, known from their skeletal remains and artifacts. Portraits found in the Noin-Ula excavations demonstrate other cultural evidences and influences, showing that Chinese and Xiongnu art have influenced each other mutually. Some of these embroidered portraits in the Noin-Ula kurgans also depict the Xiongnu with long braided hair with wide ribbons, which are seen to be identical with the Turkic Ashina clan hair-style. Kurgan (курга́н is the Russian word (of Turkic origin for a Tumulus, a type of Burial mound or barrow heaped over a Ashina ( Asen, Asena, etc was a tribe and the ruling dynasty of the ancient Turks who rose to prominence in the mid- 6th century when their leader ^[18]

Early history

According to Sima Qian, the Xiongnu were descendants of Chunwei (淳維), possibly a son of Jie, the final ruler of the Xia Dynasty. Early life and education Sima Qian was born and grew up in Longmen, near present-day Hancheng Shaanxi. King Jie ( given name Gui(癸 was the last ruler of the Xia Dynasty of China, and is blamed for its fall The Xia Dynasty ( of China is the first dynasty to be described in ancient historical records such as Records of the Grand Historian and However, while there is no direct evidence contradicting this account, there is no direct evidence supporting it either.

The Xiongnu was initially a collection of small and insignificant tribes residing in the barren area of Mongolian highlands. During the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, the campaigns by Zhou's vassal states to purge other hostile "barbarians" allowed Xiongnu the opportunity to strengthen and fill up the niche. The Zhou Dynasty ( POJ: Chiu Tiau 1122 BC to 256 BC was preceded by the Shang Dynasty and followed by the Qin Dynasty in China. The term vassal state commonly refers to any state that was subordinate to another in the pre-modern international system These newly arisen nomads became a great headache for the Chinese, as their horseback lifestyle proved very efficient for rapid invasion and raiding villages and townships. Nomadic people, (from the νομάδες nomádes, "those who let pasture herds" also known as nomads, are communities of people that During the Warring States period, three out of the seven warring states shared borders with Xiongnu, and a series of interconnected defensive fortresses were constructed, which joined later into the Great Wall. The Warring States Period ( also known as the Era of Warring States covers the period from some time in the 5th century BC to the unification of China by the The Great Wall of China ( or ( is a series of stone and earthen Fortifications in China, built rebuilt and maintained between the 6th century BC and the 16th

During the Qin Dynasty, the Chinese army, under the command of General Meng Tian, drove the Xiongnu tribes away and recaptured the Henan region. Not to be confused with the Qing Dynasty, the last dynasty of China Meng Tian (蒙恬 ( ?-210 BC was a general of the Qin Dynasty who distinguished himself against the Xiongnu and in the construction of the Great Wall of China Henan ( is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the central part of the country The presence of the powerful Donghu in the east and Yuezhi in the west also served as restraints for the Xiongnu, forcing them to migrate further north for the next decade. Donghu ( literally "eastern hu" was an ancient nomadic tribe or tribal union in Northeast China The Yuezhi or Rouzhi ( Chinese: 月支 Pinyin: yuè zhī or ròu zhī; also 月氏 Pinyin: yuè shì With the collapse of the Qin Dynasty and the subsequent civil war, the Xiongnu, under Shanyu Toumen, was able to migrate south to border with China again. Shanyu ( Archaic Chinese: dar wa, transliterated Chanyu, the pronunciation in modern Mandarin it is also sometimes transliterated Shanyu supposedly because the Touman ( Turkish: Teoman, Tuman) was the earliest known Hiungnu ( Xiongnu) Chanyu, reigning from 220 BC to 209 BC

Confederation under Modu

In 209 BC, just three years before the founding of the Han Dynasty, the Xiongnu were brought together in a powerful confederacy under a new shanyu named Modu Shanyu (known as Modu to Chinese and Mete in Turkish). Events By place Roman Republic The Romans under Fabius Maximus Cunctator capture Tarentum (modern Taranto The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. A confederation is a group of empowered states or communities usually created by treaty but often later adopting a common constitution Shanyu ( Archaic Chinese: dar wa, transliterated Chanyu, the pronunciation in modern Mandarin it is also sometimes transliterated Shanyu supposedly because the Modun Shanyu (Chinese 冒頓單于 Baatur Bator Baghadur Bahadır(in modern Turkish Bahadır (born 234 BC) was the founder of the Asian Hun Empire ( The Xiongnu's political unity transformed them into a much more formidable foe by enabling them to concentrate larger forces and exercise better strategic coordination. The cause of the confederation, however, remains unclear. It has been suggested that the unification of China prompted the nomads to rally around a political centre in order to strengthen their position. ^[19] Another theory is that the reorganisation was their response to the political crisis that overtook them 215 BC, when Qin armies evicted them from pastures on the Yellow River. Events By place Carthage The Carthaginians fail to recapture Sardinia. The Yellow River or Huang He / Hwang Ho ( Hatan Gol Queen river) is the second-longest river in China (after the Yangtze River) and the ^[20]

