| World War I | |||||||
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 Clockwise from top: Trenches on the Western Front; a British Mark IV tank crossing a trench; Royal Navy battleship HMS Irresistible sinking after striking a mine at the Battle of the Dardanelles; a Vickers machine gun crew with gas masks, and German Albatros D.III biplanes |
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| Allied (Entente) Powers | Central Powers | ||||||
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| Leaders and commanders | Leaders and commanders | ||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||
| Military dead: 5,525,000 Military wounded: 12,831,500 Military missing: 4,121,000[1] ...further details. |
Military dead: 4,386,000 Military wounded: 8,388,000 Military missing: 3,629,000[1] ...further details. |
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, and The War to End All Wars, was a global war which took place primarily in Europe from 1914 to 1918. The Entente Powers (from Triple Entente) were the countries at war with the Central Powers during World War I. The Central Powers ( German: "Mittelmächte" Hungarian: "Központi hatalmak" Turkish: "İttifak The Entente Powers (from Triple Entente) were the countries at war with the Central Powers during World War I. The Central Powers ( German: "Mittelmächte" Hungarian: "Központi hatalmak" Turkish: "İttifak The number of World War I casualties, both The number of World War I casualties, both A world war is a War affecting the majority of the world's most powerful and populous nations War is an international relations Dispute, characterized by organized Violence between National Military units [2] Over 40 million casualties resulted, including approximately 20 million military and civilian deaths. The number of World War I casualties, both [3] Over 60 million European soldiers were mobilized from 1914 to 1918. [4]
The immediate cause of the war was the June 28, 1914 assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb citizen of Austria-Hungary and member of the Black Hand. Events 1098 - Fighters of the First Crusade defeat Kerbogha of Mosul. Year 1914 ( MCMXIV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Gavrilo Princip ( Cyrillic: Гаврило Принцип gaʋ'rilɔ 'prinʦip ( &ndash) was a Bosnian Serb and proclaimed himself to be a Yugoslav Serbs are one of the three constitutive nations of Bosnia-Herzegovina, predominantly concentrated in the Republic of Srpska Black Hand ( Serbian: Црна рука / Crna Ruka) officially Unification or Death ( Serbian: Уједињење или смрт Ujedinjenje The retaliation by Austria-Hungary against the Kingdom of Serbia activated a series of alliances that set off a chain reaction of war declarations. The Kingdom of Serbia ( Serbian Cyrillic: Краљевина Србија Serbian Latinica Kraljevina Srbija) was created when Prince Milan Obrenović ruler Causality (but not causation) denotes a necessary relationship between one event (called cause and another event (called effect) which is the direct consequence Within a month, much of Europe was in a state of open warfare.
The war was propagated by two major alliances. The Entente Powers initially consisted of France, the United Kingdom, Russia, and their associated empires and dependencies. The Entente Powers (from Triple Entente) were the countries at war with the Central Powers during World War I. The French Third Republic (in French, La Troisième République, sometimes written as La IIIe The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom from 1 January 1801 until 12 April 1927 The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya Numerous other states joined these allies, most notably Italy in April 1915, and the United States in April 1917. The Kingdom of Italy ( Italian: Regno d'Italia) was a state forged in 1861 by the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The Central Powers, so named because of their central location on the European continent, initially consisted of Germany and Austria-Hungary and their associated empires. The Central Powers ( German: "Mittelmächte" Hungarian: "Központi hatalmak" Turkish: "İttifak The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification The Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in October 1914, followed a year later by Bulgaria. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish The Kingdom of Bulgaria (Царство България was established on October 5, 1908 ( September 22 O By the conclusion of the war, only The Netherlands, Switzerland, Spain and the Scandinavian nations remained officially neutral among the European countries, though many of those provided financial and material support to one side or the other. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Terminology and usage As a cultural term "Scandinavia" has no official definition and is subject to usage by those who identify with the culture in question as well
The fighting of the war mostly took place along several fronts that broadly encircled the European continent. The Western Front was marked by a system of trenches, breastworks, and fortifications separated by an area known as no man's land. Following the outbreak of World War I in 1914 the German army opened the Western Front by first invading Luxembourg and Belgium, then gaining No man's land is a term for land that is not occupied or more specifically land that is under dispute between countries or areas that will not occupy it because of fear or uncertainty [5] These fortifications stretched 475 miles (more than 600 kilometres)[5] and precipitated a style of fighting known as trench warfare. Trench warfare is a form of warfare where both combatants have fortified positions and fighting lines are static On the Eastern Front, the vastness of the eastern plains and the limited railroad network prevented the stalemate of the Western Front, though the scale of the conflict was just as large. The Eastern Front was a theatre of war during World War I in Central and primarily Eastern Europe. The Middle Eastern Front and the Italian Front also saw heavy fighting, while hostilities also occurred at sea, and for the first time, in the air. The Middle Eastern theatre of World War I was fought between the Allied Powers, primarily the British and the Russians on the one hand and the The Italian campaign refers to a series of battles fought between the armies of Austria-Hungary and Italy, along with their allies in northern Italy between 1915
The war was ended by several treaties, most notably the Treaty of Versailles, signed on 28 June 1919, though the Allied powers had an armistice with Germany in place since 11 November 1918. The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. Events 1098 - Fighters of the First Crusade defeat Kerbogha of Mosul. Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The armistice treaty between the Allies and Germany was signed in a railway carriage in Compiègne Forest on November 11, 1918 Events 308 - The Congress of Carnuntum: Attempting to keep peace within the Roman Empire, the leaders of the Tetrarchy declare Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common One of the most striking results of the war was a large redrawing of the map of Europe. The fighting in World War I ended when an Armistice took effect at 1100 am GMT on November 11 1918 All of the Central Powers lost territory, and many new nations were created. The German Empire lost its colonial possessions and was saddled with accepting blame for the war, as well as paying punitive reparations for it. The German colonial empire was an overseas area formed in the late 19th century as part of the Hohenzollern dynasty's German Empire. World War I reparations refers to the payments and transfers of property and equipment that the German country was forced to make under the Treaty of Versailles (1919 following The Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires were completely dissolved. Austria-Hungary was carved up into several successor states including Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic Czechoslovakia may also refer to what is now the Czech Republic and Slovakia. See also Kingdom of Yugoslavia, Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Yugoslavia ( Serbo-Croatian The Ottoman Empire disintegrated, and much of its non-Anatolian territory was awarded as protectorates of various Allied powers, while the remaining Turkish core was reorganized as the Republic of Turkey. Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches The Russian Empire, which had withdrawn from the war in 1917, lost much of its western frontier as the newly independent nations of Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland were carved from it. Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia ( Eesti or Eesti Vabariik) is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region Finland, officially the Republic of Finland ( is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. Latvia ( Latvija officially the Republic of Latvia (Latvijas Republika is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland After the war, the League of Nations was created as an international organization designed to avoid future wars by giving nations a means of solving their differences diplomatically. The League of Nations was an International organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920 World War I marked the end of the world order which had existed after the Napoleonic Wars, and was an important factor in the outbreak of World War II. The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815 involved Napoleon's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions The culmination of events that led to World War II are generally understood to be the 1939 invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany and of the Republic World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including
Causes
On 28 June 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb student, shot and killed Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne in Sarajevo. Events 1098 - Fighters of the First Crusade defeat Kerbogha of Mosul. Year 1914 ( MCMXIV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Gavrilo Princip ( Cyrillic: Гаврило Принцип gaʋ'rilɔ 'prinʦip ( &ndash) was a Bosnian Serb and proclaimed himself to be a Yugoslav Serbs are one of the three constitutive nations of Bosnia-Herzegovina, predominantly concentrated in the Republic of Srpska Franz Ferdinand ( December 18, 1863 &ndash June 28, 1914) was an Archduke of Austria-Este, Prince Imperial of The phrase Emperor of Austria describes an Hereditary Imperial title and position proclaimed in 1804 by the Austrian Habsburg TemplateInfobox City for more fields--> Sarajevo is the Capital city and largest urban center of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with Princip was a member of Young Bosnia, a group whose aims included the unification of the South Slavs and independence from Austria-Hungary. Young Bosnia ( Serbo-Croat: Млада Босна / Mlada Bosna) is a term that came into use in the Kingdom of the Serbs Croats and Slovenes after The South Slavs are a southern branch of the Slavic peoples that live in the Balkans mainly throughout the former Yugoslavia (meaning "Land of The assassination in Sarajevo set into motion a series of fast-moving events that eventually escalated into full-scale war. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All [6] Austria-Hungary demanded action by Serbia to punish those responsible and, when Austria-Hungary deemed Serbia had not complied, declared war. Serbia (Србија Srbija) officially the Republic of Serbia (Република Србија Republika Srbija) is a Landlocked Country Major European powers were at war within weeks because of overlapping agreements for collective defense and the complex nature of international alliances. Collective defense (also collective defence) is an arrangement usually formalized by a treaty and an organization among participant states that commit support in defense of
- See also: Black Hand
Arms race
- See also: Dreadnought
The naval race between Britain and Germany was intensified by the 1906 launch of HMS Dreadnought — a revolutionary craft whose size and power rendered previous battleships obsolete. Black Hand ( Serbian: Црна рука / Crna Ruka) officially Unification or Death ( Serbian: Уједињење или смрт Ujedinjenje The dreadnought was the predominant type of Battleship of the 20th century Genesis Battleships of the era typically carried four large guns mounted fore and aft in twin turrets with a number of smaller-calibre guns ranged along the sides of the Britain also maintained a large naval lead in other areas particularly over Germany and Italy. Paul Kennedy pointed out both nations believed Alfred Thayer Mahan's thesis of command of the sea as vital to great nation status; experience with guerre de course would prove Mahan wrong. For other people named Paul Kennedy see Paul Kennedy (disambiguation Paul M Alfred Thayer Mahan (September 27 1840–December 1 1914 was a United States Navy Flag officer, geostrategist, and educator A naval force has command of the sea when it is so strong that its rivals cannot attack it directly Commerce raiding is to destroy the logistics (supplies of an enemy on the open sea rather than engaging the combatants themselves or enforcing a Blockade against them
David Stevenson described the arms race as "a self-reinforcing cycle of heightened military preparedness. David Stevenson (born 1954 is a British academic and historian specialising in World War I. "[7] David Herrmann viewed the shipbuilding rivalry as part of a general movement in the direction of war. [8] The revisionist Niall Ferguson, however, argued Britain's ability to maintain an overall lead signified this was not a factor in the oncoming conflict. Niall Ferguson (b April 18, 1964 in Glasgow, Scotland) is a British Historian. [9]
The cost of the arms race was felt in both Britain and Germany. The total arms spending by the six Great Powers (Britain, Germany, France, Russia, Austria-Hungary and Italy) increased by 50% between 1908 and 1913. [10]
Plans, distrust, and mobilization
Closely related is the thesis adopted by many political scientists that the mobilization plans of Germany, France and Russia automatically escalated the conflict. This is a list of notable political scientists See the List of political theorists for those who study politics without using the Scientific method. Fritz Fischer emphasized the inherently aggressive nature of the Schlieffen Plan, which outlined a two-front strategy. Fritz Fischer ( March 5, 1908 &ndash December 1, 1999) was a German historian best known for his analysis of the Causes of World War I For the French counter-plan see Plan XVII The Schlieffen Plan was the German General Staff 's early 20th century overall strategic Fighting on two fronts meant Germany had to eliminate one opponent quickly before taking on the other. It called for a strong right flank attack, to seize Belgium and cripple the French army by pre-empting its mobilization. In Military tactics, a flanking maneuver, also called a flank attack, is an attack on the sides of an opposing force The French Army, officially the Armée de Terre (Land Army is the land-based component of the French Armed Forces and its largest After the attack, the German army would rush east by railroad and quickly destroy the slowly mobilizing Russian forces. The German Army (Deutsches Heer heɐ) is the land component of the armed forces of the Federal Republic of Germany. [11]
France's Plan XVII envisioned a quick thrust into the Ruhr Valley, Germany’s industrial heartland, which would in theory cripple Germany's ability to wage a modern war. Plan XVII was the name of the battle plan adopted by the French General Staff in 1913 to be put into effect by the French Army in the event of war between France and Germany The Ruhr Area, ( German Ruhrgebiet, colloquial Ruhrpott, Kohlenpott or Revier) is an Urban area in North Rhine-Westphalia
Russia's Plan XIX foresaw a mobilization of its armies against both Austria-Hungary and Germany.
All three plans created an atmosphere in which speed was thought to be one of the determining factors for victory. Elaborate timetables were prepared; once mobilization had begun, there was little possibility of turning back. Diplomatic delays and poor communications exacerbated the problems.
Also, the plans of France, Germany and Russia were all biased toward the offensive, in clear conflict with the improvements of defensive firepower and entrenchment. [12][13][14]
Militarism and autocracy
President Woodrow Wilson of the United States and others blamed the war on militarism. The President of the United States is the Head of state and Head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in United States by Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28 1856—February 3 1924 was the twenty-eighth President of the United States. Militarism is the belief or desire of a government or people that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or [15] Some argued that aristocrats and military élites had too much power in countries such as Germany, Russia, and Austria-Hungary. Aristocracy is a form of Government, where rule is established through an internal struggle over who has the most status and influence over society and internal relations War was thus a consequence of their desire for military power and disdain for democracy. For the military meaning see Armed forces. For the Soviet sports society see Armed Forces (sports society Armed Forces Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system This theme figured prominently in anti-German propaganda. Anti-German sentiment (or Germanophobia) is defined as a fear or hatred of Germany, its people, and the German language. Consequently, supporters of this theory called for the abdication of rulers such as Kaiser Wilhelm II, as well as an end to aristocracy and militarism in general. This platform provided some justification for the American entry into the war when the Russian Empire surrendered in 1917.
The Allies consisted of Great Britain and France, both democracies, fighting the Central Powers, which included Germany, Austro-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire. Russia, one of the Allied Powers, was an empire until 1917, but it was opposed to the subjugation of Slavic peoples by Austro-Hungary. Against this backdrop, the view of the war as one of democracy versus dictatorship initially had some validity, but lost credibility as the conflict dragged on.
Wilson hoped the League of Nations and disarmament would secure a lasting peace. The League of Nations was an International organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920 Disarmament refers to the act of reducing limiting or abolishing Weapons. Borrowing a thesis from H. G. Wells, he described the war as a "war to end all war". Herbert George Wells (21 September 1866 &ndash 13 August 1946 He was an outspoken socialist and a pacifist, his later works becoming increasingly political He was willing to side with France and the Britain to this end, despite their own militarism.
Fritz Fischer famously put most of the blame on Germany's aristocratic leaders. Fritz Fischer ( March 5, 1908 &ndash December 1, 1999) was a German historian best known for his analysis of the Causes of World War I He argued that the German leader thought that they were losing power and time was running out. The German social democratic party had won several elections, increasing their voting share and had by 1912 become the most represented party in Germany. While the elected institutions had little power compared with the Kaiser it was feared that some form of political revolution was imminent. Russia was in midst of a large scale military build-up and reform which was to be completed in 1916-17. A war would unite Germany and defeat Russia before this. In his later works Fischer went further and argued that Germany had planned the war in 1912.
Samuel R. Williamson has emphasized the role of Austria-Hungary. Convinced Serbian nationalism and Russian Balkan ambitions were disintegrating a monarchy comprised of 11 different nationalities, Austria-Hungary hoped for a limited war against Serbia and that the strong German support would force Russia to keep out of the war and weaken its Balkan prestige.
Balance of power
One of the goals of the foreign policies of the Great Powers in the pre-war years was to maintain the 'Balance of Power' in Europe. This evolved into an elaborate network of secret and public alliances and agreements. For example, after the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71), Britain seemed to favor a strong Germany, as it helped to balance its traditional enemy, France. The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, often referred to in France as the 1870 War ( 19 July, 1870 — 10 May, 1871 After Germany began its naval construction plans to rival that of Britain, this stance shifted. France, looking for an ally to balance the threat created by Germany, found it in Russia. Austria-Hungary, facing a threat from Russia, sought support from Germany.