After forging internal unity, Modun expanded the empire on all sides. To the north he conquered a number of nomadic peoples, including the Dingling of southern Siberia. The Dingling (丁零 or Gaoche (高車 Chile (敕勒, Tiele (鐵勒 were an ancient Siberian people He crushed the power of the Donghu of eastern Mongolia and Manchuria, as well as the Yuezhi in the Gansu corridor. Donghu ( literally "eastern hu" was an ancient nomadic tribe or tribal union in Northeast China The Yuezhi or Rouzhi ( Chinese: 月支 Pinyin: yuè zhī or ròu zhī; also 月氏 Pinyin: yuè shì Hexi Corridor or Gansu Corridor ( refers to the historical route in Gansu province of China. He was able, moreover, to reoccupy all the lands taken by the Qin general Meng Tian. Meng Tian (蒙恬 ( ?-210 BC was a general of the Qin Dynasty who distinguished himself against the Xiongnu and in the construction of the Great Wall of China Before the death of Modun in 174 BC, the Xiongnu had driven the Yuezhi from the Gansu corridor completely, killed the Yuezhi king in the process and drank from his skull as a cup, and asserted their presence in the Western Regions in modern Xinjiang. Events By place Mongolia The Xiongnu attack the Tocharians, and force them away from Gansu. ( is a province located in the northwest of the People's Republic of China. The Western Regions or Xiyu ( was a historical name specified in the Chinese chronicles between the 3rd century BC to 8th century that referred to the regions west of Jade

Nature of the Xiongnu state

Under Modun, a dualistic system of political organisation was formed. The left and right branches of the Xiongnu were divided on a regional basis. The shanyu or shan-yü — supreme ruler equivalent to the Chinese "Son of Heaven" — exercised direct authority over the central territory. The Emperor of China ( refers to any sovereign of Imperial China reigning since the founding of the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC until the fall of The Longcheng (蘢城), near Koshu-Tsaidam in Mongolia, was established as the annual meeting place and de facto capital.

Xiongnu Hierarchy

Xiongnu (Hsiung-nu) were led by a chief called shan-yü, whose full title transcribed into Chinese is Ch'eng-li Ku-t'u Shan-yü, words which the Chinese translate as "Majesty Son of Heaven". Shanyu ( Archaic Chinese: dar wa, transliterated Chanyu, the pronunciation in modern Mandarin it is also sometimes transliterated Shanyu supposedly because the In these words may be detected Turko-Mongol roots: ch'eng-li in particular is the transcription of the Turkic and Mongol word Tängri, Heaven or God. Altaic peoples are peoples who speak the Altaic languages. Their looks differ from east to west Tengri is the supreme god of the old Xiongnu, Xianbei, Turkic, Bulgar, Mongolian, Hunnic and Altaic ^[21]

Under the shan-yü served "two great dignitaries, the kings t'u-ch'i": that is to say, the wise kings of the right and left, the Chinese transcription t'u-ch'i being related to the Turkish word doghri, straight, faithful. Turkish ( tr Türkçe IPA) is a language spoken by over 63 million people worldwide making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages. Insofar as one can speak of fixed dwellings for essentially nomadic people, the shan-yü resided on the upper Orkhon, in the mountainous region where later Karakorum, the capital of the Jengiz-Khanite Mongols, was to be established. Karakorum (Khalkha Mongolian Khara-khorin, Classical Mongolian Qara Qorum) was the capital of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century The worthy king of the left -in principle, the heir presumptive- lived in the east, probably on the high Kerulen. The Kherlen or Kerülen (Хэрлэн гол Kherlen gol;) is a river of 1254 km length in Mongolia and China. The worthy king of the right lived in the west, perhaps near present day Uliassutai in the Khangai Mountains. The Khangai mountains ( mongolian mn Хангайн нуруу Khangain nuruu) are a mountain range in central Mongolia, some 400 kilometres west of Next, moving down the scale of the Hunnic hierarchy, came the ku-li "kings" of left and right, the army commanders of left and right, the great governors, the tung-hu, the ku-tu-all of left and right; then the chiefs of a thousand men, of a hundred, and of ten men. The Huns were an early confederation of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads with a Turkic core of aristocracy This nation of nomads, a people on the march, was organized like an army. The general orientation was southward, as was customary among Turko-Mongol peoples; the same phenomenon is to be seen among the descendants of the Hsiung-nu, the Turks of the sixth century A. The Xiongnu ( Turkish: Doğu Hun were a confederation of nomadic tribes from Central Asia with a ruling class of unknown origin and other subjugated tribes Göktürks ( Turkish: Gök Türkler) were a Turkic people of ancient Central Asia. The 6th century is the period from 501 to 600 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. D. , as well as in the case of the Mongols of Jenghiz Khan. Genghis Khan ( or;, Chinggis Khaan, ʧiŋgɪs χaːŋ Činggis Qaɣan; 1162–1227 born (meaning "ironworker" was the Mongol founder ^[22]

The marriage treaty system

In the winter of 200 BC, following a siege of Taiyuan, Emperor Gao personally led a military campaign against Modun. Events By place Seleucid Empire Antiochus III's forces continue their invasion of Coele Syria and Palestine. Taiyuan ( lit "Great Plains" is a Prefecture-level city and the capital of Shanxi province China. Early life Liú Bāng was born into a lower class farming family in Pei (present Pei County in Jiangsu Province) At the battle of Baideng, he was ambushed reputedly by 300,000 elite Xiongnu cavalry. The Battle of Baideng (白登之戰 was a military conflict between Han China and the Xiongnu in 200 BC. The emperor was cut off from supplies and reinforcements for seven days, only narrowly escaping capture.

After the defeat at Pingcheng, the Han emperor abandoned a military solution to the Xiongnu threat. Instead, in 198 BC, the courtier Liu Jing (劉敬) was despatched for negotiations. Events By place Roman Republic After his election to the Consulship Titus Quinctius Flamininus is chosen to replace Publius The peace settlement eventually reached between the parties included a Han princess given in marriage to the shanyu (called heqin 和親 or "harmonious kinship"); periodic gifts of silk, liquor and rice to the Xiongnu; equal status between the states; and the Great Wall as mutual border. Heqin ( was a term used in ancient China for an alliance by Marriage. Silk is a natural Protein Fiber, some forms of which can be woven into Textiles The best-known type of silk is obtained from cocoons Rice is a Cereal foodstuff which forms an important part of the diet of many people worldwide and as such it is a staple food for many The Great Wall of China ( or ( is a series of stone and earthen Fortifications in China, built rebuilt and maintained between the 6th century BC and the 16th

This first treaty set the pattern for relations between the Han and the Xiongnu for some sixty years. Up to 135 BC, the treaty was renewed no less than nine times, with an increase of "gifts" with each subsequent agreement. In 192 BC, Modun even asked for the hand of the widowed Empress Lü. Events By place Greece The Achaeans respond to Sparta 's renewed interest in recovering lost territory by sending an envoy to His son and successor, the energetic Jiyu (稽粥), known as the Laoshang Shanyu (老上單于), continued his father's expansionist policies. Laoshang succeeded in negotiating with Emperor Wen, terms for the maintenance of a large-scale government-sponsored market system. Emperor Wen of Han (202 BC&ndash157 BC was an emperor of the Han Dynasty in China.

While much was gained by the Xiongnu, from the Chinese perspective marriage treaties were costly and ineffective. Laoshang showed that he did not take the peace treaty seriously. On one occasion his scouts penetrated to a point near Chang'an. Chang'an ( is an ancient Capital of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history. In 166 BC he personally led 140,000 cavalry to invade Anding, reaching as far as the imperial retreat at Yong. In 158 BC, his successor sent 30,000 cavalry to attack the Shang commandery and another 30,000 to Yunzhong. Datong ( is a city in the northern Shanxi Province in China, and is located a few hundred kilometres west by rail from Beijing with an elevation of

War with Han Dynasty

Main article: Sino-Xiongnu War

The Han Dynasty made preparations for war when the Han Emperor Wu dispatched the explorer Zhang Qian to explore the mysterious kingdoms to the west and to form an alliance with the Yuezhi people in order to combat the Xiongnu. The Sino-Xiongnu War is a name given to a series of Battles between the Han Dynasty and the tribes of Xiongnu between 133 BC and 89 Zhang Qian ( 張[[wikt 騫|騫]] Wade-Giles Chang Ch'ien was an imperial envoy to the outside world in the 2nd century BC during the time of the Han Dynasty ^[23] After Zhang Qian was successful in forming that alliance, the Chinese were prepared to mount a large scale attack using the Northern Silk Road to move men and materiel. The Northern Silk Road is a Prehistoric Trackway in northern China originating in the early capital of Xi'an and extending north of the

Han China was making preparations for a military confrontation from the reign of Emperor Wen. The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. Emperor Wen of Han (202 BC&ndash157 BC was an emperor of the Han Dynasty in China. The break came in 133 BC, following an abortive trap to ambush the shanyu at Mayi. By that point the empire was consolidated politically, militarily, and financially, and was led by an adventurous pro-war faction at court. In that year, Emperor Wu reversed the decision he had made the year before to renew the peace treaty. Background birth and years as crown prince Emperor Wu was the tenth child of Emperor Jing, and was born to one of Emperor Jing's favorite Concubines,

Full scale war broke out in autumn 129 BC, when 40,000 Chinese cavalry made a surprise attack on the Xiongnu at the border markets. The Cavalry (from French cavalerie) is the second oldest of the Combat Arms, and as Soldiers or Warriors who fought mounted on In 127 BC, the Han general Wei Qing retook the Ordos. Wèi Qīng ( d 106 BC born in Linfen, Shanxi, was a general during Han Dynasty of China, whose campaigns against Xiongnu In 121 BC, the Xiongnu suffered another setback when Huo Qubing led a force of light cavalry westward out of Longxi and within six days fought his way through five Xiongnu kingdoms. Huo Qubing ( b 140 BC - d 117 BC born in Linfen, Shanxi, was a general of the western Han dynasty under Emperor Wu. The Xiongnu Hunye king was forced to surrender with 40,000 men. In 119 BC both Huo and Wei, each leading 50,000 cavalrymen and 100,000 footsoldiers, and advancing along different routes, forced the shanyu and his court to flee north of the Gobi Desert. The Gobi (Говь Govi or Gov', "gravel-covered plain" Chinese: zh-t 戈壁(沙漠 Gēbì (Shāmò) ^[24]