When World War I broke out, these treaties only partially determined who entered the war on which side. Britain had no treaties with France or Russia, but entered the war on their side. Italy had a treaty with both Austria-Hungary and Germany, yet did not enter the war with them; Italy later sided with the Allies. Perhaps the most significant treaty of all was the initially defensive pact between Germany and Austria-Hungary, which Germany in 1909 extended by declaring that Germany was bound to stand with Austria-Hungary even if it had started the war. [16]
Economic imperialism
Vladimir Lenin asserted that imperialism was responsible for the war. Imperialism has two meanings one describing an action and the other describing an attitude He drew upon the economic theories of Karl Marx and English economist John A. Hobson, who predicted that unlimited competition for expanding markets would lead to a global conflict. Economics is the social science that studies the production distribution, and consumption of goods and services. John Atkinson Hobson ( July 6, 1858 – April 1, 1940) commonly known as John A [17] This argument was popular in the wake of the war and assisted in the rise of Communism. Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based Lenin argued that the banking interests of various capitalist-imperialist powers orchestrated the war. [18]
Trade barriers
Cordell Hull, American Secretary of State under Franklin Roosevelt, believed that trade barriers were the root cause of both World War I and World War II. Cordell Hull ( October 2, 1871 &ndash July 23, 1955) was an American politician from the U A trade barrier is a general term that describes any government policy or regulation that restricts International trade. In 1944, he helped design the Bretton Woods Agreements to reduce trade barriers and eliminate what he saw as the cause of the conflicts. The Bretton Woods system of monetary management established the rules for commercial and financial relations among the world's major industrial states [19]
Ethnic and political rivalries
A Balkan war between Austria-Hungary and Serbia was considered inevitable, as Austria-Hungary’s influence waned and the Pan-Slavic movement grew. Pan-Slavism was a movement in the mid 19th century aimed at unity of all the Slavic peoples The main focus was in the Balkans where the South Slavs had been The rise of ethnic nationalism coincided with the growth of Serbia, where anti-Austrian sentiment was perhaps most fervent. Austria-Hungary had occupied the former Ottoman province of Bosnia-Herzegovina, which had a large Serb population, in 1878. Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Latin script: Bosna i Hercegovina, Cyrillic script: Босна и Херцеговина is a country on the Balkan It was formally annexed by Austria-Hungary in 1908. The Bosnian Crisis of 1908-1909 also known as the Annexation crisis, erupted into public view when on October 5, 1908, Bulgaria declared its independence Increasing nationalist sentiment also coincided with the decline of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish Russia supported the Pan-Slavic movement, motivated by ethnic and religious loyalties and a rivalry with Austria dating back to the Crimean War. The Crimean War, also known in Russia as the Eastern War (Восточная война Vostochnaya Vojna) (March 1854–February 1856 was fought Recent events such as the failed Russian-Austrian treaty and a century-old dream of a warm water port also motivated St. The Bosnian Crisis of 1908-1909 also known as the Annexation crisis, erupted into public view when on October 5, 1908, Bulgaria declared its independence ||-||-|-||-||-||-||-||-||-|} A port is a facility for receiving Ships and transferring cargo Petersburg. [20]
Myriad other geopolitical motivations existed elsewhere as well, for example France's loss of Alsace and Lorraine in the Franco-Prussian War helped create a sentiment of irredentist revanchism in that country. Alsace (Alsace alzas Alsatian and Elsass pre-1996 German: Elsaß; Alsatia is one of the 26 Regions of France, located on the eastern Moselle is a ''département'' in the east of France named after the Moselle River. The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, often referred to in France as the 1870 War ( 19 July, 1870 — 10 May, 1871 Revanchism (from French revanche " Revenge " is a term used since the 1870s to describe a political manifestation of the will to reverse territorial France eventually allied itself with Russia, creating the likelihood of a two-front war for Germany. In Military terminology a two-front war is one in which fighting takes place on two geographically separate fronts
- See also: Powder keg of Europe
July crisis and declarations of war
The Austro-Hungarian government used the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand as a pretext to deal with the Serbian question, supported by Germany. The " Powder keg " of Europe -sometimes alternately known as the "Balkan Powder Keg"- refers to the Balkans in the early part of the Twentieth Franz Ferdinand ( December 18, 1863 &ndash June 28, 1914) was an Archduke of Austria-Este, Prince Imperial of On 23 July 1914, an ultimatum was sent to Serbia with ten demands, some so extreme that the Serbian reply included reservations and rejected the sixth demand. Events 1632 - Three hundred colonists bound for New France depart from Dieppe France. Year 1914 ( MCMXIV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year The July Ultimatum was a Demarche issued by Austria-Hungary to Serbia at 6 pm on July 23 1914. The Serbians, relying on support from Russia, removed acceptance of the sixth key demand (the draft reply had accepted it), and also ordered mobilization. In response to this, Austria-Hungary issued a declaration of war on 28 July. Events 1540 - Thomas Cromwell is executed at the order of Henry VIII of England on charges of Treason. Initially, Russia ordered partial mobilization, directed at the Austrian frontier. On 31 July, after the Russian General Staff informed the Czar that partial mobilization was logistically impossible, a full mobilization was ordered. Events 30 BC - Battle of Alexandria: Mark Antony achieves a minor victory over Octavian 's forces but most of his army subsequently The Schlieffen Plan, which relied on a quick strike against France, could not afford to allow the Russians to mobilize without launching an attack. For the French counter-plan see Plan XVII The Schlieffen Plan was the German General Staff 's early 20th century overall strategic Thus, the Germans declared war against Russia on 1 August and on France two days later. Events 30 BC - Octavian (later known as Augustus enters Alexandria, Egypt, bringing it under the control of the Roman Germany then violated Belgium's neutrality by the German advance through it to Paris, and this brought the British Empire into the war. With this, five of the six European powers were now involved in the largest continental European conflict since the Napoleonic Wars. The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815 involved Napoleon's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions [21]
Chronology
Opening hostilities
Confusion among the Central Powers
The strategy of the Central Powers suffered from miscommunication. The Central Powers ( German: "Mittelmächte" Hungarian: "Központi hatalmak" Turkish: "İttifak The Entente Powers (from Triple Entente) were the countries at war with the Central Powers during World War I. Germany had promised to support Austria-Hungary’s invasion of Serbia, but interpretations of what this meant differed. Austro-Hungarian leaders believed Germany would cover its northern flank against Russia. Germany, however, envisioned Austria-Hungary directing the majority of its troops against Russia, while Germany dealt with France. This confusion forced the Austro-Hungarian Army to divide its forces between the Russian and Serbian fronts. The Austro-Hungarian Army was the ground force of the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy (1867 - 1918
African campaigns
Some of the first clashes of the war involved British, French and German colonial forces in Africa. The African Theatre of World War I comprises geographically distinct campaigns around the German colonies scattered in Africa the German colonies of Cameroon Volta Region a On 7 August, French and British troops invaded the German protectorate of Togoland. Events 322 BC - Battle of Crannon between Athens and Macedon following the death of Alexander the Great. Togoland was a German Protectorate in West Africa from 1884 to 1914 On 10 August German forces in South-West Africa attacked South Africa; sporadic and fierce fighting continued for the remainder of the war. Events 612 BC - Killing of Sinsharishkun, King of Assyrian Empire Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in Southern Africa on the Atlantic coast The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa
Serbian campaign
The Serbian army fought the Battle of Cer against the invading Austrians, beginning on 12 August, occupying defensive positions on the south side of the Drina and Sava rivers. Haut-Rhin is a ''département'' of France named after the Rhine river The Serbian Campaign was fought from August 1914 when Austria-Hungary invaded Serbia at the outset of First World War, until the end of the war in The Battle of Cer also known as Battle of Jadar (main operations were held near the estuary of the Jadar river Events 1099 - First Crusade: Battle of Ascalon - Crusaders under the command of Godfrey of Bouillon defeat Fatimid The Drina ( Serbian and Bosnian: Дрина or Drina) is a river in the Balkan Peninsula. The Sava ( Bosnian, Croatian, Slovene: Sava; Serbian: Сава, Sava) is a river in Over the next two weeks Austrian attacks were thrown back with heavy losses, which marked the first major Allied victory of the war and dashed Austrian hopes of a swift victory. As a result, Austria had to keep sizable forces on the Serbian front, weakening their efforts against Russia. Serbian troops then defeated Austro-Hungarian forces at the Battle of Kolubara, leading to 240,000 Austro-Hungarian casualties. The Battle of Kolubara was a major battle in Balkans during World War I. The Serbian Army lost 170,000 troops.
German forces in Belgium and France
Initially, the Germans had great success in the Battle of the Frontiers (14 August–24 August). Following the outbreak of World War I in 1914 the German army opened the Western Front by first invading Luxembourg and Belgium, then gaining The Battle of the Frontiers was a series of Battles fought along the eastern frontier of France and in southern Belgium shortly after the outbreak of Events 1183 - Taira no Munemori and the Taira clan take the young Emperor Antoku and the three sacred treasures Events 49 BC - Julius Caesar 's General Gaius Scribonius Curio is defeated in the Second Battle of the Bagradas River Russia, however, attacked in East Prussia and diverted German forces intended for the Western Front. East Prussia (Ostpreußen; Rytų Prūsija or Rytprūsiai; Prusy Wschodnie Восточная Пруссия or Vostochnaya Prussiya) refers to the main part Following the outbreak of World War I in 1914 the German army opened the Western Front by first invading Luxembourg and Belgium, then gaining Germany defeated Russia in a series of battles collectively known as the First Battle of Tannenberg (17 August – 2 September), but this diversion exacerbated problems of insufficient speed of advance from rail-heads not foreseen by the German General Staff. The Battle of Tannenberg was a decisive engagement between the Russian Empire and the German Empire in the first days of World War I, fought by the Events 986 - A Byzantine army was destroyed in the pass of Trajan's Gate by the Bulgarians under the Comitopuli Events 44 BC - Pharaoh Cleopatra VII of Egypt declares her son co-ruler as Ptolemy XV Caesarion. A military staff is a group of officers and enlisted personnel that provides a bi-directional flow of information between a commander and subordinate units Originally, the Schlieffen Plan called for the right flank of the German advance to pass to the west of Paris. However, the capacity and low speed of horse-drawn transport hampered the German supply train, allowing French and British forces to finally halt the German advance east of Paris at the First Battle of the Marne (5 September–12 September). The First Battle of the Marne (also known as the Miracle of the Marne) was a World War I battle fought from 5 September to 12 September 1914 Events 1590 - Alexander Farnese 's army forces Henry IV of France to raise the siege of Paris. Events 1213 - Albigensian Crusade: Simon de Montfort 5th Earl of Leicester, defeats Peter II of Aragon at the The Central Powers were thereby denied a quick victory and forced to fight a war on two fronts. The German army had fought its way into a good defensive position inside France and had permanently incapacitated 230,000 more French and British troops than it had lost itself. Despite this, communications problems and questionable command decisions cost Germany the chance for an early victory.
Asia and the Pacific
New Zealand occupied German Samoa (later Western Samoa) on 30 August. The Asian and Pacific Theatre of World War I was a largely bloodless conquest of German colonial possession in the Pacific Ocean and New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island Samoa, officially the Independent State of Samoa, is a country governing the western part of the Samoan Islands Archipelago in the South Pacific Ocean Events 1363 - Beginning date of the Battle of Lake Poyang; the forces of two Chinese rebel leaders— Chen Youliang and On 11 September the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force landed on the island of Neu Pommern (later New Britain), which formed part of German New Guinea. Events 9 - The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest ends 506 - The Bishops of Visigothic Gaul The Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force was a small Volunteer force of approximately 2000 men raised in Australia shortly after the This article discusses the island of New Britain in Papua New Guinea German New Guinea ( Ger Deutsch-Neuguinea) was a former German Protectorate from 1884 to 1914 consisting of the northeastern part of Japan seized Germany's Micronesian colonies and after the Battle of Tsingtao, the German coaling port of Qingdao, in the Chinese Shandong peninsula. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. Micronesia, from the Greek mikros (μικρός (meaning small) and nesos (νῆσος (meaning island) is a Subregion The Siege of Tsingtao was the attack on the German-controlled port of Tsingtao (now Qingdao) in China during World War I by Imperial Japan and the ( is a coastal province of eastern People's Republic of China. Within a few months, the Allied forces had seized all the German territories in the Pacific.
Early stages
Trench warfare begins
Military tactics before World War I had failed to keep pace with advances in technology. A gas mask is a Mask worn over the face to protect the wearer from inhaling airborne Pollutants and Toxic materials Ypres ( French, generally used in English French ipʁ English ˈiːprə Ieper (official name in Dutch, pronounced /ˈiːpər/ or Ypern Following the outbreak of World War I in 1914 the German army opened the Western Front by first invading Luxembourg and Belgium, then gaining It demanded the building of impressive defence systems, which out-of-date tactics could not break through for most of the war. Barbed wire was a significant hindrance to massed infantry advances. Barbed wire, also known as barb wire (and frequently in dialect form spelled bob or bobbed) is a type of fencing Wire constructed Artillery, vastly more lethal than in the 1870s, coupled with machine guns, made crossing open ground very difficult. Artillery (from French artillerie) is a military Combat Arm which employs any apparātus machine For other uses of the phrase see Machine Gun (disambiguation. The Germans introduced poison gas; it soon became used by both sides, though it never proved decisive in winning a battle. The use of poison gas in World War I was a major military innovation Its effects were brutal, however, causing slow and painful death, and poison gas became one of the most-feared and best-remembered horrors of the war. Commanders on both sides failed to develop tactics for breaking through entrenched positions without heavy casualties. In time, however, technology began also to yield new offensive weapons, such as the tank. A tank is a tracked, Armoured fighting vehicle designed for Front-line combat which combines Operational mobility and tactical Britain and France were its primary users; the Germans employed captured Allied tanks and small numbers of their own design.
After the First Battle of the Marne, both Entente and German forces began a series of outflanking maneuvers, in the so-called 'Race to the Sea'. The First Battle of the Marne (also known as the Miracle of the Marne) was a World War I battle fought from 5 September to 12 September 1914 The Triple Entente (" entente " — French for "agreement" was the name given to the loose alignment of the United Kingdom, the The Race to the Sea was a name given to a period of World War I when on the Western Front, the two sides were still engaged in mobile warfare Britain and France soon found themselves facing entrenched German forces from Lorraine to Belgium's Flemish coast. Lorraine (Lorraine Lothringen is a historical area in present-day northeast France. Flanders (Vlaanderen Flandre Flandern is a geographical region located in parts of present day Belgium, France, and the Netherlands. Britain and France sought to take the offensive, while Germany defended the occupied territories; consequentially, German trenches were generally much better constructed than those of their enemy. Anglo-French trenches were only intended to be 'temporary' before their forces broke through German defenses. Both sides attempted to break the stalemate using scientific and technological advances. In April 1915 the Germans used chlorine gas for the first time (in violation of the Hague Convention), opening a 6 kilometres (4 mi) hole in the Allied lines when British and French colonial troops retreated. Chlorine (ˈklɔriːn from the Greek word 'χλωρóς' ( khlôros, meaning 'pale green' is the Chemical element with Atomic number 17 and The Hague Conventions were international treaties negotiated at the First and Second Peace Conferences at The Hague, Netherlands in 1899 and Canadian soldiers closed the breach at the Second Battle of Ypres. When World War I broke out in 1914, all Dominions of the British Empire including Canada, were called upon by Great Britain to fight on The Second Battle of Ypres was the first time Germany used poison gas on a large scale on the Western Front in World War I and the first time At the Third Battle of Ypres, Canadian and ANZAC troops took the village of Passchendaele. "Passchendaele" redirects here For the 2008 film by that name see Passchendaele (film The 1917 Battle of Passchendaele, also known as "Passchendaele" redirects here For the 2008 film by that name see Passchendaele (film The 1917 Battle of Passchendaele, also known as
On 1 July 1916, the first day of the Battle of the Somme, the British Army endured the bloodiest day in its history, suffering 57,470 casualties and 19,240 dead. "July 1st" redirects here For the Ayumi Hamasaki song see H (song. Year 1916 ( MCMXVI) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year The first day on the Somme, 1 July 1916, was the opening day of the Battle of Albert, which was the first phase of the British The Battle of the Somme, also known as the Somme Offensive, fought from July to November 1916 was among the largest battles of the First World War The British Army is the land armed forces branch of the British Armed Forces. Most of the casualties occurred in the first hour of the attack. The entire offensive cost the British Army almost half a million men. [22]
Neither side proved able to deliver a decisive blow for the next two years, though protracted German action at Verdun throughout 1916, combined with the Entente's failure at the Somme, brought the exhausted French army to the brink of collapse. The Battle of Verdun was one of the most critical battles in World War I on the Western Front, fought between the German and French The Battle of the Somme, also known as the Somme Offensive, fought from July to November 1916 was among the largest battles of the First World War Futile attempts at frontal assault, a rigid adherence to an ineffectual method, came at a high price for both the British and the French poilu (infantry) and led to widespread mutinies, especially during the Nivelle Offensive. Poilu is a warmly informal term for a French World War I Infantryman, meaning literally hairy one. The French Army Mutinies of 1917 took place in the Champagne section of the Western Front and started just after the conclusion of the disastrous Second Battle of the Aisne The Nivelle Offensive was a 1917 Allied attack on the Western Front in World War I.
Throughout 1915–17, the British Empire and France suffered more casualties than Germany, due both to the strategic and tactical stances chosen by the sides. The British Mark I was the world's first combat Tank, entering service in the middle of World War I, born of the need to break the domination of trenches and The Battle of Vimy Ridge was a military offensive by the Canadian Corps against elements of the German Sixth Army in World War I. At the strategic level, while the Germans only mounted a single main offensive at Verdun, the Allies made several attempts to break through German lines. The Battle of Verdun was one of the most critical battles in World War I on the Western Front, fought between the German and French At the tactical level, the German defensive doctrine was well suited for trench warfare, with a relatively lightly defended "sacrificial" forward position, and a more powerful main position from which an immediate and powerful counter-offensive could be launched. This combination usually was effective in pushing out attackers at a relatively low cost to the Germans. In absolute terms, of course, the cost in lives of men for both attack and defense was astounding.