Major logistical difficulties limited the duration and long-term continuation of these campaigns. According the analysis of Yan You (嚴尤), the difficulties were twofold. Firstly there was the problem of supplying food across long distances. Secondly, the weather in the northern Xiongnu lands was difficult for Han soldiers, who could never carry enough fuel. ^[25] According to official reports, Xiongnu's side lost 80,000 to 90,000 men. And out of the 140,000 horses the Han forces had brought into the desert, fewer than 30,000 returned to China. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National

As a result of these battles, the Chinese controlled the strategic region from the Ordos and Gansu corridor to Lop Nor. The Ordos Desert ( is a Desert and Steppe region lying on a Plateau in the south of the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region of the People's Lop Nur ( Chinese: 罗布泊 Pinyin: Luóbù Pō also Lake Lop, Lop Nuur) Lop Nor = Lob-nor = Lo-pu po They succeeded in separating the Xiongnu from the Qiang peoples to the south, and also gained direct access to the Western Regions. The Western Regions or Xiyu ( was a historical name specified in the Chinese chronicles between the 3rd century BC to 8th century that referred to the regions west of Jade

Ban Chao, Protector General (都護; Duhu) of the Han Dynasty embarked with an army of 70,000 men in a campaign against the Xiongnu insurgents who were harassing the trade route we now know as the Silk Road. Control of the Tarim Basin Ban Chao like his predecessors Huo Qubing and Wei Qing from the earlier-half of the Han Dynasty before him is said to The Silk Road, or Silk Routes, are an extensive interconnected network of Trade routes across the Asian continent connecting East South and Western Asia with the His successful military campaign saw the subjugation of one Xiongnu tribe after another, and those fleeing Xiongnu insurgents were pursued by Ban Chao's army of entirely mounted-infantry and light cavalry over an extremely vast distance westward into the territory of the Parthians and beyond the Caspian Sea, reaching the region of what is present-day Ukraine. Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed body of water on Earth by area variously classed as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged Sea. Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Upon return, he established a base on the shores of the Caspian Sea, after which he reportedly also sent an envoy named Gan Ying to Daqin (Rome). Gan Ying ( Hanyu Pinyin: Gān Yīng was a Chinese military Ambassador who was sent on a mission to Rome in AD 97 by the Chinese General Daqin ( is the ancient Chinese name for the Roman Empire and the Near East. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Ban Chao was created the Marquess of Dingyuan (定遠侯, i. e. , "the Marquess who stabilized faraway places") for his services to the Han Empire and returned to the capital Loyang at the age of 70 years old and died there in the year 102. Luoyang ( is a Prefecture-level city in western Henan province, People's Republic of China. Following his death, the power of the Xiongnu in the Western Regions increased again, and the emperors of subsequent dynasties were never again able to reach so far to the west.

Leadership struggle among the Xiongnu

As the Xiongnu empire expanded, it became clear that the original leadership structures lacked flexibility and could not maintain effective cohesion. The traditional succession of the eldest son became increasingly ineffective in meeting wartime emergencies in the 1st century BC. The 1st century BC started the first day of 100 BC and ended the last day of 1 BC. To combat the problems of succession, the Huhanye Shanyu (58 BC-31 BC) later laid down the rule that his heir apparent must pass the throne on to a younger brother. Year 58 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar. Events By place Rome Consuls Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus Year 31 BC was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. This pattern of fraternal succession did indeed become the norm.

The growth of regionalism became clear around this period, when local kings refused to attend the annual meetings at the shanyu's court. In Politics, regionalism is a Political ideology that focuses on the interests of a particular Region or group of regions whether traditional or formal During this period, shanyu were forced to develop power bases in their own regions to secure the throne.

In the period 114 BC to 60 BC, the Xiongnu produced altogether seven shanyu. Year 60 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar. Events By place Rome Gaius Julius Caesar suppressed an uprising and Two of them, Chanshilu and Huyanti, assumed the office while still children. In 60 BC, Tuqitang, the "Worthy Prince of the Right", became Wuyanjuti Shanyu. Tuqi ( was a high office in the Xiongnu confederation The title also known to Chinese as "worthy/wise prince/king" ( Xian wang, 贤王 No sooner had he come to the throne, than he began to purge from power those whose base lay in the left group. Thus antagonised, in 58 BC the nobility of the left put forward Huhanye as their own shanyu. Year 58 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar. Events By place Rome Consuls Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus The year 57 BC saw a struggle for power among five regional groupings, each with its own shanyu. Year 57 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar. Events By place Rome Consuls Publius Cornelius Lentulus Spinther In 54 BC Huhanye abandoned his capital in the north after being defeated by his brother, the Zhizhi Shanyu. Year 54 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar. Events By place Rome Consuls Appius Claudius Pulcher and

Tributary relations with the Han

In 53 BC Huhanye (呼韓邪) decided to enter into tributary relations with Han China. Year 53 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar. Events By place Rome Consuls Marcus Valerius Messalla and The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. The original terms insisted on by the Han court were that, first, the shanyu or his representatives should come to the capital to pay homage; secondly, the shanyu should send a hostage prince; and thirdly, the shanyu should present tribute to the Han emperor. The political status of the Xiongnu in the Chinese world order was reduced from that of a "brotherly state" to that of an "outer vassal" (外臣). During this period, however, the Xiongnu maintained political sovereignty and full territorial integrity. The Great Wall of China continued to serve as the line of demarcation between Han and Xiongnu. The Great Wall of China ( or ( is a series of stone and earthen Fortifications in China, built rebuilt and maintained between the 6th century BC and the 16th