Ludendorff wrote on the fighting in 1917: "The 25th of August concluded the second phase of the Flanders battle. It had cost us heavily…. The costly August battles in Flanders and at Verdun imposed a heavy strain on the Western troops. In spite of all the concrete protection they seemed more or less powerless under the enormous weight of the enemy’s artillery. At some points they no longer displayed the firmness which I, in common with the local commanders, had hoped for. The enemy managed to adapt himself to our method of employing counter attacks… I myself was being put to a terrible strain. The state of affairs in the West appeared to prevent the execution of our plans elsewhere. Our wastage had been so high as to cause grave misgivings, and had exceeded all expectation. "
On the battle of the Menin Road Ridge he wrote: "Another terrific assault was made on our lines on the 20th September…. The enemy’s onslaught on the 20th was successful, which proved the superiority of the attack over the defence. Its strength did not consist in the tanks; we found them inconvenient, but put them out of action all the same. The power of the attack lay in the artillery, and in the fact that ours did not do enough damage to the hostile infantry as they were assembling, and above all, at the actual time of the assault. "[23]
Around 800,000 soldiers from the British Empire were on the Western Front at any one time. The Bermuda Militia Artillery was a unit of part-time soldiers organised in 1895 as a reserve for the Royal Garrison Artillery detachment of the Regular Army Ba (officially The Bermuda Islands or The Somers Isles) is a British overseas territory in the North Atlantic Ocean. 1,000 battalions, occupying sectors of the line from the North Sea to the Orne River, operated on a month-long four-stage rotation system, unless an offensive was underway. The North Sea is a marginal, Epeiric sea of the Atlantic Ocean on the European Continental shelf. The Orne is a river in Lorraine, north-eastern France, west tributary of the Moselle. The front contained over 9,600 kilometres (5,965 mi) of trenches. Each battalion held its sector for about a week before moving back to support lines and then further back to the reserve lines before a week out-of-line, often in the Poperinge or Amiens areas. Poperinge is a Municipality located in the province of West Flanders, Flemish Region, Belgium. Amiens (amjɛ̃ is a city and commune in northern France, 120 km north of Paris.
In the 1917 Battle of Arras the only significant British military success was the capture of Vimy Ridge by the Canadian Corps under Sir Arthur Currie and Julian Byng. WikipediaHow to fix bunched-up edit links --> WikipediaHow The Battle of Vimy Ridge was a military offensive by the Canadian Corps against elements of the German Sixth Army in World War I. The Canadian Corps was a World War I Corps formed from the Canadian Expeditionary Force in September 1915 after the arrival of the 2nd Canadian Sir Arthur William Currie GCMG, KCB ( December 5, 1875 &ndash November 30, 1933) was a Canadian General Field Marshal Julian Hedworth George Byng 1st Viscount Byng of Vimy GCB GCMG MVO ( 11 September 1862 &ndash The assaulting troops were able for the first time to overrun, rapidly reinforce and hold the ridge defending the coal-rich Douai plain. Douai ( Dutch: Dowaai) is a town and commune in the north of France in the département of Nord [24]
Naval war
At the start of the war, the German Empire had cruisers scattered across the globe, some of which were subsequently used to attack Allied merchant shipping. Naval warfare in World War I was mainly characterized by the efforts of the Allied Powers, with their larger fleets and surrounding position to blockade the The High Seas Fleet (Hochseeflotte was the main battle fleet of the Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial German Navy during World War I. A cruiser is a large type of Warship, which had its prime period from the late 19th century to the end of the Cold War. The British Royal Navy systematically hunted them down, though not without some embarrassment from its inability to protect Allied shipping. The Royal Navy of the United Kingdom is the oldest of the British armed services (and is therefore known as the Senior Service) For example, the German detached light cruiser Emden, part of the East-Asia squadron stationed at Tsingtao, seized or destroyed 15 merchantmen, as well as sinking a Russian cruiser and a French destroyer. However, the bulk of the German East-Asia squadron—consisting of the armoured cruisers Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, light cruisers Nürnberg and Leipzig and two transport ships—did not have orders to raid shipping and was instead underway to Germany when it encountered elements of the British fleet. The German East Asia Squadron was a German Kaiserliche Marine (naval Cruiser Squadron which operated mainly in the Pacific Ocean This article is about the World War I Armored cruiser Scharnhorst for the World War II Battlecruiser of the same name see German This article is about the WWI armoured cruiser 'Gneisenau' for other ships of this name see Gneisenau. SMS Leipzig was a Light cruiser, of the ''Bremen'' class commissioned in 1906 into the German Imperial Navy. The German flotilla, along with Dresden, sank two armoured cruisers at the Battle of Coronel, but was almost completely destroyed at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December 1914, with only Dresden escaping. Service history At the outbreak of the war in 1914 the Dresden was preparing for the return journey to Germany The World War I naval Battle of Coronel took place on 1 November 1914 off the coast of central Chile near the city of Coronel The Battle of the Falkland Islands was a British naval victory over the Imperial German Navy on 8 December 1914 during the First World War [25]
Soon after the outbreak of hostilities, Britain initiated a naval blockade of Germany. A blockade is any effort to prevent supplies Troops information or aid from reaching an opposing force The strategy proved effective, cutting off vital military and civilian supplies, although this blockade violated generally accepted international law codified by several international agreements of the past two centuries. [26] Britain mined international waters to prevent any ships from entering entire sections of ocean, causing danger to even neutral ships. [27] Since there was limited response to this tactic, Germany expected a similar response to its unrestricted submarine warfare. [28]
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The 1916 Battle of Jutland (German: Skagerrakschlacht, or "Battle of the Skagerrak") developed into the largest naval battle of the war, the only full-scale clash of battleships during the war. Construction Built by Schichau-Werft in Danzig, her keel was laid down in May 1912 and she was launched on 29 November 1913 fix various bugs per WikipediaHow to fix bunched-up edit links --> It took place on 31 May–1 June 1916, in the North Sea off Jutland. Events 1279 BC - Rameses II (The Great (19th dynasty becomes pharaoh of Ancient Egypt. Events 193 - Roman Emperor Didius Julianus is Assassinated 987 - Hugh Capet is elected Year 1916 ( MCMXVI) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year The North Sea is a marginal, Epeiric sea of the Atlantic Ocean on the European Continental shelf. This article is about the region of Denmark. For the World War I naval battle see Battle of Jutland. The Kaiserliche Marine's High Seas Fleet, commanded by Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer, squared off against the Royal Navy's Grand Fleet, led by Admiral Sir John Jellicoe. Reinhard Scheer ( September 30, 1863 &ndash November 26, 1928) was an Admiral in the German Imperial Navy Admiral of the Fleet John Rushworth Jellicoe 1st Earl Jellicoe, GCB, OM, GCVO ( 5 December 1859 &ndash 20 November The engagement was a standoff, as the Germans, outmaneuvered by the larger British fleet, managed to escape and inflicted more damage to the British fleet than they received. Strategically, however, the British asserted their control of the sea, and the bulk of the German surface fleet remained confined to port for the duration of the war.
German U-boats attempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain. U-boat is the anglicized version of the German word, itself an abbreviation of Unterseeboot ( undersea boat) and refers [29] The nature of submarine warfare meant that attacks often came without warning, giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival. [30] The United States launched a protest, and Germany modified its rules of engagement. After the infamous sinking of the passenger ship RMS Lusitania in 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners, while Britain armed its merchant ships. Construction and trials Owned by the Cunard Steamship Company built by John Brown and Company Lusitania was named for the ancient Roman province of Finally, in early 1917 Germany adopted a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare, realizing the Americans would eventually enter the war. Unrestricted submarine warfare is a type of Naval warfare in which Submarines sink merchant ships without warning as opposed to attacks per prize regulations [31] Germany sought to strangle Allied sea lanes before the U. S. could transport a large army overseas.
The U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships entered convoys escorted by destroyers. A convoy is a group of Vehicles (of any type but usually motor vehicles or ships traveling together for mutual support This tactic made it difficult for U-boats to find targets, which significantly lessened losses; after the introduction of hydrophone and depth charges, accompanying destroyers might actually attack a submerged submarine with some hope of success. A hydrophone (Greek "hydro" = "water" and "phone" = "sound" is a Microphone designed to be used underwater for recording or listening Depth Charge is a character in the Beast Wars: Transformers universe The convoy system slowed the flow of supplies, since ships had to wait as convoys were assembled. The solution to the delays was a massive program to build new freighters. Troop ships were too fast for the submarines and did not travel the North Atlantic in convoys. [32][33]
The First World War also saw the first use of aircraft carriers in combat, with HMS Furious launching Sopwith Camels in a successful raid against the Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in July 1918, as well as blimps for antisubmarine patrol. An aircraft carrier is a Warship designed with Genesis She was designed as one of Jackie Fisher 's "large light cruisers" to participate in an amphibious landing on the Baltic coast of Germany WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout A Zeppelin is a type of Rigid airship pioneered by the German Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin in the early 20th century based on designs he had outlined Tønder ( German: Tondern, North Frisian: Tuner) is a municipality ( Danish, kommune) in Region Syddanmark [34]
Southern theatres
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in the war, the secret Ottoman-German Alliance having been signed in August 1914. The Middle Eastern theatre of World War I was fought between the Allied Powers, primarily the British and the Russians on the one hand and the The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish The Ottoman-German Alliance was established between the Ottoman Empire and the German Empire on August 2nd 1914 It threatened Russia's Caucasian territories and Britain's communications with India via the Suez Canal. The Caucasus ( also referred to as North Caucasus) is a geopolitical region located between Europe Asia & Middle East India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The Suez Canal is a Canal in Egypt. Opened in 1869 it allows Water transportation between Europe and Asia without circumnavigation The British and French opened overseas fronts with the Gallipoli (1915) and Mesopotamian campaigns. The Mesopotamian campaign was a campaign in the Middle Eastern theatre of the Great War fought between Allied Powers represented by the British Empire In Gallipoli, the Turks successfully repelled the British, French and Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs). Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches In Mesopotamia, by contrast, after the disastrous Siege of Kut (1915–16), British Imperial forces reorganised and captured Baghdad in March 1917. Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding The Siege of Kut was a major battle of World War I. It was part of the Mesopotamian Campaign (in what is now Iraq) Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous Further to the west, in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign, initial British setbacks were overcome when Jerusalem was captured in December 1917. Ottoman advance towards the Suez Canal The Ottoman Empire at the urging of their German ally chose to attack British and Egyptian forces in Egypt and shut the Suez Canal Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, he-Latn Yerushaláyim; Arabic: ar القُدس, ar-Latn al-Quds) is the The Egyptian Expeditionary Force, under Field Marshal Edmund Allenby, broke the Ottoman forces at the Battle of Megiddo in September 1918. The Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF was formed in March 1916 to command the growing British and British Empire military forces in Egypt during Field Marshal Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby 1st Viscount Allenby GCB GCMG GCVO ( April 23 1861 - May 14 1936 The Battle of Megiddo of September 19 - 21, 1918, and its subsequent exploitation was the culminating victory in British General
Russian armies generally had the best of it in the Caucasus. The Caucasus ( also referred to as North Caucasus) is a geopolitical region located between Europe Asia & Middle East Vice-Generalissimo Enver Pasha, supreme commander of the Turkish armed forces, was ambitious and dreamed of conquering central Asia. İsmail Enver ( Ottoman Turkish: اسماعيل انور ( November 22, 1881 in Constantinople - August 4 Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south He was, however, a poor commander. [35] He launched an offensive against the Russians in the Caucasus in December 1914 with 100,000 troops; insisting on a frontal attack against mountainous Russian positions in winter, he lost 86% of his force at the Battle of Sarikamis. The Battle of Sarıkamış (Sarykamysh (Сражение при Сарыкамыше Sarıkamış Savaşı also known as The Campaign in Armenia, resulted in a decisive [36]
The Russian commander from 1915 to 1916, General Yudenich, drove the Turks out of most of the southern Caucasus with a string of victories. [36] In 1917, Russian Grand Duke Nicholas assumed command of the Caucasus front. Nicholas planned a railway from Russian Georgia to the conquered territories, so that fresh supplies could be brought up for a new offensive in 1917. Georgia ( საქართველო, Sakartvelo) is a Transcontinental country in the Caucasus region situated at the dividing line between However, in March 1917, (February in the pre-revolutionary Russian calendar), the Czar was overthrown in the February Revolution and the Russian Caucasus Army began to fall apart. The February Revolution (Февральская революция in 1917 in Russia was the first stage of the Russian Revolution of 1917. The Russian Caucasus Army (Росси́йская Кавказскaя армия) of World War I was the Russian field army that fought the Caucasus Campaign In this situation, the army corps of Armenian volunteer units realigned themselves under the command of General Tovmas Nazarbekian, with Dro as a civilian commissioner of the Administration for Western Armenia. Armenian volunteer units or " Armenian volunteer corps " were Armenian battalions in Russian and British armies during the World War I. Tovmas Nazarbekian (Nazarbekov, (1855–1931 was an Armenian general in the Russian Army who was the governor of the Administration for Western Armenia General Drastamat Kanayan (Դրաստամատ Կանայեան known as General Dro, Դրօ May 31, 1884 &ndash March 8, 1956) This article is about the short-lived Armenian "provisional government The front line had three main divisions: Movses Silikyan, Andranik, and Mikhail Areshian. Movses Silikyan (Մովսես Սիլիկյան Мовсес Силиков Movses Silikov (1862 - 1937 was a famed Armenian general and national hero, Major General Andranik Toros Ozanian, Zoravar Andranik, ( Անդրանիկ Թորոսի Օզանյան, Զորավար Անդրանիկ ( February 25, 1865 – Another regular unit was under Colonel Korganian. There were Armenian partisan guerrilla detachments (more than 40,000[37]) accompanying these main units. Armenian irregular units ( Armenian militia, Armenian partisans, or Armenian Chetes) better known by Armenians as '''Fedayee''' (Ֆէտայի
The Arab Revolt was a major cause of the Ottoman Empire's defeat. The Arab Revolt (1916&ndash1918 ( الثورة العربية Al-Thawra al-`Arabīya) was initiated by the Sherif Hussein ibn Ali with the aim of securing The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish The revolts started with the Battle of Mecca by Sherif Hussain of Mecca with the help of Britain in June 1916, and ended with the Ottoman surrender of Damascus. The Battle of Mecca occurred in the Muslim holy city of Mecca In June and July 1916 Mecca ˈmɛkə also spelled Makkah ˈmækə (in full Makkah Al-Mukarramah (Arabic mækːæ(t ælmʊkarˑamæ مكّة المكرمة, literally Honored Fakhri Pasha the Ottoman commander of Medina showed stubborn resistance for over two and half years during the Siege of Medina. Fakhri Pasha or Umar Fakhr ud-Din Pasha was the commander of Ottoman army and governor of Medina from 1916 to 1919 Medina mɛˈdiːnə (المدينة المنورة ælmæˈdiːnæl muˈnɑwːɑrɑ or المدينة ælmæˈdiːnæ also transliterated into English as Medina, an Islamic holy city in Arabia, underwent a long siege during World War I.
Along the border of Italian Libya and British Egypt, the Senussi tribe, incited and armed by the Turks, waged a small-scale guerrilla war against Allied troops. The Senussi or Sanussi refers to a Muslim political-religious order in Libya and Sudan founded in Mecca in 1837 by the Grand Senussi Sayyid According to Martin Gilbert's The First World War, the British were forced to dispatch 12,000 troops to deal with the Senussi. Their rebellion was finally crushed in mid-1916.
Italian participation
Italy had been allied with the German and Austro-Hungarian Empires since 1882 as part of the Triple Alliance. The Italian campaign refers to a series of battles fought between the armies of Austria-Hungary and Italy, along with their allies in northern Italy between 1915 The Triple Alliance was a military alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy that lasted from 1882 until the start of World War I However, the nation had its own designs on Austrian territory in Trentino, Istria and Dalmatia. The Province of Trento (Provincia autonoma di Trento also called Trentino, is an Autonomous province of Italy. This article is about a geographical region bordering the Adriatic Sea Dalmatia ( Croatian: Dalmacija, see names in other languages) is a region on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea, situated mostly in modern Rome had a secret 1902 pact with France, effectively nullifying its alliance. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 [38] At the start of hostilities, Italy refused to commit troops, arguing that the Triple Alliance was defensive in nature, and that Austria-Hungary was an aggressor. The Triple Alliance was a military alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy that lasted from 1882 until the start of World War I The Austro-Hungarian government began negotiations to secure Italian neutrality, offering the French colony of Tunisia in return. Tunisia (تونس Tūnis officially the Tunisian Republic ( is a country located in North Africa. However, Italy then joined the Entente in April 1915 and declared war on Austria-Hungary in May. The Triple Entente (" entente " — French for "agreement" was the name given to the loose alignment of the United Kingdom, the Fifteen months later, it declared war on Germany.