Huhanye sent his son, the "wise king of the right" Shuloujutang, to the Han court as hostage. In 51 BC he personally visited Chang'an to pay homage to the emperor on the Chinese New Year. Year 51 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar. Events By place Rome Consuls Marcus Claudius Marcellus Chinese New Year is the most important of the Traditional Chinese holidays. On the financial side, Huhanye was amply rewarded in large quantities of gold, cash, clothes, silk, horses and grain for his participation. Huhanye made two more homage trips, in 49 BC and 33 BC; with each one the imperial gifts were increased. Year 49 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar. Events By place Rome Consuls Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Crus Year 33 BC was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. On the last trip, Huhanye took the opportunity to ask to be allowed to become an imperial son-in-law. As a sign of the decline in the political status of the Xiongnu, Emperor Yuan refused, giving him instead five ladies-in-waiting. Family background When Emperor Yuan was born as Liu Shi in 75 BC his parents Liu Bingyi and Xu Pingjun were commoners without titles One of them was Wang Zhaojun, famed in Chinese folklore as one of the Four Beauties. Wang Qiang (王牆 also 王檣 王嬙 more commonly known by her style name Wang Zhaojun (王昭君 Pinyin: Wáng Zhāojūn was the consort of the Xiongnu The Four Beauties or Four Great Beauties ( are four ancient Chinese Women, renowned for their Beauty.

When Zhizhi learned of his brother's submission, he also sent a son to the Han court as hostage in 53 BC. Year 53 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar. Events By place Rome Consuls Marcus Valerius Messalla and Then twice, in 51 BC and 50 BC, he sent envoys to the Han court with tribute. Year 51 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar. Events By place Rome Consuls Marcus Claudius Marcellus Year 50 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar. Events By place Rome Consuls Lucius Aemilius Paullus and But having failed to pay homage personally, he was never admitted to the tributary system. In 36 BC, a junior officer named Chen Tang, with the help of Gan Yanshou, protector-general of the Western Regions, assembled an expeditionary force that defeated Zhizhi and sent his head as a trophy to Chang'an. Year 36 BC was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Chen Tang ( Chinese:陈汤 Wade-Giles: Ch'en T'ang) born in Jining, Shandong, was famous for his battle at Zhizhi in 36 The Battle of Zhizhi (郅支之戰 was a Battle between the Han Dynasty and the Zhizhi Guduhou Chanyu (sometimes known as Western Xiongnu

Tributary relations were discontinued during the reign of Huduershi (AD 18-48), corresponding to the political upheavals of the Xin Dynasty in China. Year 18 was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Year 48 was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. The Xin Dynasty ( was a Chinese Dynasty (although strictly speaking it had only one Emperor) which lasted from 9 - 23 AD The Xiongnu took the opportunity to regain control of the western regions, as well as neighbouring peoples such as the Wuhuan. The Wuhuan ( were a nomadic people who inhabited northern China, in what is now the provinces of Hebei, Liaoning, Shanxi, the municipality In AD 24, Hudershi even talked about reversing the tributary system. Year 24 was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar.

Late history

Northern Xiongnu

The Xiongnu's new power was met with a policy of appeasement by Emperor Guangwu. Family background Liu Xiu was the sixth generation descendant of Emperor Jing of the Former (or Western Han At the height of his power, Huduershi even compared himself to his illustrious ancestor, Modu. Due to growing regionalism among the Xiongnu, however, Huduershi was never able to establish unquestioned authority. When he designated his son as heir apparent (in contravention of the principle of fraternal succession established by Huhanye), Bi, the Rizhu king of the right, refused to attend the annual meeting at the shanyu's court.

As the eldest son of the preceding shanyu, Bi had a legitimate claim to the succession. In 48, two years after Huduershi's son Punu ascended the throne, eight Xiongnu tribes in Bi's powerbase in the south, with a military force totalling 40,000 to 50,000 men, acclaimed Bi as their own shanyu. Year 48 was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Throughout the Eastern Han period, these two groups were called the southern Xiongnu and the northern Xiongnu, respectively.

Hard pressed by the northern Xiongnu and plagued by natural calamities, Bi brought the southern Xiongnu into tributary relations with Han China in 50. Year 50 was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. The tributary system was considerably tightened to keep the southern Xiongnu under Han supervision. The shanyu was ordered to establish his court in the Meiji district of Xihe commandery. The southern Xiongnu were resettled in eight frontier commanderies. At the same time, large numbers of Chinese were forced to migrate to these commanderies, where mixed settlements began to appear. The northern Xiongnu were dispersed by the Xianbei in 85 and again in 89 by the Chinese during the Battle of Ikh Bayan, of which the last Northern Shanyu was defeated and fled over to the north west with his subjects. Year 85 was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Year 89 was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. The Battle of Ikh Bayan ( was a major expedition launched against the Xiongnu by the Han Dynasty in June 89. The Northern Shanyu ( reigned 89 &ndash 91) was an unnamed and obscure Shanyu of Xiongnu who lived in the 1st century.

Southern Xiongnu

Economically, the southern Xiongnu relied almost totally on Han assistance. Tensions were evident between the settled Chinese and practitioners of the nomadic way of life. Thus, in 94 Anguo Shanyu joined forces with newly subjugated Xiongnu from the north and started a large scale rebellion against the Han. Year 94 was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar.

Towards the end of the Eastern Han, the southern Xiongnu were drawn into the rebellions then plaguing the Han court. In 188, the shanyu was murdered by some of his own subjects for agreeing to send troops to help the Han suppress a rebellion in Hebei - many of the Xiongnu feared that it would set a precedent for unending military service to the Han court. ( Postal map spelling: Hopeh) is a northern province of the People's Republic of China. The murdered shanyu's son Yufuluo, entitled Chizhisizhu (特至尸逐侯), succeeded him, but was then overthrown by the same rebellious faction in 189. Yufuluo (150-196 was a Shanyu of the Xiongnu. See also Three Kingdoms Personages of the Three Kingdoms He travelled to Luoyang (the Han capital) to seek aid from the Han court, but at this time the Han court was in disorder from the clash between Grand General He Jin and the eunuchs, and the intervention of the warlord Dong Zhuo. Luoyang ( is a Prefecture-level city in western Henan province, People's Republic of China. He Jin (135 &ndash 189 was the elder half-brother of Empress He, consort to Emperor Ling of the late Eastern Han Dynasty in China. Dong Zhuo (died May 22, 192) was a powerful warlord during the late Eastern Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era of China. The shanyu had no choice but to settle down with his followers in Pingyang, a city in Shanxi. ( Postal map spelling: Shansi) is a province in the northern part of the People's Republic of China. In 195, he died and was succeeded by his brother Hucuquan. Huchuquan was the southern ruler of the Huns during the Han Dynasty.

In 216, the warlord-statesman Cao Cao detained Hucuquan in the city of Ye, and divided his followers in Shanxi into five divisions: left, right, south, north, and centre. Cáo Cāo ( 曹[[wikt 操|操]] 155 &ndash March 15, 220) was a regional Warlord and the penultimate Chancellor of the This was aimed at preventing the exiled Xiongnu in Shanxi from engaging in rebellion, and also allowed Cao Cao to use the Xiongnu as auxiliaries in his cavalry. Eventually, the Xiongnu aristocracy in Shanxi changed their surname from Luanti to Liu for prestige reasons, claiming that they were related to the Han imperial clan through the old intermarriage policy. The Luanti ( alternatively written as Xulianti 虚连题 was a clan and the ruling dynasty of the ancient Xiongnu that flourished between 3rd century BCE

After the Han Dynasty

After Hucuquan, the Xiongnu were partitioned into five local tribes. The complicated ethnic situation of the mixed frontier settlements instituted during the Eastern Han had grave consequences, not fully apprehended by the Chinese government until the end of the 3rd century. The 3rd century is the period from 201 to 300 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. By 260, Liu Qubei had organized the Tiefu confederacy in the north east, and by 290, Liu Yuan was leading a splinter group in the south west. Events By Place Roman Empire Gallienus becomes Emperor Gallienus defends what remains of the empire against barbarians and Liu Qubei ( Chinese: 劉去卑 Pinyin: Liú Qùbēi (?- 272) Tiefu chieftain 260 - 272. Family background Liu Yuan was a member of Xiongnu nobility as a descendant of Chanyus of the Luanti (欒提 royal clan who along with their people had long At that time, non-Chinese unrest reached alarming proportions along the whole of the Western Jin frontier. The Jìn Dynasty ( 265 – 420) one of the Six Dynasties, followed the Three Kingdoms period and preceded the Southern and Northern Dynasties

Liu Yuan's Northern Han (304-318)

In 304 the sinicised Liu Yuan, a grandson of Yufuluo Chizhisizhu stirred up descendants of the southern Xiongnu in rebellion in Shanxi, taking advantage of the War of the Eight Princes then raging around the Western Jin capital Luoyang. Events By Place Roman Empire The Roman colony of Konstanz is founded ( Postal map spelling: Shansi) is a province in the northern part of the People's Republic of China. The War of the Eight Princes or Rebellion of the Eight Kings or Rebellion of the Eight Princes ( was a civil war for power among princes or kings ( Luoyang ( is a Prefecture-level city in western Henan province, People's Republic of China. Under Liu Yuan's leadership, they were joined by a large number of frontier Chinese and became known as Bei Han. Liu Yuan used 'Han' as the name of his state, hoping to tap into the lingering nostalgia for the glory of the Han dynasty, and established his capital in Pingyang. The Xiongnu use of large numbers of heavy cavalry with iron armour for both rider and horse gave them a decisive advantage over Jin armies already weakened and demoralised by three years of civil war. Heavy cavalry is the late 19th century Misnomer for Cavalry troops that from the late 17th to late 19th centuries usually wore armour and were mounted on largest The Jìn Dynasty ( 265 – 420) one of the Six Dynasties, followed the Three Kingdoms period and preceded the Southern and Northern Dynasties In 311, they captured Luoyang, and with it the Jin emperor Sima Chi (Emperor Huai). In 316, the next Jin emperor was captured in Chang'an, and the whole of north China came under Xiongnu rule while remnants of the Jin dynasty survived in the south (known to historians as the Eastern Jin). Chang'an ( is an ancient Capital of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history.