Militarily, the Italians had numerical superiority. This advantage, however, was lost, not only because of the difficult terrain in which fighting took place, but also because of the strategies and tactics employed. Field Marshal Luigi Cadorna, a staunch proponent of the frontal assault, had dreams of breaking into the Slovenian plateau, taking Ljubljana and threatening Vienna. For other meanings see Field Marshal (disambiguation Field marshal is a military officer rank Luigi Cadorna ( September 4, 1850 &ndash December 21, 1928) was an Italian Field Marshal most famous for being the Commander-in-Chief Ljubljana ( is the largest and Capital city of Slovenia. It is located in the center of the country and is a mid-sized city of some 270000 inhabitants Vienna ( in Wien; see also other names) is the Capital of Austria, and is also one of the nine States of Austria. It was a Napoleonic plan, which had no realistic chance of success in an age of barbed wire, machine guns, and indirect artillery fire, combined with hilly and mountainous terrain. The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815 involved Napoleon's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions
Cadorna insisted on attacking the Isonzo front. The Soča (in Slovene) or
- Further information: Battles of the Isonzo
Cadorna unleashed eleven offensives with total disregard for his men's lives. " Battles of the Isonzo " were a series of battles between the Austria-Hungarian and Italian armies in World War I. The Italians also went on the offensive to relieve pressure on other Allied fronts. On the Trentino front, the Austro-Hungarians took advantage of the mountainous terrain, which favoured the defender. After an initial strategic retreat, the front remained largely unchanged, while Austrian Kaiserschützen and Standschützen and Italian Alpini engaged in bitter hand-to-hand combat throughout the summer. The Kaiserschützen (English Imperial Infantry were three regiments of Austro-Hungarian mountain infantry during the K The Alpini, meaning "the Alpines quot, are the elite Mountain warfare soldiers of the Italian Army. The Austro-Hungarians counter-attacked in the Altopiano of Asiago, towards Verona and Padua, in the spring of 1916 (Strafexpedition), but made little progress. This article is about the settlement in the Province of Vicenza Italy The Battle of Asiago (Battle of the Plateaux or the Trentino Offensive (in Italian Battaglia degli Altipiani) nicknamed Strafexpedition
Beginning in 1915, the Italians mounted eleven offensives along the Isonzo River, north-east of Trieste. The Soča (in Slovene) or Trieste (Trieste Slovene and Croatian: Trst; German: Triest) is a city and port in northeastern Italy very near to All eleven offensives were repelled by the Austro-Hungarians, who held the higher ground. In the summer of 1916, the Italians captured the town of Gorizia. Gorizia (Gurize Gorica Görz is a town in northeastern Italy, at the foot of the Alps and bordering Slovenia. After this minor victory, the front remained static for over a year, despite several Italian offensives. In the autumn of 1917, thanks to the improving situation on the Eastern front, the Austrians received large numbers of reinforcements, including German Stormtroopers and the elite Alpenkorps. The Stormtroopers (in German Stoßtruppen, shock troops) were specialist military troops which were formed in the last years of World War I as the German The Alpenkorps was a provisional mountain unit of division size formed by the Imperial German Army during World War I. The Central Powers launched a crushing offensive on 26 October 1917, spearheaded by the Germans. They achieved a victory at Caporetto. The Battle of Caporetto (or Battle of Karfreit as it was known by the Central Powers; Bitka za Kobarid took place from 24 October The Italian army was routed and retreated more than 100 km (60 miles). They were able to reorganise and stabilize the front at the Piave River. See also Battle of Piave River (1809 The Battle of the Piave River, known in Italy as Battaglia del Solstizio (Battle of the Solstice Since in the Battle of Caporetto Italian Army had heavy losses, the Italian Government called to the arms the so called '99 Boys (Ragazzi del '99), that is, all males who were 18 years old. In 1918, the Austro-Hungarians failed to break through, in a series of battles on the Asiago Plateau, finally being decisively defeated in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto in October of that year. This article is about the settlement in the Province of Vicenza Italy The Battle of Vittorio Veneto was fought between 24 October and 3 November 1918 near Vittorio Veneto, during the Italian Campaign of World War I. Austria-Hungary surrendered in early November 1918.
War in the Balkans
Faced with Russia, Austria-Hungary could spare only one third of its army to attack Serbia. The Balkans Campaign of World War I was fought between Central Powers Bulgaria, Austria-Hungary and Germany on one side The Serbian Campaign was fought from August 1914 when Austria-Hungary invaded Serbia at the outset of First World War, until the end of the war in The Macedonian Front (or Salonika front) resulted from an attempt by the Allied Powers to aid Serbia, in the autumn of 1915 against the combined attack After suffering heavy losses, the Austrians briefly occupied the Serbian capital, Belgrade. Belgrade (Београд Beograd is the Capital and largest city of Serbia. Serbian counterattacks, however, succeeded in driving them from the country by the end of 1914. For the first ten months of 1915, Austria-Hungary used most of its military reserves to fight Italy. German and Austro-Hungarian diplomats, however, scored a coup by convincing Bulgaria to join in attacking Serbia. The state of Bulgaria (България transliterated bg-Latn ''Balgaria'' The country preserves the traditions (in ethnic name language and alphabet of the First Bulgarian The Austro-Hungarian provinces of Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia provided troops for Austria-Hungary, invading Serbia as well as fighting Russia and Italy. Slovenia, officially the Republic of Slovenia (Republika Slovenija) is a Country in southern Central Europe bordering Italy to the west Croatia (Hrvatska ˈxȓvatska officially the Republic of Croatia ( Republika Hrvatska) is a southern Central European country at the crossroads between Historically and geographically the Region known as Bosnia (natively Bosna; Cyrillic: Босна lies mainly in the Dinaric Alps, ranging Montenegro allied itself with Serbia. Montenegro ( British English) Montenegrin / Serbian: PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THE LANGUAGES WITHOUT CONSENSUS ON THE TALK PAGE!
Serbia was conquered in a little more than a month. The attack began in October, when the Central Powers launched an offensive from the north; four days later the Bulgarians joined the attack from the east. The Serbian army, fighting on two fronts and facing certain defeat, retreated into Albania, halting only once, to make a stand against the Bulgarians. This article is about the country in southern Europe For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Albania topics. The Serbs suffered defeat near modern day Gnjilane in Kosovo, forces being evacuated by ship to Greece. Gnjilane or Gjilan ( Albanian: Gjilani or Gjilan, Serbian: Гњилане Gnjilane) is a city and municipality Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία
In late 1915 a Franco-British force landed at Salonica in Greece, to offer assistance and to pressure the government to declare war against the Central Powers. Thessaloniki (Θεσσαλονίκη), Thessalonica, or Salonica is the second-largest city in Greece and the capital of Macedonia Unfortunately for the Allies, the pro-German King Constantine I dismissed the pro-Allied government of Eleftherios Venizelos, before the allied expeditionary force could arrive. Constantine I King of the Hellenes (Κωνσταντίνος A' Βασιλεύς των Ελλήνων - 11 January 1923 was King of Greece from 1913 to 1917 and from Eleftherios Venizelos (full name Elefthérios Kyriákou Venizélos, Greek: Ελευθέριος Κυριάκου Βενιζέλος ( Mournies
The Salonica Front proved static. Only at the end of the conflict were the Entente powers able to break through, which was after most of the German and Austro-Hungarian troops had been withdrawn. The Bulgarians suffered their only defeat of the war, at the Battle of Dobro Pole, but days later, they decisively defeated British and Greek forces at the Battle of Doiran, avoiding occupation. The Bulgarians (българи balgari) are a South Slavic people generally associated with the Republic of Bulgaria and the Bulgarian language The Battle of Dobro Pole was a World War I battle fought on September 15, 1918. Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία The Battle of Doiran was fought from 18 September to 19 September, 1918, with the Greeks and the British assaulting Bulgarian Bulgaria signed an armistice on 29 September 1918. An armistice is a situation where the warring parties agree to stop fighting Events 522 BC - Darius I of Persia kills the Magian usurper Gaumâta securing his hold as king of the Persian Empire. Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common
Fighting in India
The war began with an unprecedented outpouring of loyalty and goodwill towards the United Kingdom from within the mainstream political leadership, contrary to initial British fears of an Indian revolt. India under British rule contributed massively to the British war effort by providing men and resources. This was done by the Indian Congress in hope of achieving self-government as India was very much in control of the British. The United Kingdom disappointed the Indians by not providing self-governance, leading to the Gandhiian Era in Indian history. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi ( Gujarati: મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી moɦən̪d̪äs kəɾəmʧən̪d̪ gän̪d̪ʱi (2 October 1869 – 30 January About 1. 3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, while both the Indian government and the princes sent large supplies of food, money, and ammunition. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. In all 140,000 men served on the Western Front and nearly 700,000 in the Middle East. 47,746 Indian soldiers were killed and 65,126 wounded during World War I. [39]
Indian independence movement
Bengal and Punjab remained hotbeds of anti-colonial activities. Etymology and ethnology The exact origin of the word Bangla or Bengal is unknown though it is believed to be derived from the Dravidian-speaking tribe Bang Punjab was a province of British India, it was one of the last areas of the Indian subcontinent to fall under British rule The Revolutionary movement for Indian independence is often a less-highlighted aspect of the Indian independence movement -- the underground revolutionary factions Terrorism in Bengal, increasingly closely linked with the unrests in Punjab, was significant enough to nearly paralyse the regional administration. Also from the beginning of the war, expatriate Indian population, notably in Germany, United States and Canada, headed by the Indian Independence Committee and the Ghadar Party respectively, attempted to trigger insurrections in India on the lines of the 1857 uprising with Irish Republican, German and Turkish help in a massive conspiracy that has since come to be called the Hindu German conspiracy. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page The Berlin Committee, later known as the Indian Independence Committee (Das Indische Unabhängigkeitskomitee after 1915 was an organisation formed in Germany in The Ghadar Party was an organization founded by Indians of the United States and Canada in June 1913 with the aim to liberate India from The Indian Rebellion of 1857 began as a mutiny of Sepoys of British East India Company 's army on the 10th of May 1857 in the town of Meerut, Irish republicanism (Poblachtánachas is an ideology based on the Irish nationalist belief that all of Ireland should be a single independent Republic The conspiracy also made attempts to rally the Amir of Afghanistan against British India, starting a political process in that country that culminated three years later in the assassination of Amir Habibullah and precipitation of the Third Anglo-Afghan war. The European influence in Afghanistan refers to political social and sometimes Imperialistic influence various European nations have had on this historical development of the A number of failed attempts at mutiny were made in India, of which the February mutiny plan and the Singapore mutiny remain most notable. The Ghadar Conspiracy was a Conspiracy for a pan-Indian Mutiny in the British Indian Army in February 1915 formulated by Indian revolutionaries The 1915 Singapore Mutiny, also known as the 1915 Sepoy Mutiny, or This movement was suppressed by means of a massive international counter-intelligence operation and draconian political acts (including the Defence of India act 1915) that lasted nearly ten years. The Defence of India act 1915, also referred to as the Defence of India Regulations Act, was an Emergency Criminal Law enacted by the British Raj in [40][41][42]
The Ghadarites also attempted to organise incursions from the western border of India, recruiting Indian prisoners of war from Turkey, Germany, Mesopotamia. Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding Ghadarite rebels, led by Sufi Amba Prasad, fought along with Turkish forces in Iran and in Turkey. Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفیگری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Plans were made in Constantinopole to organise a campaign from Persia, through Balochistan, to Punjab. Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS These forces were involved skirmishes that captured the frontier city of Karman, taking into custody the British consul. Percy Sykes's campaign in Persia was directed mostly against these composite forces. Brigadier-General Sir Percy Molesworth Sykes KCIE, CB, CMG ( 28 February 1867 - 11 June 1945) was a soldier diplomat It was at this time that the Aga Khan and his brother were recruited into the British War effort. Aga Khan ( آقا خان) is the Hereditary title of the Imam of the Nizārī Muslims the largest branch of the Ismā'īlī However, the Aga Khan's brother was captured and shot dead by the rebels, who also successfully harassed British Forces in Sistan in Afghanistan, confining British forces to Karamshir in Baluchistan, later moving towards Karachi. Modern Sistan ( is a border region in southeastern Iran (see Sistan and Baluchestan Province) and southwestern Afghanistan (see Nimruz Province (ڪراچي) is the largest city in Pakistan. It is the world's second largest city proper behind Mumbai in terms of population which exceeds 10 million They were able to take control of the coastal towns of Gawador and Dawar. The Baluchi chief of Bampur, having declared his independence from the British rule, also joined the Ghadarite forces. It was not before the war in Europe turned for the worse for Turkey and Baghdad was captured by the British forces that the Ghadarite forces, their supply lines starved, were finally dislodged. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous They retreated to regroup at Shiraz, where they were finally defeated after a bitter fight. Shiraz ( شیراز Shīrāz) is the fifth most populated city in Iran and the capital of Fars Province. Amba Prasad Sufi was killed in this battle. The Ghadarites carried on guerrilla warfare along with the Iranian partisans till 1919. [43][44][45][46]
Although the conflict in India was not explicitly a part of the First World War, it was part of the wider strategic context. The British attempt to subjugate the rebelling tribal leaders drew away much needed troops from other theaters, in particular, of course, the Western Front, where the real decisive victory would be made.
The reason why some Indian and Afghani tribes rose up simply came down to years of discontent which erupted, probably not coincidentally, during the First World War. It is likely that the tribal leaders were aware that Britain would not be able to field the required men, in terms of either number or quality, but the underestimated the strategic importance of India to the British. Despite being far from the epicenter of the conflict, India provided a bounty of men for the fronts. Its produce was also needed for the British war effort and many trade routes running to other profitable areas of the Empire ran through India. Therefore, although the British were not able to send the men that they wanted, they were able to send enough to mount a gradual but effective counter-guerrilla war against the tribesmen. The fighting continued into 1919 and in some areas lasted even longer.
- See also: Third Anglo-Afghan War and Hindu-German Conspiracy
Eastern Front
Initial actions
While the Western Front had reached stalemate, the war continued in the East. The European influence in Afghanistan refers to political social and sometimes Imperialistic influence various European nations have had on this historical development of the The Eastern Front was a theatre of war during World War I in Central and primarily Eastern Europe. Initial Russian plans called for simultaneous invasions of Austrian Galicia and German East Prussia. The Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria official (Königreich Galizien und Lodomerien mit dem Großherzogtum Krakau und den Herzogtümern Auschwitz und Zator official Although Russia's initial advance into Galicia was largely successful, they were driven back from East Prussia by Hindenburg and Ludendorff at Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes in August and September 1914. Paul Ludwig Hans Anton von Beneckendorff und von Hindenburg ( known universally as Paul von Hindenburg ( ( October 2, 1847 &ndash August 2 Erich Friedrich Wilhelm Ludendorff (sometimes given incorrectly as von Ludendorff) (9 April 1865–20 December 1937 was a German Army officer, Generalquartiermeister The Battle of Tannenberg was a decisive engagement between the Russian Empire and the German Empire in the first days of World War I, fought by the The First Battle of the Masurian Lakes was a German offensive in the Eastern Front during the early stages of World War I. Russia's less developed industrial base and ineffective military leadership was instrumental in the events that unfolded. By the spring of 1915, the Russians had retreated into Galicia, and in May the Central Powers achieved a remarkable breakthrough on Poland's southern frontiers. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland On 5 August they captured Warsaw and forced the Russians to withdraw from Poland. Events 642 - Battle of Maserfield - Penda of Mercia defeats and kills Oswald of Bernicia. Warsaw (Warszawa; also known by other names) is the Capital and Largest city of Poland. This became known as the "Great Retreat" in Russia and the "Great Advance" in Germany.
Ukrainian oppression
- Further information: Ukraine in World War I
Russian Revolution
Dissatisfaction with the Russian government's conduct of the war grew, despite the success of the June 1916 Brusilov offensive in eastern Galicia. See also Russian Revolution (1905 The Russian Revolution of 1916 refers to a series of popular revolutions in Russia, and the events surrounding them The Brusilov Offensive (Брусиловский прорыв was the Russian Empire 's greatest feat of arms during World War I, and among the Most lethal The Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria official (Königreich Galizien und Lodomerien mit dem Großherzogtum Krakau und den Herzogtümern Auschwitz und Zator official The success was undermined by the reluctance of other generals to commit their forces to support the victory. Allied and Russian forces were revived only temporarily with Romania's entry into the war on 27 August. Romania ( dated: Rumania, Roumania Events 479 BC - Greco-Persian Wars: Persian forces led by Mardonius are routed by Pausanias, the Spartan German forces came to the aid of embattled Austrian units in Transylvania and Bucharest fell to the Central Powers on 6 December. Transylvania (Ardeal or ro ''Transilvania'' Erdély, see also other denominations) is a Central European region located in the eastern half of the Carpathian Bucharest ( Romanian: Bucureşti) is the Capital city, industrial and commercial centre of Romania. Events 1060 - Béla I of Hungary is crowned king of Hungary 1240 - Mongol invasion of Rus: Kiev Meanwhile, unrest grew in Russia, as the Tsar remained at the front. Empress Alexandra's increasingly incompetent rule drew protests and resulted in the murder of her favourite, Rasputin, at the end of 1916. Alix of Hesse and by Rhine (later Alexandra Feodorovna Romanova ( Императрица Александра Фёдоровна Романова) ( 6 June
In March 1917, demonstrations in St Petersburg culminated in the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and the appointment of a weak Provisional Government which shared power with the Petrograd Soviet socialists. Saint Petersburg ( tr: Sankt-Peterburg,) is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River The Russian Provisional Government was formed in Petrograd in 1917 after the February Revolution and the Abdication The Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, usually called the Petrograd Soviet, was the soviet (workers' council in Petrograd (Saint This arrangement led to confusion and chaos both at the front and at home. The army became increasingly ineffective.