Liu Yao's Former Zhao (318-329)

In 318, after suppressing a coup by a powerful minister in the Xiongnu-Han court (in which the Xiongnu-Han emperor and a large proportion of the aristocracy were massacred), the Xiongnu prince Liu Yao moved the Xiongnu-Han capital from Pingyang to Chang'an and renamed the dynasty as Zhao (it is hence known to historians collectively as Han Zhao). Early life Liu Yao's father Liu Lü (劉綠 died early and he was raised by Liu Lü's cousin Liu Yuan. The Han Zhao ( 304 - 329) was a State of the Sixteen Kingdoms during the Chinese Jin Dynasty (265-420. However, the eastern part of north China came under the control of a rebel Xiongnu-Han general of Jie (probably Yeniseian) ancestry named Shi Le. The Jie ( were members of a small tribe in the Xiongnu Confederation in the 4th and 5th centuries CE. The Yeniseian Language family (sometimes known as Yeniseic or Yenisei-Ostyak; occasionally spelt with - ss - is spoken in central Siberia Early life Shi Le was born in 274 -- but was not named Shi Le and certainly not with the family name Shi as it appeared that the Jie did not use family names at the time Liu Yao and Shi Le fought a long war until 329, when Liu Yao was captured in battle and executed. Chang'an fell to Shi Le soon after, and the Xiongnu dynasty was wiped out. North China was ruled by Shi Le's Later Zhao dynasty for the next 20 years. The Later Zhao ( 319 - 351) was a State of the Sixteen Kingdoms during the Jin Dynasty (265-420 in China.

However, the "Liu" Xiongnu remained active in the north for at least another century.

Tiefu & Xia (260-431)

The northern Tiefu branch of the Xiongnu gained control of the Inner Mongolian region in the 10 years between the conquest of the Tuoba Xianbei state of Dai by the Former Qin empire in 376, and its restoration in 386 as the Northern Wei. Tiefu ( was a pre- State Xiongnu Tribe during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms in China. Tuoba (拓拔 Pinyin Tuòbá or T'o-pa in Wade-Giles was a Clan of the Xianbei people in the early centuries of the 1st millennium The Xianbei ( were a significant nomadic people residing in Manchuria and eastern Mongolia, or Xianbei Shan. Dai ( was a state of the Xianbei clan of Tuoba, during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms in China. The Former Qin ( 351 - 394) was a State of the Sixteen Kingdoms in China. The Northern Wei Dynasty (北魏 Pinyin: běi wèi 386 - 534) also known as the Tuoba Wei (拓拔魏 Later Wei (後魏 or After 386, the Tiefu were gradually destroyed by or surrendered to the Tuoba, with the submitting Tiefu becoming known as the Dugu. Liu Bobo, a surviving prince of the Tiefu fled to the Ordos Loop, where he founded a state called the Xia (thus named because of the Xiongnu's supposed ancestry from the Xia dynasty) and changed his surname to Helian (赫連). Early life Liu Bobo was born in 381 when his father Liu Weichen (劉衛辰 was an important Xiongnu chief and a vassal of Former Qin. The Helian-Xia state was conquered by the Northern Wei in 428-431, and the Xiongnu thenceforth effectively ceased to play a major role in Chinese history, assimilating into the Xianbei and Han ethnicities.

Juqu & Northern Liang (401-460)

The Juqu were a branch of the Xiongnu. Their leader Juqu Mengxun took over the Northern Liang by overthrowing the former puppet ruler Duan Ye. Under Later Liang and Duan Ye Juqu Mengxun was born in 368 while the area that would later be his domain was under the rule of Former Liang, but little is known about The Northern Liang ( 397 - 439) was a State of the Sixteen Kingdoms in China. Before reign Not much is known about Duan Ye's life before 397 By 439, the Juqu power was destroyed by the Northern Wei. Events By Place Western Roman Empire Licinia Eudoxia, wife of the Emperor Valentinian III, is granted the title of ''Augusta'' The Northern Wei Dynasty (北魏 Pinyin: běi wèi 386 - 534) also known as the Tuoba Wei (拓拔魏 Later Wei (後魏 or Their remnants were then settled in the city of Gaochang before being destroyed by the Rouran. Gaochang ( is the site of an ancient Oasis city built on the northern rim of the inhospitable Taklamakan Desert in Xinjiang, China. Rouran ( Wade-Giles: Jou-jan) Ruanruan/Ruru ( also known as Tan Tan ( was the name of a confederation of Nomadic tribes on

Northern Xiongnu becoming the Huns

Etymology of 匈 Source: http://starling.rinet.ru
Preclassic Old Chinese:	sŋoŋ
Classic Old Chinese:	ŋ̥oŋ
Postclassic Old Chinese:	hoŋ
Middle Chinese:	xöuŋ
Modern Cantonese:	hūng
Modern Mandarin:	xiōng
Modern Sino-Korean:	hyung

As in the case of the Rouran with the Avars, oversimplifications have led to the Xiongnu often being identified with the Huns, who populated the frontiers of Europe. Rouran ( Wade-Giles: Jou-jan) Ruanruan/Ruru ( also known as Tan Tan ( was the name of a confederation of Nomadic tribes on The Huns were an early confederation of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads with a Turkic core of aristocracy The connection started with the writings of the eighteenth century French historian de Guignes, who noticed that a few of the barbarian tribes north of China associated with the Xiongnu had been named "Hun" with varying Chinese characters. This theory remains at the level of speculation, although it is accepted by some scholars, including Chinese ones. DNA testing of Hun remains has not proven conclusive in determining the origin of the Huns.