The war and the government became more and more unpopular. Discontent led to a rise in popularity of the Bolshevik party, led by Vladimir Lenin. The Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists ( Большевик Большевист (singular, derived from bolshe, "more" were a faction A political party is a Political organization that seeks to attain and maintain political power within Government, usually by participating in electoral He promised to pull Russia out of the war and was able to gain power. The triumph of the Bolsheviks in November was followed in December by an armistice and negotiations with Germany. The October Revolution (Октябрьская революция Oktyabrskaya revolyutsiya) also known as the Soviet Revolution At first the Bolsheviks refused the German terms, but when Germany resumed the war and marched across Ukraine with impunity, the new government acceded to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on 3 March 1918. Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Not to be confused with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (February 9 1918, a similar treaty involving Ukraine and the Central Powers. Events 1284 - Statute of Rhuddlan incorporated the Principality of Wales into England 1575 - Indian Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common It took Russia out of the war and ceded vast territories, including Finland, the Baltic provinces, parts of Poland and Ukraine to the Central Powers. Finland, officially the Republic of Finland ( is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. The Baltic states (Balti riigid Baltijas valstis Baltijos valstybės or Baltic countries are three countries in Northern Europe, all members of the Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. The manpower required for German occupation of former Russian territory may have contributed to the failure of the Spring Offensive, however, and secured relatively little food or other war materiel.
With the Bolsheviks' accession to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, the Entente no longer existed. The Allied powers led a small-scale invasion of Russia to stop Germany from exploiting Russian resources and, to a lesser extent, to support the Whites in the Russian Civil War. The Russian Civil War (1917–1923 was a multi-party war that occurred within the former Russian Empire after the Russian provisional government collapsed Allied troops landed in Archangel and in Vladivostok. Arkhangelsk (Арха́нгельск formerly called Archangel in English, is a city and the administrative center of Arkhangelsk Oblast Vladivostok ( is Russia 's largest port city on the Pacific Ocean and the administrative center of Primorsky Krai.
- Further information: North Russia Campaign
1917–1918
Events of 1917 proved decisive in ending the war, although their effects were not fully felt until 1918. The North Russia Campaign (also known as the Northern Russian Expedition or the Allied Intervention in North Russia) was part of the Allied Intervention in Russia A trench is a type of excavation or depression in the ground Trenches are generally defined by being deeper than they are wide (as opposed to a wider Gully or Ditch The Royal Ulster Rifles (formerly Royal Irish Rifles) was an Irish Infantry Regiment of the British Army. The first day on the Somme, 1 July 1916, was the opening day of the Battle of Albert, which was the first phase of the British "July 1st" redirects here For the Ayumi Hamasaki song see H (song. Year 1916 ( MCMXVI) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year The British naval blockade began to have a serious impact on Germany. In response, in February 1917, the German General Staff convinced Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg to declare unrestricted submarine warfare, with the goal of starving Britain out of the war. The German General Staff ( Großer Generalstab literally Great General Staff) was an institution whose rise and development gave the German military a decided Chancellor or chancellour (archaic ( Latin: cancellarius) is an official Title used in countries whose civilization has arisen Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg (November 29 1856 January 1 1921 was a German politician and statesman who served as Chancellor of the German Empire from 1909 to 1917 Tonnage sunk rose above 500,000 tons per month from February to July. It peaked at 860,000 tons in April. After July, the reintroduced convoy system became extremely effective in neutralizing the U-boat threat. A convoy is a group of Vehicles (of any type but usually motor vehicles or ships traveling together for mutual support U-boat is the anglicized version of the German word, itself an abbreviation of Unterseeboot ( undersea boat) and refers Britain was safe from starvation and German industrial output fell.
The victory of Austria-Hungary and Germany at the Battle of Caporetto led the Allies at the Rapallo Conference to form the Supreme Allied Council to coordinate planning. The Battle of Caporetto (or Battle of Karfreit as it was known by the Central Powers; Bitka za Kobarid took place from 24 October The Rapallo Conference was convened by the allied powers of World War I, on the fifth of November 1917 in Rapallo, Italy, following their defeat Previously, British and French armies had operated under separate commands.
In December, the Central Powers signed an armistice with Russia. This released troops for use in the west. Ironically, German troop transfers could have been greater if their territorial acquisitions had not been so dramatic. With German reinforcements and new American troops pouring in, the final outcome was to be decided on the Western front. The Central Powers knew that they could not win a protracted war, but they held high hopes for a quick offensive. Furthermore, the leaders of the Central Powers and the Allies became increasingly fearful of social unrest and revolution in Europe. Thus, both sides urgently sought a decisive victory. [47]
Entry of the United States
Isolationism
The United States originally pursued a policy of isolationism, avoiding conflict while trying to broker a peace. Events 1112 - Ramon Berenguer III of Barcelona and Douce I of Provence marry uniting the fortunes of those two states Year 1917 ( MCMXVII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Isolationism is a Foreign policy which combines a non-interventionist military policy and a political policy of Economic nationalism ( Protectionism This resulted in increased tensions with Berlin and London. When a German U-boat sank the British liner Lusitania in 1915, with 128 Americans aboard, U. Construction and trials Owned by the Cunard Steamship Company built by John Brown and Company Lusitania was named for the ancient Roman province of S. President Woodrow Wilson vowed, "America was too proud to fight" and demanded an end to attacks on passenger ships. Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28 1856—February 3 1924 was the twenty-eighth President of the United States. Germany complied. Wilson unsuccessfully tried to mediate a settlement. He repeatedly warned the U. S. would not tolerate unrestricted submarine warfare, in violation of international law and U. S. ideas of human rights. Wilson was under pressure from former president Theodore Roosevelt, who denounced German acts as "piracy". Theodore Roosevelt (ˈroʊzəvɛlt October 27 1858 January 6 1919 also known as T [48] Wilson's desire to have a seat at negotiations at war's end to advance the League of Nations also played a significant role. The League of Nations was an International organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920 [49] Wilson's Secretary of State, William Jennings Bryan, resigned in protest of the President's decidedly warmongering diplomacy. For other persons of the same name see William Bryan and William Jennings. Other factors contributing to the U. S. entry into the war include the suspected German sabotage of both Black Tom in Jersey City, New Jersey, and the Kingsland Explosion in what is now Lyndhurst, New Jersey. Black Tom currently redirects here For the Marvel Comics character see Black Tom Cassidy. Jersey City is a city in Hudson County, New Jersey, United States. The Kingsland Explosion was an incident that took place during World War I at a munitions factory in New Jersey. Lyndhurst is a township in Bergen County, New Jersey, United States.
Making the case
In January 1917, after the Navy pressured the Kaiser, Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare. Britain's secret Royal Navy cryptanalytic group, Room 40, had broken the German diplomatic code. Cryptanalysis (from the Greek kryptós, "hidden" and analýein, "to loosen" or "to untie" is the study of methods for In the History of cryptography, Room 40 (latterly NID25) was the room in the Admiralty most identified with the British Cryptography effort during They intercepted a proposal from Berlin (the Zimmermann Telegram) to Mexico to join the war as Germany's ally against the United States, should the U. The Zimmermann Telegram (or Zimmermann Note; German: Zimmermann-Depesche; Spanish: Telegrama Zimmermann) was a coded S. join. The proposal suggested, if the U. S. were to enter the war, Mexico should declare war against the United States and enlist Japan as an ally. This would prevent the United States from joining the Allies and deploying troops to Europe, and would give Germany more time for their unrestricted submarine warfare program to strangle Britain's vital war supplies. In return, the Germans would promise Mexico support in reclaiming Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. [50]
US declaration of war on Germany
After the British revealed the telegram to the United States, President Wilson, who had won reelection on his keeping the country out of the war, released the captured telegram as a way of building support for U. Louis D Fancher ( December 25, 1884 – March 2, 1944) was an American Artist and Illustrator, notable for S. entry into the war. He had previously claimed neutrality, while calling for the arming of U. S. merchant ships delivering munitions to combatant Britain and quietly supporting the British blockading of German ports and mining of international waters, preventing the shipment of food from America and elsewhere to combatant Germany. After submarines sank seven U. S. merchant ships and the publication of the Zimmerman telegram, Wilson called for war on Germany, which the U.S. Congress declared on 6 April 1917. The United States Congress is the bicameral Legislature of the federal government of the United States of America, consisting of two houses Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats Caecilius Metellus Scipio and Marcus Porcius Cato in the Battle of Thapsus Year 1917 ( MCMXVII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year [51]
Crucial to U. S. participation was the massive domestic propaganda campaign executed by the Committee on Public Information overseen by George Creel. The Committee on Public Information, also known as the CPI and the Creel Committee, was an independent agency of the Government of the United States George Creel ( December 1, 1876 &ndash October 2, 1953) was an investigative journalist, a Politician, and most famously The campaign included tens of thousands of government-selected community leaders giving brief carefully scripted pro-war speeches at thousands of public gatherings. Along with other branches of government and private vigilante groups like the American Protective League, it also included the general repression and harassment of people either opposed to American entry into the war or of German heritage. The American Protective League was an American World War I -era private organization that worked with federal law enforcement agencies in support of the anti German Empire Other forms of propaganda included newsreels, photos, large-print posters (designed by several well-known illustrators of the day, including Louis D. Fancher), magazine and newspaper articles, etc. A newsreel is a Documentary film that is regularly released in a public presentation place containing filmed News stories Louis D Fancher ( December 25, 1884 – March 2, 1944) was an American Artist and Illustrator, notable for
First active US participation
The United States was never formally a member of the Allies but became a self-styled "Associated Power". The United States had a small army, but it drafted four million men and by summer 1918 was sending 10,000 fresh soldiers to France every day. In 1917, the U. S. Congress imposed U. S. citizenship to Puerto Ricans as part of the Jones Act, when they were drafted to participate in World War I. The Jones-Shafroth Act (1917 applies to the grant of citizenship to all citizens of Puerto Rico Germany had miscalculated, believing it would be many more months before they would arrive and that the arrival could be stopped by U-boats. [53]
The United States Navy sent a battleship group to Scapa Flow to join with the British Grand Fleet, destroyers to Queenstown, Ireland and submarines to help guard convoys. Scapa Flow ( Old Norse: Skalpaflói) is a body of water in the Orkney Islands, Scotland, United Kingdom, sheltered by the islands The Grand Fleet was a Fleet of the British Royal Navy during the First World War. In naval terminology a destroyer is a fast and maneuverable yet long-endurance Warship intended to escort larger vessels in a fleet, Convoy Cobh (pronounced /koːv/ "cove" An Cóbh is a sheltered seaport town on the south coast of County Cork, Ireland. Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world A submarine is a Watercraft that can operate independently below water as distinct from a Submersible that has only limited underwater capability Several regiments of U.S. Marines were also dispatched to France. The British and French wanted U. S. units used to reinforce their troops already on the battle lines and not waste scarce shipping on bringing over supplies. The U. S. rejected the first proposition and accepted the second. General John J. Pershing, American Expeditionary Force (AEF) commander, refused to break up U. John Joseph "Black Jack" Pershing, GCB ( September 13, 1860 – July 15, 1948) was an officer in the United States Army The American Expeditionary Forces or AEF was the United States military force sent to Europe in World War I. S. units to be used as reinforcements for British Empire and French units (though he did allow African-American combat units to be used by the French). African Americans or Black Americans are citizens or residents of the United States who have origins in any of the black populations of Africa AEF doctrine called for the use of frontal assaults, which had long since been discarded by British Empire and French commanders because of the large loss of life. [54]
German Spring Offensive of 1918
German General Erich Ludendorff drew up plans (codenamed Operation Michael) for the 1918 offensive on the Western Front. The 1918 Spring Offensive or Kaiserschlacht ( Kaiser's Battle) and also known as the Ludendorff Offensive was a series of German attacks along the Following the outbreak of World War I in 1914 the German army opened the Western Front by first invading Luxembourg and Belgium, then gaining Erich Friedrich Wilhelm Ludendorff (sometimes given incorrectly as von Ludendorff) (9 April 1865–20 December 1937 was a German Army officer, Generalquartiermeister A code name or cryptonym is a word or name used clandestinely to refer to another name or word The 1918 Spring Offensive or Kaiserschlacht ( Kaiser's Battle) and also known as the Ludendorff Offensive was a series of German attacks along the The Spring Offensive sought to divide the British and French forces with a series of feints and advances. The German leadership hoped to strike a decisive blow before significant U. S. forces arrived. The operation commenced on 21 March 1918 with an attack on British forces near Amiens. Events 630 - Byzantine emperor Heraclius restores the True Cross to Jerusalem. Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Amiens (amjɛ̃ is a city and commune in northern France, 120 km north of Paris. German forces achieved an unprecedented advance of 60 kilometers (40 miles). [55]
British and French trenches were penetrated using novel infiltration tactics, also named Hutier tactics, after General Oskar von Hutier. In Warfare infiltration tactics involve small lightly-equipped Infantry forces attacking enemy rear areas while bypassing enemy front-line strongpoints and isolating Oskar von Hutier ( August 27, 1857 &ndash December 5, 1934) was one of Germany 's most successful and innovative generals of World Previously, attacks had been characterised by long artillery bombardments and massed assaults. However, in the Spring Offensive, the German Army used artillery only briefly and infiltrated small groups of infantry at weak points. They attacked command and logistics areas and bypassed points of serious resistance. More heavily armed infantry then destroyed these isolated positions. German success relied greatly on the element of surprise.
The front moved to within 120 kilometers (75 mi) of Paris. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city Three heavy Krupp railway guns fired 183 shells on the capital, causing many Parisians to flee. The Krupp family, a prominent 400-year-old German dynasty from Essen, have become famous for their Steel production and for their manufacture of A railway gun, also called railroad gun is a large Artillery piece designed to be placed on Rail tracks. The initial offensive was so successful that Kaiser Wilhelm II declared 24 March a national holiday. Events 1401 - Mongol emperor Timur sacks Damascus. 1603 - James VI of Scotland Lists of holidays The words holiday or vacation have related meanings in different English-speaking countries and continents but will usually refer to one of Many Germans thought victory was near. After heavy fighting, however, the offensive was halted. Lacking tanks or motorised artillery, the Germans were unable to consolidate their gains. Self-propelled Artillery (also called mobile artillery or locomotive artillery) vehicles are a way of giving mobility to Artillery. The sudden stop was also a result of the four AIF (Australian Imperial Forces) divisions that were "rushed" down, thus doing what no other army had done and stopping the German advance in its tracks. During that time the first Australian division was hurriedly sent north again to stop the second German breakthrough.
American divisions, which Pershing had sought to field as an independent force, were assigned to the depleted French and British Empire commands on 28 March. The British 55th (West Lancashire Infantry Division was a Territorial Force division which served on the Western Front during the First World War The Battle of the Lys (also known as the Lys Offensive, the Battle of Estaires and the Batalha de La Lys in Portugal) was part Events 879 - Louis III becomes King of the Western Franks. 1407 - the lama Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 37 - Roman Emperor Caligula accepts the titles of the Principate, entitled to him by the Senate. A Supreme War Council of Allied forces was created at the Doullens Conference on 5 November 1917. Events 1499 - Publication of the Catholicon in Treguier ( Brittany) Year 1917 ( MCMXVII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year [56] General Foch was appointed as supreme commander of the allied forces. Ferdinand Foch OM GCB (2 October 1851 – 20 March 1929 was a French soldier military theorist and writer credited with possessing "the most original Haig, Petain and Pershing retained tactical control of their respective armies; Foch assumed a coordinating role, rather than a directing role and the British, French and U. S. commands operated largely independently. [56]
Following Operation Michael, Germany launched Operation Georgette against the northern English channel ports. The Battle of the Lys (also known as the Lys Offensive, the Battle of Estaires and the Batalha de La Lys in Portugal) was part The Allies halted the drive with limited territorial gains for Germany. The German Army to the south then conducted Operations Blücher and Yorck, broadly towards Paris. This article is about the 1918 battle For other battles of the Aisne see Battle of the Aisne. Operation Marne was launched on 15 July, attempting to encircle Reims and beginning the Second Battle of the Marne. Events 1099 - First Crusade: Christian soldiers take the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem after the final Reims (alternative English spelling Rheims; riːmz in English and /ʁɛ̃s/ in French) is a city of the Champagne-Ardenne région of northern The Second Battle of the Marne, or Battle of Reims ( July 15 to August 5, 1918) was the last major German offensive on the Western Front The resulting Allied counterattack marked their first successful offensive of the war.
By 20 July the Germans were back at their Kaiserschlacht starting lines, having achieved nothing. Events 1304 - Wars of Scottish Independence: Fall of Stirling Castle - King Edward I of England takes the last rebel stronghold Following this last phase of the war in the West, the German Army never again regained the initiative. German casualties between March and April 1918 were 270,000, including many highly trained stormtroopers.
Meanwhile, Germany was falling apart at home. Anti-war marches become frequent and morale in the army fell. The term anti-war usually refers to the opposition to a particular nation's decision to start or carry on an armed conflict unconditional of a maybe-existing just cause. Industrial output was 53% of 1913 levels.
New states under war zone
In 1918, the internationally recognized Democratic Republic of Armenia and Democratic Republic of Georgia bordering the Ottoman Empire were established, as well as the unrecognized Centrocaspian Dictatorship and South West Caucasian Republic. The Democratic Republic of Armenia ( DRA; Armenian: Դեմոկրատական Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Demokratakan Hayastani Hanrapetutyun The Democratic Republic of Georgia ( DRG; Georgian: საქართველოს დემოკრატიული რესპუბლიკა Sakartvelos The Centrocaspian Dictatorship (Диктатура Центрокаспия Diktatura Tsentrokaspiya) was a British -backed anti- Soviet government The South-Western Caucasian Government ( December 1, 1918 – April 19 1919) (Güney-batı Kafkas Cumhuriyeti Cənubi-Qərbi Qafqaz Cümhuriyyəti
In 1918, the Dashnaks of the Armenian national liberation movement declared the Democratic Republic of Armenia (DRA) through the Armenian Congress of Eastern Armenians (unified form of Armenian National Councils) after the dissolution of the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic. The Armenian Revolutionary Federation ( ARF or ՀՅԴ) (Հայ Յեղափոխական Դաշնակցութիւն — Hay Heghapokhakan Dashnaktsutiun Armenian national movement, also known as the " Armenian revolutionary movement " and Armenian national liberation movement was the Armenian national The Democratic Republic of Armenia ( DRA; Armenian: Դեմոկրատական Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Demokratakan Hayastani Hanrapetutyun The Armenian Congress of Eastern Armenians was established in October 1917 Armenian National Council is a term that refers to Armenian National Council of Karabagh was also referred as People's Government of Karabagh before the The Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic (TDFR Закавказская демократическая Федеративная Республика (ЗКДФР Zakavkazskaya Tovmas Nazarbekian became the first Commander-in-chief of the DRA. Tovmas Nazarbekian (Nazarbekov, (1855–1931 was an Armenian general in the Russian Army who was the governor of the Administration for Western Armenia Enver Pasha ordered the creation of a new army to be named the Army of Islam. Army of Islam was a Field Army of the Ottoman Empire established between March 1918 - August 1918 the creation of this military force was ordered by the Enver He ordered the Army of Islam into the DRA, with the goal of taking Baku on the Caspian Sea. Baku (Bakı sometimes known as Baqy, Baky, Baki or Bakü, is the capital the largest city and the largest port of Azerbaijan The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed body of water on Earth by area variously classed as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged Sea. This new offensive was strongly opposed by the Germans. The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification In early May 1918, the Ottoman army attacked the newly declared DRA. Although the Armenians managed to inflict one defeat on the Ottomans at the Battle of Sardarapat, the Ottoman army won a later battle and scattered the Armenian army. The Battle of Sardarabad (Սարդարապատի ճակատամարտ Sardarapat Savaşı was a battle of the Caucasus Campaign of World War I that took place The Republic of Armenia was forced to sign the Treaty of Batum in June 1918. Treaty of Batum was a treaty between Democratic Republic of Armenia and Ottoman Empire signed in Batum on June 4, 1918.
Allied victory: Summer and Autumn 1918
The Allied counteroffensive, known as the Hundred Days Offensive, began on 8 August 1918. The Battle of Saint-Mihiel was a World War I battle fought between September 12 - 15 1918 involving the American Expeditionary Force and 48000 French The Hundred Days Offensive was the final period of World War I, where the Allies launched a series of offensives against the Central Powers on the Events 1220 - Sweden is defeated by Estonian tribes in the Battle of Lihula. Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The Battle of Amiens developed with III Corps Fourth British Army on the left, the First French Army on the right, and the Australian and Canadian Corps spearheading the offensive in the centre through Harbonnières. The Battle of Amiens, which began on 8 August 1918 was the opening phase of the Allied offensive later known as the Hundred Days Offensive that ultimately led The Fourth Army was a field Army of the British Expeditionary Force during the First World War. The First Army (Ire Armée was a field Army of France that fought during World War I and World War II. The Australian Corps was a World War I army Corps that contained all five Australian infantry divisions serving on the Western Front The Canadian Corps was a World War I Corps formed from the Canadian Expeditionary Force in September 1915 after the arrival of the 2nd Canadian Harbonnières is a commune in the Somme département in the Picardie region of France. [57][58] It involved 414 tanks of the Mark IV and Mark V type, and 120,000 men. A tank is a tracked, Armoured fighting vehicle designed for Front-line combat which combines Operational mobility and tactical The British Mark I was the world's first combat Tank, entering service in the middle of World War I, born of the need to break the domination of trenches and The British Mark I was the world's first combat Tank, entering service in the middle of World War I, born of the need to break the domination of trenches and They advanced 12 kilometers (7 miles) into German-held territory in just seven hours. Erich Ludendorff referred to this day as the "Black Day of the German army". Erich Friedrich Wilhelm Ludendorff (sometimes given incorrectly as von Ludendorff) (9 April 1865–20 December 1937 was a German Army officer, Generalquartiermeister [57][59]
The Australian-Canadian spearhead at Amiens, a battle that was the beginning of Germany’s downfall,[60] helped pull the British Armies to the north and the French Armies to the south forward starting the momentum that eventually forced the German Armies back along the western front and into the Hindenburg Line. While German resistance on the British Fourth Army front at Amiens stiffened, after an advance as far as 14 miles (23 km) and brought the battle there to an end, the French Third Army lengthened the Amiens front on August 10, when it was thrown in on the right of the French First Army, and advanced 4 miles (6 km) liberating Lassigny in fighting which lasted until the 16th. The Fourth Army was a field Army of the British Expeditionary Force during the First World War. Events 612 BC - Killing of Sinsharishkun, King of Assyrian Empire The First Army (Ire Armée was a field Army of France that fought during World War I and World War II. South of the French Third Army General Mangin (The Butcher) drove his French Tenth Army forward at Soissons on August 20 to capture eight thousand prisoners, two hundred guns and the Aisne heights overlooking and menacing the German position north of the Vesle. Events 636 - Battle of Yarmouk: Arab forces led by Khalid ibn al-Walid take control of Syria and Palestine [61] Another "Black day" as described by Ludendorff. Erich Friedrich Wilhelm Ludendorff (sometimes given incorrectly as von Ludendorff) (9 April 1865–20 December 1937 was a German Army officer, Generalquartiermeister
Meanwhile General Byng of the Third British Army, reporting that the enemy on his front was thinning in a limited withdrawal, was ordered to attack with 200 tanks toward Bapaume, opening what is known as the Battle of Albert with the specific orders of "To break the enemy's front, in order to outflank the enemies present battle front" (opposite the British Fourth Army at Amiens). [60] Allied leaders had now realized that to continue an attack after resistance had hardened was a waste of lives and it was better to turn a line than to try and roll over it. Attacks were being undertaken in quick order to take advantage of the successful advances on the flanks and then broken off when that attack lost its initial impetus. [61]
The British Third Army's 15-mile (24 km) front north of Albert progressed after stalling for a day against the main resistance line to which the enemy had withdrawn. [62] Rawlinson’s Fourth British Army was able to battle its left flank forward between Albert and the Somme straightening the line between the advanced positions of the Third Army and the Amiens front which resulted in recapturing Albert at the same time. The Fourth Army was a field Army of the British Expeditionary Force during the First World War. [63] On August 26 the British First Army on the left of the Third Army was drawn into the battle extending it northward to beyond Arras. Events 1071 - Battle of Manzikert: The Seljuk Turks defeat the Byzantine Army at Manzikert. The Canadian Corps already being back in the vanguard of the First Army fought their way from Arras eastward 5 miles (8 km) astride the heavily defended Arras-Cambrai before reaching the outer defenses of the Hindenburg line, breaching them on the 28th and 29th. Bapaume fell on the 29th to the New Zealand Division of the Third Army and the Australians, still leading the advance of the Fourth Army, were again able to push forward at Amiens to take Peronne and Mont St. Quentin on August 31. Further south the French First and Third Armies had slowly fought forward while the Tenth Army, who had by now crossed the Ailette and was east of the Chemin des Dames, was now near to the Alberich position of the Hindenburg line. The Hindenburg Line (also known as the Siegfried Line) was a vast system of defences in northeastern France during World War I. [64] During the last week of August the pressure along a 70-mile (113 km) front against the enemy was heavy and unrelenting. From German accounts, "Each day was spent in bloody fighting against an ever and again on-storming enemy, and nights passed without sleep in retirements to new lines. "[65] Even to the north in Flanders the British Second and Fifth Armies during August and September were able to make progress taking prisoners and positions that were previously denied them. Flanders (Vlaanderen Flandre Flandern is a geographical region located in parts of present day Belgium, France, and the Netherlands. [64]
On September 2 the Canadian Corps outflanking of the Hindenburg line, with the breaching of the Wotan Position, made it possible for the Third Army to advance and sent repercussions all along the Western Front. Events 44 BC - Pharaoh Cleopatra VII of Egypt declares her son co-ruler as Ptolemy XV Caesarion. The Canadian Corps was a World War I Corps formed from the Canadian Expeditionary Force in September 1915 after the arrival of the 2nd Canadian The Hindenburg Line (also known as the Siegfried Line) was a vast system of defences in northeastern France during World War I. That same day OHL had no choice but to issue orders to six armies for withdrawal back into the Hindenburg line in the south, behind the Canal Du Nord on the Canadian-First Army's front and back to a line east of the Lys in the north, giving up without a fight the salient seized in the previous April. The Oberste Heeresleitung or OHL (Supreme Army Command was Germany 's highest echelon of command of the German Army ( Heer) in The canal du Nord ( North canal) is a canal connecting the Oise River and the Canal Dunkirk-Scheldt. [66] According to Ludendorff “We had to admit the necessity…to withdraw the entire front from the Scarpe to the Vesle. Erich Friedrich Wilhelm Ludendorff (sometimes given incorrectly as von Ludendorff) (9 April 1865–20 December 1937 was a German Army officer, Generalquartiermeister ”[67]
In nearly four weeks of fighting since August 8 over 100,000 German prisoners were taken, 75,000 by the BEF and the rest by the French. Events 1220 - Sweden is defeated by Estonian tribes in the Battle of Lihula. Since "The Black Day of the German Army" the German High Command realized the war was lost and made attempts for a satisfactory end. The day after the battle Ludenforff told Colonel Mertz "We cannot win the war any more, but we must not lose it either. " On August 11 he offered his resignation to the Kaiser, who refused it and replied, "I see that we must strike a balance. Events 2492 BC - Traditional date of the defeat of Bel by Hayk, progenitor and founder of the Armenian nation We have nearly reached the limit of our powers of resistance. The war must be ended. " On August 13 at Spa, Hindenburg, Ludendorff, Chancellor and Foreign minister Hintz agreed that the war could not be ended militarily and on the following day the German Crown Council decided victory in the field was now most improbable. Events 3114 BC - According to the Lounsbury correlation the start of the Maya calendar. Austria and Hungary warned that they could only continue the war until December and Ludendorff recommended immediate peace negotiations, to which the Kaiser responded by instructing Hintz to seek the Queen of Holland's mediation. Prince Rupprecht warned Prince Max of Baden "Our military situation has deteriorated so rapidly that I no longer believe we can hold out over the winter; it is even possible that a catastrophe will come earlier. " On September 10 Hindenburg urged peace moves to Emperor Charles of Austria and Germany appealed to Holland for mediation. Events 506 - The Bishops of Visigothic Gaul meet in the Council of Agde. On the 14th Austria sent a note to all belligerents and neutrals suggesting a meeting for peace talks on neutral soil and on September 15 Germany made a peace offer to Belgium. Events 668 - Eastern Roman Emperor Constans II is assassinated in his bath at Syracuse Italy. Both peace offers were rejected and on September 24 OHL informed the leaders in Berlin that armistice talks were inevitable. Events 622 - Prophet Muhammad completes his hegira from Mecca to Medina. [64]
September saw the Germans continuing to fight strong rear guard actions and launching numerous counter attacks on lost positions, with only a few succeeding and then only temporarily. Contested towns, villages, heights and trenches in the screening positions and outposts of the Hindenburg Line continued to fall to the Allies as well as thousands of prisoners, with the BEF alone taking 30,441 in the last week of September. Further small advances eastward would follow the Third Army victory at Ivincourt on September 12, the Fourth Armies at Epheny on the 18th and the French gain of Essigny Le Grand a day later. Events 1213 - Albigensian Crusade: Simon de Montfort 5th Earl of Leicester, defeats Peter II of Aragon at the On the 24th a final assault by both the British and French on a four mile (6 km) front would come within two miles (3 km) of St. Quentin. [64] With the outposts and preliminary defensive lines of the Siegfried and Alberich Positions eliminated the Germans were now completely back in the Hindenburg line. With the Wotan position of that line already breached and the Siegfried position in danger of being turned from the north the time had now come for an assault on the whole length of the line.
The Allied attack on the Hindenburg Line began on 26 September. The Meuse-Argonn Offensive, also called the Battle of the Argonne Forest, was a part of the final Allied offensive of World War I (and known as the Grand Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar dedicates a 260,000 U. S. soldiers went "over the top". All initial objectives were captured; the U.S. 79th Infantry Division, which met stiff resistance at Montfaucon, took an extra day to capture its objective. The 79th Infantry Division was a unit of the United States Army in World War I and World War II Montfaucon-d'Argonne is a commune in the Meuse département, situated in the Lorraine region of northern France. The U. S. Army stalled due to supply problems because its inexperienced headquarters had to cope with large units and a difficult landscape. [68] At the same time, French units broke through in Champagne and closed on the Belgian frontier. Champagne is a historic province in the northeast of France, best known for the production of the sparkling white wine that bears the region's name The most significant advance came from Commonwealth units, as they entered Belgium. The last Belgian town to be liberated before the armistice was Ghent, which the Germans held as a pivot until Allied artillery was brought up. [69][70] The German army had to shorten its front and use the Dutch frontier as an anchor to fight rear-guard actions.
By October, it was evident that Germany could no longer mount a successful defence. They were increasingly outnumbered, with few new recruits. Rations were cut. Ludendorff decided, on 1 October, that Germany had two ways out — total annihilation or an armistice. Events 331 BC - Alexander the Great defeats Darius III of Persia in the Battle of Gaugamela. He recommended the latter at a summit of senior German officials. Allied pressure did not let up.
Meanwhile, news of Germany's impending military defeat spread throughout the German armed forces. The threat of mutiny was rife. Mutiny is a conspiracy among members of a group of similarly-situated individuals (typically members of the Military; or the Crew of any ship even Admiral Reinhard Scheer and Ludendorff decided to launch a last attempt to restore the "valour" of the German Navy. Reinhard Scheer ( September 30, 1863 &ndash November 26, 1928) was an Admiral in the German Imperial Navy Knowing the government of Max von Baden would veto any such action, Ludendorff decided not to inform him. Prince Maximilian Alexander Friedrich Wilhelm of Baden ( Max von Baden) ( 10 July 1867 6 November 1929) was the cousin and Nonetheless, word of the impending assault reached sailors at Kiel. For the city in the United States, see Kiel Wisconsin. For the name see Kiel (name. Many rebelled and were arrested, refusing to be part of a naval offensive which they believed to be suicidal. Ludendorff took the blame—the Kaiser dismissed him on 26 October. Events 740 - An Earthquake strikes Constantinople, causing much damage and death The collapse of the Balkans meant that Germany was about to lose its main supplies of oil and food. The reserves had been used up, but U. S. troops kept arriving at the rate of 10,000 per day. [71]
Having suffered over 6 million casualties, Germany moved toward peace. Prince Max von Baden took charge of a new government as Chancellor of Germany to negotiate with the Allies. Prince Maximilian Alexander Friedrich Wilhelm of Baden ( Max von Baden) ( 10 July 1867 6 November 1929) was the cousin and The Head of government of Germany is called Chancellor (Kanzler Negotiations with President Wilson began immediately, in the vain hope that better terms would be offered than with the British and French. Instead Wilson demanded the abdication of the Kaiser. There was no resistance when the social democrat Philipp Scheidemann on 9 November declared Germany to be a republic. Social democracy is a Political ideology of the left and centre-left Philipp Scheidemann ( 26 July 1865 &ndash 29 November 1939) was a German Social Democratic politician who proclaimed the Events 694 - Egica, a king of the Visigoths of Hispania, accuses Jews of aiding Muslims sentencing all Imperial Germany was dead; a new Germany had been born: the Weimar Republic. The term Weimar Republic ( ˈvaɪmarɐ repuˈbliːk is used by historians to signify the democratic and Republican period of Germany from 1919 to 1933 [72]
Allied Superiority and the Stab-In-The-Back Theory, November 1918
In November 1918 the Allies had ample supplies of men and materiel; continuation of the war would have meant the invasion of Germany. This had unforeseeable consequences; some Allied decisionmakers felt the war should be "finished," not just stopped, and many voices on both sides voiced the opinion that the war was not really over. But most Allied decisionmakers were eager to see the end of hostilities.