Linguistically, it is important to understand that "xiōngnú" is only the modern standard Mandarin pronunciation (based on the Beijing dialect) of "匈奴". Standard Mandarin, also known as Standard Spoken Chinese, is the official modern Chinese spoken language used in mainland China and Taiwan At the time of Hunnish contact with the western world (the 4th–6th centuries AD), the sound of the character "匈" has been reconstructed as /hoŋ/.

The supposed sound of the first character has a clear similarity with the name "Hun" in European languages. Whether this is evidence of kinship or mere coincidence is hard to tell. It could lend credence to the theory that the Huns were in fact descendants of the Northern Xiongnu who migrated westward, or that the Huns were using a name borrowed from the Northern Xiongnu, or that these Xiongnu made up part of the Hun confederation.

The traditional etymology of "匈" is that it is as pictogram of the facial features of one of these people, wearing a helmet, with the "x" under the helmet representing the scars they inflicted on their faces to frighten their enemies. However, there is no actual evidence for this interpretation.

In modern Chinese, the character "匈" is used in four ways: to mean "chest" (written 胸 in this sense as the set of Chinese characters evolves), in the name 匈奴 Xiōngnú "Xiongnu", in the word 匈人 Xiōngrén "Hun [person]", and in the name 匈牙利 Xiōngyálì "Hungary". Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic The last of these is a modern coinage which may derive from the belief that the Huns were related to the Xiongnu.

The second character, "奴", appears to have no parallel in Western terminology. Its contemporary pronunciation was /nhō/, and it means "slave", although it is possible that it has only a phonetic role in the name 匈奴. There is almost certainly no connection between the "chest" meaning of 匈 and its ethnic meaning. There might conceivably be some sort of connection with the identically pronounced word "凶", which means "fierce", "ferocious", "inauspicious", "bad", or "violent act". Most probably, the word derives from the tribe's own name for itself as a semi-phonetic transliteration into Chinese, and the character was chosen somewhat arbitrarily — a practice that continues today in Chinese renderings of foreign names.

Although the phonetic side of the question is not conclusive, new results from Central Asia might shift the balance in favor of a political and cultural link between the Xiongnu and the Huns. The Central Asian sources of the 4th century translated in both direction Xiongnu by Huns (in the Sogdian Ancient Letters, the Xiongnu in Northern China are named xwn, while in the Buddhist translations by Dharmarakhsa Huna of the Indian text is translated Xiongnu). Moreover, from an archaeological point of view, it is certain that the Hunnic cauldrons are similar to the Ordos Xiongnu ones. Moreover, they were used in the same rituals, as in Hungary and in the Ordos they were found buried in river banks.

Another clue in the link between the Xiongnu and the Huns is indicated by an old Byzantine codex dating back to 14th century. Inside the codex was a copy of a list from the early Middle Ages (7-8th century) in an old Slav language. This was redecoded and translated by Omeljan Pritsak professor of history and language (at Lvov, Hamburg and Harvard University) in 1955 and named: "The Old-Bulgarian King List"^[26] (Nominalia of the Bulgarian Khans). Omeljan Pritsak ( 7 April 1919, Luka Sambir County eastern Galicia – May 29, 2006, Boston MA) was the first Mykhailo The Nominalia of the Bulgarian khans (Именник на българските ханове is a short Manuscript containing the names of some early Bulgarian This contains the names and descendants of the Hun kings` dynasty (Clan Dulo) (from which descends the first ruler house of the European Bulgaria (see there)). The Huns were an early confederation of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads with a Turkic core of aristocracy The Dulo Clan or the House of Dulo was the name of the ruling dynasty of the early Bulgars. The state of Bulgaria (България transliterated bg-Latn ''Balgaria'' The country preserves the traditions (in ethnic name language and alphabet of the First Bulgarian On the start of it is the great Mao-Tun (Modu shanyu), who established the Xiongnu Empire. Modun Shanyu (Chinese 冒頓單于 Baatur Bator Baghadur Bahadır(in modern Turkish Bahadır (born 234 BC) was the founder of the Asian Hun Empire ( Among the other descendants` names is the name of Ernakh, the youngest son of Attila The Hun, who founded the Volga-Bulgarian Empire (Volga-Bulgaria, Proto-Bulgars) at the Volga (Etele) river in 453. Ernakh or Ernac ( Priscus: Ήρνάχ "Hernach" was the 3rd son of Attila. It indicates that the Xiongnu and the Huns lived under the same ruler dynasty. The Huns were an early confederation of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads with a Turkic core of aristocracy So the possibility of Xiongnu eventually becoming the Huns is suggested by this codex. The Huns were an early confederation of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads with a Turkic core of aristocracy

Notes

References

Primary sources

Secondary sources

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