Berlin was almost 900 miles (1,400 km) from the Western Front; no Allied soldier had ever set foot on German soil in anger, and the Kaiser's armies retreated from the battlefield in good order. Thus many Germans, including Adolf Hitler, were convinced their armies had not really been defeated. Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently vandalized and vandalism is reverted immediately
End of war
The collapse of the Central Powers came swiftly. Bulgaria was the first to sign an armistice on September 29, 1918 at Saloniki. Events 522 BC - Darius I of Persia kills the Magian usurper Gaumâta securing his hold as king of the Persian Empire. Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Thessaloniki (Θεσσαλονίκη), Thessalonica, or Salonica is the second-largest city in Greece and the capital of Macedonia [73] On October 30 the Ottoman Empire capitulated at Mudros. Events 637 - Antioch surrenders to the Muslim forces under Rashidun Caliphate after the Battle of Iron bridge. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish Moudros (Μούδρος is a municipality on the island of Lemnos, in the Lesbos Prefecture, Greece. [73]
On October 24 the Italians began a push which rapidly recovered territory lost after the Battle of Caporetto. Events 69 - Second Battle of Bedriacum, forces under Antonius Primus the commander of the Danube armies loyal to Vespasian, defeat The Battle of Caporetto (or Battle of Karfreit as it was known by the Central Powers; Bitka za Kobarid took place from 24 October This culminated in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, which marked the end of the Austro-Hungarian Army as an effective fighting force. The Battle of Vittorio Veneto was fought between 24 October and 3 November 1918 near Vittorio Veneto, during the Italian Campaign of World War I. The offensive also triggered the disintegration of Austro-Hungarian Empire. During the last week of October declarations of independence were made in Budapest, Prague and Zagreb. On October 29, the imperial authorities asked Italy for an armistice. Events 437 - Valentinian III, Western Roman Emperor, marries Licinia Eudoxia, daughter of his cousin Theodosius II But the Italians continued advancing, reaching Trento, Udine and Trieste. On November 3 Austria-Hungary sent a flag of truce to ask for an Armistice. Events 644 - Umar ibn al-Khattab, the second Muslim Caliph, is killed by a Persian slave in Medina. White flags have had different meanings throughout history and depending on the locale An armistice is a situation where the warring parties agree to stop fighting The terms, arranged by telegraph with the Allied Authorities in Paris, were communicated to the Austrian Commander and accepted. The Armistice with Austria was signed in the Villa Giusti, near Padua, on November 3. The Armistice of villa Giusti ended warfare between Italy and Austria-Hungary on the Italian Front during World War I. Padua ( Padova 'padova Latin: Patavium, Padoa) is a city in the Veneto, northern Italy. Events 644 - Umar ibn al-Khattab, the second Muslim Caliph, is killed by a Persian slave in Medina. Austria and Hungary signed separate armistices following the overthrow of the Habsburg monarchy. Habsburg Monarchy (alternatively Habsburg Empire) refers to the territories ruled by the Austrian branch of the House of Habsburg, and then by the successor
Following the outbreak of the German Revolution, a republic was proclaimed on 9 November. Events 694 - Egica, a king of the Visigoths of Hispania, accuses Jews of aiding Muslims sentencing all The Kaiser fled to the Netherlands. Kaiser is the German title meaning " Emperor " with Kaiserin being the female equivalent " Empress " On November 11 an armistice with Germany was signed in a railroad carriage at Compiègne. Events 308 - The Congress of Carnuntum: Attempting to keep peace within the Roman Empire, the leaders of the Tetrarchy declare The armistice treaty between the Allies and Germany was signed in a railway carriage in Compiègne Forest on November 11, 1918 Compiègne is a commune in the Oise département of France, of which it is a Sous-préfecture. At 11 a. m. on November 11, 1918 — the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month — a ceasefire came into effect. Events 308 - The Congress of Carnuntum: Attempting to keep peace within the Roman Empire, the leaders of the Tetrarchy declare Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Opposing armies on the Western Front began to withdraw from their positions. Canadian George Lawrence Price is traditionally regarded as the last soldier killed in the Great War: he was shot by a German sniper and died at 10:58. Private George Lawrence Price (Regimental Number 256265 ( 15 December, 1892 &ndash 11 November, 1918) was a Canadian Soldier [74]
A formal state of war between the two sides persisted for another seven months, until signing of the Treaty of Versailles with Germany on June 28, 1919. The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. Events 1098 - Fighters of the First Crusade defeat Kerbogha of Mosul. Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Later treaties with Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire were signed. However, the latter treaty with the Ottoman Empire was followed by strife (the Turkish Independence War) and a final peace treaty was signed between the Allied Powers and the country that would shortly become the Republic of Turkey, at Lausanne on July 24, 1923. The Turkish War of Independence (Kurtuluş Savaşı May 19, 1919 October 29, 1923) refers to the political and military resistance developed Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches The Treaty of Lausanne ( July 24, 1923) was a Peace treaty signed in Lausanne that settled the Anatolian part of the Partitioning Events 1132 - Battle of Nocera between Ranulf II of Alife and Roger II of Sicily. Year 1923 ( MCMXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
Some war memorials date the end of the War as being when the Versailles treaty was signed in 1919; by contrast, most commemorations of the War's end concentrate on the armistice of November 11, 1918. A war memorial is a building monument statue or other edifice to celebrate a War or victory or (predominating in modern times to commemorate those who died or were injured Events 308 - The Congress of Carnuntum: Attempting to keep peace within the Roman Empire, the leaders of the Tetrarchy declare Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Legally the last formal peace treaties were not signed until the Treaty of Lausanne. Under its terms, the Allied forces abandoned Constantinople on 23 August 1923. Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS Events 79 - Mount Vesuvius begins stirring on the feast day of Vulcan the Roman god of fire Year 1923 ( MCMXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
- Further information: World War I casualties
Soldiers' experiences
The soldiers of the war were initially volunteers, except for Italy, but increasingly were conscripted into service. The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire is a British Order of chivalry established on 4 June 1917 by King George V. The Military Medal was (until 1993 a Military decoration awarded to personnel of the British Army and other services, and formerly also to personnel of Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Conscription (also known as the draft, the call-up or national service) is a general term for involuntary labor demanded by some established authority Books such as All Quiet on the Western Front detail the mundane time, but also the intense horror, of soldiers that fought the war. All Quiet on the Western Front (Im Westen nichts Neues is an Anti-war Novel written by Erich Maria Remarque, a German veteran Britain's Imperial War Museum has collected more than 2,500 recordings of soldiers' personal accounts and selected transcripts, edited by military author Max Arthur, have been published. The Imperial War Museum is a Museum in London, England featuring military vehicles weapons war memorabilia an extensive library open to the public Author Max Arthur specialises in first-hand recollections of historical events The museum believes that historians have not taken full account of this material and accordingly has made the full archive of recordings available to authors and researchers. [75]
Prisoners of war
About 8 million men surrendered and were held in POW camps during the war. The Siege of Kut was a major battle of World War I. It was part of the Mesopotamian Campaign (in what is now Iraq) A prisoner-of-war camp is a site for the containment of enemy combatants captured by the enemy in time of war and is similar to an Internment camp which is used for civilian All nations pledged to follow the Hague Convention on fair treatment of prisoners of war. In general, a POW's rate of survival was much higher than their peers at the front. [76] Individual surrenders were uncommon. Large units usually surrendered en masse. At the Battle of Tannenberg 92,000 Russians surrendered. The Battle of Tannenberg was a decisive engagement between the Russian Empire and the German Empire in the first days of World War I, fought by the When the besieged garrison of Kaunas surrendered in 1915, 20,000 Russians became prisoners. Kaunas ( ˈkoʊnəs is the second largest City in Lithuania and a former temporary capital. Over half of Russian losses were prisoners (as a proportion of those captured, wounded or killed); for Austria 32%, for Italy 26%, for France 12%, for Germany 9%; for Britain 7%. Prisoners from the Allied armies totalled about 1. 4 million (not including Russia, which lost between 2. 5 and 3. 5 million men as prisoners. ) From the Central Powers about 3. 3 million men became prisoners. [77]
Germany held 2. 5 million prisoners; Russia held 2. 9 million and Britain and France held about 720,000. Most were captured just prior to the Armistice. The U. S. held 48,000. The most dangerous moment was the act of surrender, when helpless soldiers were sometimes gunned down. [78][79] Once prisoners reached a camp, in general, conditions were satisfactory (and much better than in World War II), thanks in part to the efforts of the International Red Cross and inspections by neutral nations. The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement is an International humanitarian movement with approximately 97 million volunteers worldwide who stated Conditions were terrible in Russia, starvation was common for prisoners and civilians alike; about 15–20% of the prisoners in Russia died. Starvation (also called inanition) is a severe reduction in Vitamin, Nutrient, and Energy intake and is the most extreme form of In Germany food was in short supply, but only 5% died. [80][81][82]
The Ottoman Empire often treated POWs poorly. [83] Some 11,800 British Empire soldiers, most of them Indians, became prisoners after the Siege of Kut, in Mesopotamia, in April 1916; 4,250 died in captivity. The Siege of Kut was a major battle of World War I. It was part of the Mesopotamian Campaign (in what is now Iraq) Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding [84] Although many were in very bad condition when captured, Ottoman officers forced them to march 1,100 kilometres (684 mi) to Anatolia. Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black A survivor said: "we were driven along like beasts, to drop out was to die. "[85] The survivors were then forced to build a railway through the Taurus Mountains. For the Taurus Mountains on the moon see Montes Taurus. For Mount Taurus outside Cold Spring New York, see Bull Hill.
In Russia, where the prisoners from the Czech Legion of the Austro-Hungarian army were released in 1917 they re-armed themselves and briefly became a military and diplomatic force during the Russian Civil War. Czechoslovak Legions ( Československé legie in Czech and Slovak were Czech and Slovak volunteer armed forces fighting together with the Entente powers
War crimes
Genocide
- See also: Armenian Genocide, Assyrian Genocide, and Pontic Greek Genocide
The ethnic cleansing of the Ottoman Empire's Christian population, with the most prominent among them being the massacres of Armenians (similar policies were enacted against the Assyrians and Greeks), during the final years of the Ottoman Empire is widely considered genocide. Ottoman casualties of World War I covers the casualties of the Ottoman Empire during that war The Assyrian Genocide (also known as Sayfo or Seyfo; Aramaic: ܩܛܠܐ ܕܥܡܐ ܐܬܘܪܝܐ or ܣܝܦܐ During World War I and its aftermath (1914-1923 the Ethnic cleansing is a Euphemism referring to the persecution through imprisonment expulsion or killing of members of an ethnic minority by a majority to achieve ethnic homogeneity A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth The Armenians (Հայեր Hayer) are a Nation and Ethnic group originating in the Caucasus and in the Armenian Highlands A large The Assyrians are an Ethnic group whose origins lie in what is today Iraq, Iran, Turkey and Syria. The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions Genocide is the deliberate and systematic destruction in whole or in part of an ethnic racial religious or national group [86] The Turks saw the entire Armenian population as an enemy[87] that had chosen to side with Russia during the beginning of the war. A fifth column is a group of people who clandestinely undermine a larger group to which it is expected to be loyal such as a Nation. [88] The exact number of deaths is unknown although a range of 1. 2 to 1. 5 million is often given for the deaths of Armenians. [89] Successive Turkish governments have consistently rejected charges of genocide and of others, often arguing that those who died were simply caught up in the fighting or that killings of Armenians and other Christians were justified by their individual or collective treason. Denial of the Armenian Genocide is the assertion that the Armenian Genocide did not occur in the manner or to the extent described by scholarship In Law, treason is the Crime that covers some of the more serious acts of disloyalty to one's sovereign or Nation. [90] These claims have often been labeled as historical revisionism by western scholars. For the denial and distortion of well-established historical facts see Historical revisionism (negationism.
Rape of Belgium
In Belgium, German troops, in fear of French and Belgian guerrilla fighters, or francs-tireurs, massacred townspeople in Andenne (211 dead), Tamines (384 dead), and Dinant (612 dead). The Rape of Belgium (4 August through September 1914 was a series of German war crimes in the opening months of World War I. The phrase francs-tireurs was used to describe Irregular military formations deployed by France during the early stages of the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871 Andenne is a Belgian Municipality located in the Walloon province of Namur. Sambreville is a Walloon Municipality located in the Belgian province of Namur. ||-||-||} Dinant is a Walloon City and municipality located on the River Meuse in the Belgian province of Namur The victims included women and children. On 25 August 1914, the Germans set fire to the town of Leuven, burned the library containing about 230,000 books, killed 209 civilians and forced 42,000 to evacuate. Events 1248 - The Dutch city of Ommen receives city rights and fortification rights from Otto III the Year 1914 ( MCMXIV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Leuven ( French: Louvain, often used in English German: Löwen) is the capital of the province of Flemish Brabant in the These actions brought worldwide condemnation. [91]
Economics and manpower issues
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) increased for three Allies (Britain, Italy, and U. S. ), but decreased in France and Russia, in neutral Netherlands, and in the main three Central Powers. The shrinkage in GDP in Austria, Russia, France, and the Ottoman Empire reached 30 to 40%. In Austria, for example, most of the pigs were slaughtered and, at war's end, there was no meat.
All nations had increases in the government's share of GDP, surpassing fifty percent in both Germany and France and nearly reaching fifty percent in Britain. To pay for purchases in the United States, Britain cashed in its massive investments in American railroads and then began borrowing heavily on Wall Street. Wall Street is a street in lower Manhattan, New York City, United States. President Wilson was on the verge of cutting off the loans in late 1916, but allowed a massive increase in U.S. government lending to the Allies. The federal government of the United States is the central United States Governmental body established by the United States Constitution. After 1919, the U. S. demanded repayment of these loans, which, in part, were funded by German reparations, which, in turn, were supported by American loans to Germany. This circular system collapsed in 1931 and the loans were never repaid.
One of the most dramatic effects was the expansion of governmental powers and responsibilities in Britain, France, the United States, and the Dominions of the British Empire. In order to harness all the power of their societies, new government ministries and powers were created. New taxes were levied and laws enacted, all designed to bolster the war effort; many of which have lasted to this day. In Politics and Military planning, a war effort refers to a coordinated Mobilization of society's resources&mdashboth industrial and
At the same time, the war strained the abilities of the formerly large and bureaucratised governments such as in Austria-Hungary and Germany. Here, however, the long-term effects were clouded by the defeat of these governments.
Families were altered by the departure of many men. With the death or absence of the primary wage earner, women were forced into the workforce in unprecedented numbers. At the same time, industry needed to replace the lost laborers sent to war. This aided the struggle for voting rights for women. Suffragette is a term originally coined by the Daily Mail newspaper as a derogatory label for the more radical and Militant members of the
As the war slowly turned into a war of attrition, conscription was implemented in some countries. This article is about the military strategy For the Israeli-Egyptian conflict see War of Attrition, for the game theoretical model see War of attrition (game Conscription (also known as the draft, the call-up or national service) is a general term for involuntary labor demanded by some established authority This issue was particularly explosive in Canada and Australia. In the former it opened a political gap between French-Canadians — who claimed their true loyalty was to Canada and not the British Empire — and the Anglophone majority who saw the war as a duty to both Britain and Canada. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Prime Minister Robert Borden pushed through a Military Service Act, provoking the Conscription Crisis of 1917. Not to be confused with his cousin Frederick Borden, Canadian Minister of Militia and Defence from 1896 to 1911 See also Conscription Crisis of 1917 For the 1916 British Act of the same name see Military Service Act (United Kingdom. The Conscription Crisis of 1917 was a political and military crisis in Canada during World War I. In Australia, a sustained pro-conscription campaign by Prime Minister Billy Hughes, caused a split in the Australian Labor Party and Hughes formed the Nationalist Party of Australia in 1917 to pursue the matter. William Morris 'Billy' Hughes, CH, KC (25 September 1862 &ndash 28 October 1952 Australian politician was the seventh Prime Minister of Australia Stanleybrucejpg|right|150px|thumb| Stanley Bruce, Nationalist Prime Minister of Australia 1923-1929]] The Nationalist Party of Australia was an Australian political Nevertheless, the labour movement, the Catholic Church, and Irish nationalist expatriates successfully opposed Hughes' push, which was rejected in two plebiscites. The labour movement or labor movement is a broad term for the development of a collective organization of working people, to campaign in their own interest for better Irish republicanism (Poblachtánachas is an ideology based on the Irish nationalist belief that all of Ireland should be a single independent Republic The 1917 Australian plebiscite was held on 20 December 1917. It contained one question
In Britain, rationing was finally imposed in early 1918, limited to meat, sugar, and fats (butter and oleo), but not bread. Margarine (ˈmɑrdʒərɨn /ˈmɑrdʒəriːn/ or /ˈmɑrgəriːn/ as a generic term can indicate any of a wide range of Butter substitutes The new system worked smoothly. From 1914 to 1918 trade union membership doubled, from a little over four million to a little over eight million. Work stoppages and strikes became frequent in 1917–18 as the unions expressed grievances regarding prices, alcohol control, pay disputes, fatigue from overtime and working on Sundays and inadequate housing. Conscription put into uniform nearly every physically fit man, six of ten million eligible. Of these, about 750,000 lost their lives and 1,700,000 were wounded. Most deaths were to young unmarried men; however, 160,000 wives lost husbands and 300,000 children lost fathers. [92]
Britain turned to her colonies for help in obtaining essential war materials whose supply had become difficult from traditional sources. Geologists, such as Albert Ernest Kitson, were called upon to find new resources of precious minerals in the African colonies. Sir Albert Ernest Kitson KBE, (21 March 1868 – 8 March 1937 was a British/Australian Geologist and naturalist, winner of the Lyell Medal in Kitson discovered important new deposits of manganese, used in munitions production, in the Gold Coast. Manganese (ˈmæŋgəniːz is a Chemical element, designated by the symbol Mn. [93]
Technology
- See also: Technology during World War I
The First World War began as a clash of 20th century technology and 19th century tactics, with inevitably large casualties. Technology during World War I reflected a trend toward Industrialism and the application of Mass production methods to weapons and to the technology WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt Military tactics ( Greek: Taktikē, the art of organizing an army are the techniques for using weapons or military units in combination for engaging and defeating By the end of 1917, however, the major armies, now numbering millions of men, had modernised and were making use of telephone, wireless communication, armoured cars, tanks, and aircraft. Basic principle A traditional landline telephone system also known as "plain old telephone service" (POTS, commonly handles both signaling and audio information Wireless communication is the transfer of information over a distance without the use of electrical conductors or " Wires quot A military armored (or armoured) car (see spelling differences) is a wheeled armored vehicle lighter than other armored fighting vehicles primarily A tank is a tracked, Armoured fighting vehicle designed for Front-line combat which combines Operational mobility and tactical Infantry formations were reorganised, so that 100-man companies were no longer the main unit of maneuver. Instead, squads of 10 or so men, under the command of a junior NCO, were favoured. Artillery also underwent a revolution.
In 1914, cannons were positioned in the front line and fired directly at their targets. By 1917, indirect fire with guns (as well as mortars and even machine guns) was commonplace, using new techniques for spotting and ranging, notably aircraft and (often overlooked) field telephone. In the context of warfare direct fire means aiming through a Sight directly at the target Counter-battery missions became commonplace, also, and sound detection was used to locate enemy batteries. Counter-battery fire is a type of mission assigned to military Artillery forces which are tasked with locating and firing upon enemy artillery
Germany was far ahead of the Allies in utilizing heavy indirect fire. She employed 150 and 210 mm howitzers in 1914 when the typical French and British guns were only 75 and 105 mm. A howitzer is a type of Artillery piece that is characterized by a relatively short barrel and the use of comparatively small explosive charges to propel projectiles The British had a 6 inch (152 mm) howitzer, but it was so heavy it had to be assembled for firing. Inches redirects here To see the Les Savy Fav album see Inches. Germans also fielded Austrian 305 mm and 420 mm guns, and already by the beginning of the war had inventories of various calibers of Minenwerfer ideally suited for trench warfare. Minenwerfer ("mine launcher" is the German name for a class of short range mortars used extensively during the First World War by the German [94]
Much of the combat involved trench warfare, where hundreds often died for each yard gained. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout Trench warfare is a form of warfare where both combatants have fortified positions and fighting lines are static Many of the deadliest battles in history occurred during the First World War. Such battles include Ypres, the Marne, Cambrai, the Somme, Verdun, and Gallipoli. "Passchendaele" redirects here For the 2008 film by that name see Passchendaele (film The 1917 Battle of Passchendaele, also known as The First Battle of the Marne (also known as the Miracle of the Marne) was a World War I battle fought from 5 September to 12 September 1914 The Battle of Cambrai ( 20 November - 3 December 1917) was a British campaign of World War I. The Battle of the Somme, also known as the Somme Offensive, fought from July to November 1916 was among the largest battles of the First World War The Battle of Verdun was one of the most critical battles in World War I on the Western Front, fought between the German and French The Haber process of nitrogen fixation was employed to provide the German forces with a constant supply of gunpowder, in the face of British naval blockade. The Haber process, also called the Haber–Bosch process, is the Nitrogen fixation reaction of Nitrogen and Hydrogen, over an iron substrate Nitrogen fixation is the process by which Nitrogen is taken from its natural relatively inert molecular form (N2 in the atmosphere and converted into Artillery was responsible for the largest number of casualties and consumed vast quantities of explosives. The large number of head-wounds caused by exploding shells and fragmentation forced the combatant nations to develop the modern steel helmet, led by the French, who introduced the Adrian helmet in 1915. Fragmentation is the process by which the casing of an Artillery shell, Bomb, Grenade, etc is shattered by the detonating A helmet is a form of Protective gear worn on the head to protect it from injuries a variation of the hat The M15 Adrian helmet (Casque Adrian was a Combat helmet issued to the French Army during World War I. It was quickly followed by the Brodie helmet, worn by British Imperial and U. The Brodie helmet, called Helmet steel Mark I helmet in Britain and the M1917 Helmet in the U S. troops, and in 1916 by the distinctive German Stahlhelm, a design, with improvements, still in use today. Stahlhelm (plural Stahlhelme) is German for "steel helmet"
There was chemical warfare and small-scale strategic bombing, both of which were outlawed by the 1907 Hague Conventions, and both proving of limited effectiveness,[95] though they captured the public imagination. Chemical warfare involves using the toxic properties of Chemical substances to kill injure or incapacitate an enemy. The aerial bombing of cities began in 1911 developed through World War I, grew to a vast scale in World War II, and continues to the present day [96]
The widespread use of chemical warfare was a distinguishing feature of the conflict. Gases used included chlorine, mustard gas and phosgene. Chlorine (ˈklɔriːn from the Greek word 'χλωρóς' ( khlôros, meaning 'pale green' is the Chemical element with Atomic number 17 and The sulfur mustards, of which mustard gas ( Bis (2-chloroethyl sulfide is a member are a class of related Cytotoxic, Vesicant Chemical Phosgene is the Chemical compound with the formula COCl2 This colorless gas gained infamy as a Chemical weapon during World War I Only a small proportion of total war casualties were caused by gas. Effective countermeasures to gas attacks were quickly created, such as gas masks. A gas mask is a Mask worn over the face to protect the wearer from inhaling airborne Pollutants and Toxic materials
The most powerful land-based weapons were railway guns weighing hundreds of tons apiece. A railway gun, also called railroad gun is a large Artillery piece designed to be placed on Rail tracks. These were nicknamed Big Berthas, even though the namesake was not a railway gun. Germany developed the Paris Gun, able to bombard Paris from over 100 km (60 mi), though shells were relatively light at 94 kilograms (210 lb). The Paris Gun (Paris-Geschütz was the name of an Artillery piece with which the Germans bombarded Paris during World War I. While the Allies had railway guns, German models severely out-ranged and out-classed them.
Fixed-wing aircraft were first used militarily by the Italians in Libya 23 October 1911 during the Italo-Turkish War for reconnaissance, soon followed by the dropping of grenades and aerial photography the next year. Overview Fixed-wing aircraft range from small training and recreational aircraft to Wide-body aircraft and military cargo aircraft. Events 4004 BC - Creation of the world begins according to the calculations of Archbishop James Ussher 42 BC - Year 1911 ( MCMXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year The Italo-Turkish or Turco-Italian War (also known in Italy as guerra di Libia, "the Libyan war" and in Turkey as Trablusgarp Savaşı) was fought Aerial photography is the taking of Photographs of the ground from an elevated position By 1914 the military utility was obvious. They were initially used for reconnaissance and ground attack. Reconnaissance (also scouting) is a military and medical term denoting exploration conducted to gain information In Military tactics, close air support ( CAS) is defined as air action by fixed or rotary winged aircraft against hostile targets that are in close proximity to To shoot down enemy planes, anti-aircraft guns and fighter aircraft were developed. A fighter aircraft is a Military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat with other Aircraft, as opposed to a Bomber, which is designed Strategic bombers were created, principally by the Germans and British, though the former used Zeppelins as well. A strategic bomber is a heavy type Aircraft designed to drop large amounts of ordnance onto a distant target for the purposes of debilitating an enemy's A Zeppelin is a type of Rigid airship pioneered by the German Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin in the early 20th century based on designs he had outlined
Towards the end of the conflict, aircraft carriers were used for the first time, with HMS Furious launching Sopwith Camels in a raid against the Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in 1918. An aircraft carrier is a Warship designed with Genesis She was designed as one of Jackie Fisher 's "large light cruisers" to participate in an amphibious landing on the Baltic coast of Germany WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout Tønder ( German: Tondern, North Frisian: Tuner) is a municipality ( Danish, kommune) in Region Syddanmark
German U-boats (submarines) were deployed after the war began. U-boat is the anglicized version of the German word, itself an abbreviation of Unterseeboot ( undersea boat) and refers A submarine is a Watercraft that can operate independently below water as distinct from a Submersible that has only limited underwater capability Alternating between restricted and unrestricted submarine warfare in the Atlantic, they were employed by the Kaiserliche Marine in a strategy to deprive the British Isles of vital supplies. The Kaiserliche Marine or Imperial Navy was the German Navy created by the formation of the German Empire. The British Isles (Irish variously Na hOileáin Bhriotanacha, Oileáin Iarthair Eorpa, Éire agus an Bhreatain Mhór; Ellanyn Goaldagh Eileanan The deaths of British merchant sailors and the seeming invulnerability of U-boats led to the development of depth charges (1916), hydrophones (passive sonar, 1917), blimps, hunter-killer submarines (HMS R-1, 1917), ahead-throwing weapons, and dipping hydrophones (the latter two both abandoned in 1918). Depth Charge is a character in the Beast Wars: Transformers universe A hydrophone (Greek "hydro" = "water" and "phone" = "sound" is a Microphone designed to be used underwater for recording or listening Sonar (which started as an Acronym for sound navigation and ranging) is a technique that uses Sound propagation (usually underwater to navigate Hunter-Killer is a Military term traditionally used to describe an entity in which the roles of "sensor" and "shooter" are separated Description Ordered in December 1917 the R class were designed to be faster underwater than on the surface achieving a submerged speed of versus a surfaced speed of. To extend their operations, the Germans proposed supply submarines (1916). Most of these would be forgotten in the interwar period until World War II revived the need.
Trenches, machineguns, air reconnaissance, barbed wire, and modern artillery with fragmentation shells helped bring the battle lines of World War I to a stalemate. The British sought a solution with the creation of the tank and mechanised warfare. Armoured warfare or tank warfare is the use of Armoured fighting vehicles in Modern warfare. The first tanks were used during the Battle of the Somme on 15 September 1916. The British Mark I was the world's first combat Tank, entering service in the middle of World War I, born of the need to break the domination of trenches and The Battle of the Somme, also known as the Somme Offensive, fought from July to November 1916 was among the largest battles of the First World War Events 668 - Eastern Roman Emperor Constans II is assassinated in his bath at Syracuse Italy. Year 1916 ( MCMXVI) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year Mechanical reliability became an issue, but the experiment proved its worth. Within a year, the British were fielding tanks by the hundreds and showed their potential during the Battle of Cambrai in November 1917, by breaking the Hindenburg Line, while combined arms teams captured 8000 enemy soldiers and 100 guns. The Battle of Cambrai ( 20 November - 3 December 1917) was a British campaign of World War I. Combined arms is an approach to Warfare which seeks to integrate different arms of a Military to achieve mutually complementary effects Light automatic weapons also were introduced, such as the Lewis Gun and Browning automatic rifle. An automatic firearm is a Firearm that automatically extracts and ejects the fired cartridge case and loads a new case usually through the energy of the fired The Lewis Gun is a pre- World War I era Squad automatic weapon / Machine gun of American design that was most widely used by the forces of the British The BAR (short for Browning Automatic Rifle is a family of American 7
Manned observation balloons, floating high above the trenches, were used as stationary reconnaissance platforms, reporting enemy movements and directing artillery. World War I Observation Balloon HD-SN-99-02269JPEG|200px|thumb|right|Close-up view of an American major in the basket of an observation balloon flying over territory near front lines during World Balloons commonly had a crew of two, equipped with parachutes. A parachute is a device used to slow the motion of an object through an atmosphere by creating drag. [97] In the event of an enemy air attack, the crew could parachute to safety. At the time, parachutes were too heavy to be used by pilots of aircraft (with their marginal power output) and smaller versions would not be developed until the end of the war; they were also opposed by British leadership, who feared they might promote cowardice. [98] Recognised for their value as observation platforms, balloons were important targets of enemy aircraft. To defend against air attack, they were heavily protected by antiaircraft guns and patrolled by friendly aircraft; to attack them, unusual weapons such as air-to-air rockets were even tried. Blimps and balloons contributed to air-to-air combat among aircraft, because of their reconnaissance value, and to the trench stalemate, because it was impossible to move large numbers of troops undetected. The Germans conducted air raids on England during 1915 and 1916 with airships, hoping to damage British morale and cause aircraft to be diverted from the front lines. The resulting panic took several squadrons of fighters from France. [98]
Another new weapon, flamethrowers, were first used by the German army and later adopted by other forces. A flamethrower is a mechanical device designed to project a long controllable stream of Fire. Although not of high tactical value, they were a powerful, demoralizing weapon and caused terror on the battlefield. It was a dangerous weapon to wield, as its heavy weight made operators vulnerable targets.
Trench railways evolved to supply the enormous quantities of food, water, and ammunition required to support large numbers of soldiers in areas where conventional transportation systems had been destroyed. Trench Railways represented Military adaptation of early 20th century Railway technology to the problem of keeping Soldiers supplied during the static A trench railway system was included in construction of the Maginot Line, but internal combustion engines and improved traction systems for wheeled vehicles rendered trench railways obsolete within a decade. The Maginot Line (IPA, Ligne Maginot named after French Minister of Defense André Maginot, was a line of concrete Fortifications tank obstacles artillery
Opposition to the war
The trade union and socialist movements had long voiced their opposition to a war, which they argued, meant only that workers would kill other workers in the interest of capitalism. World War I was mainly opposed by Left-wing groups but there was also opposition by Christian Pacifist groups A trade union or labour union is an organization of workers who have banded together to achieve common goals in key areas such as wages hours and working conditions forming Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution Capitalism is the Economic system in which the Means of production are owned by private Persons and operated for Profit and where Once war was declared, however, many socialists and trade unions backed their governments. Among the exceptions were the Bolsheviks, the Socialist Party of America, and the Italian Socialist Party, and individuals such as Karl Liebknecht, Rosa Luxemburg and their followers in Germany. The Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists ( Большевик Большевист (singular, derived from bolshe, "more" were a faction The Socialist Party of America (SPA was a socialist Political party in the United States. The Italian Socialist Party ( Partito Socialista Italiano, PSI was a democratic socialist / social democratic political party founded in Genoa ( August 13, 1871 - January 15, 1919) was a German Socialist and a co-founder of the Spartacist League and the Communist Rosa Luxemburg (Róża Luksemburg 5 March 1870 or 1871 15 January 1919 was a Polish-born Jewish German Marxist theorist, socialist There were also small anti-war groups in Britain and France. Other opposition came from conscientious objectors - some socialist, some religious - who refused to fight. A conscientious objector (CO is an individual who on religious moral or ethical grounds refuses to participate as a combatant in war or in some cases to take any role that would support In Britain 16,000 people asked for conscientious objector status. [99] Many suffered years of prison, including solitary confinement and bread and water diets. Solitary confinement, colloquially referred to in American English as "the hole" or "the pound" (or in British English "the block" is a Punishment Even after the war, in Britain many job advertisements were marked "No conscientious objectors need apply". Many countries jailed those who spoke out against the conflict. These included Eugene Debs in the United States and Bertrand Russell in Britain. Eugene Victor Debs (November 5 1855 &ndash October 20 1926 was an American union leader one of the founding members of the International Labor Union and the Industrial Bertrand Arthur William Russell 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970 was a British Philosopher, Historian In the U. S. the 1917 Espionage Act effectively made free speech illegal and many served long prison sentences for statements of fact deemed unpatriotic. The Espionage Act of 1917 was a United States federal law passed shortly after entering World War I on June 15 1917 which made it a Crime for a person The Sedition Act of 1918 made any statements deemed "disloyal" a federal crime. The Sedition Act of 1918 was an amendment to the Espionage Act of 1917 passed at the urging of President Woodrow Wilson, who was concerned that dissent Publications at all critical of the government were removed from circulation by postal censors. [49]
Aftermath
No other war had changed the map of Europe so dramatically — four empires disappeared: the German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman and the Russian. The fighting in World War I ended when an Armistice took effect at 1100 am GMT on November 11 1918 The Dominion of Newfoundland was a British dominion from 1907 (before which the territory had the status of a British colony to 1949 Beaumont-Hamel is a commune in the Somme département in the Picardie region of France. Four defunct dynasties, the Hohenzollerns, the Habsburg, Romanovs and the Ottomans together with all their ancillary aristocracies, all fell after the war. The House of Romanov (Рома́нов rʌˈmanəf was the second and last imperial Dynasty of Russia, which ruled the country from 1613 to 1917 The Ottoman Dynasty (or the Imperial House of Osman) ( Turkish: Osmanlı Hanedanı) ruled the Ottoman Empire from 1299 to 1922 beginning with Belgium was badly damaged, as was France with 1. 4 million soldiers dead, not counting other casualties. Germany and Russia were similarly affected. The war had profound economic consequences. In addition, a major influenza epidemic that started in Western Europe in the latter months of the war, killed millions in Europe and then spread around the world. The 1918 flu pandemic (commonly referred to as the Spanish flu) was an Influenza Pandemic that spread to nearly every part of the world Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' Overall, the Spanish flu killed at least 50 million people. The 1918 flu pandemic (commonly referred to as the Spanish flu) was an Influenza Pandemic that spread to nearly every part of the world [100][101]
Later conflicts
The end of World War I set the stage for other world conflicts, some of which are continuing into the 21st century. The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, pushed for socialist revolution. The Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists ( Большевик Большевист (singular, derived from bolshe, "more" were a faction Out of German discontent with the still controversial Treaty of Versailles, Adolf Hitler was able to gain popularity and power. The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently vandalized and vandalism is reverted immediately [102][103] World War II was in part a continuation of the power struggle that was never fully resolved by the First World War; in fact, it was common for Germans in the 1930s and 1940s to justify acts of international aggression because of perceived injustices imposed by the victors of the First World War. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including [104]
The birth of Israel and the roots of the continuing Israeli-Palestinian Conflict are partially found in the unstable power dynamics of the Middle East which were born at the end of World War I. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. [105] Previous to the end of fighting in the war, the Ottoman Empire had maintained a modest level of peace and stability throughout the Middle East. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish [106] With the end of the war and the fall of Ottoman government, power vacuums developed and conflicting claims to land and nationhood began to emerge. [107] Sometimes after only cursory consultation with the local population, the political boundaries drawn by the victors of the First World War were quickly imposed, and in many cases are still problematic in the 21st century struggles for national identity. A nation is a Human Cultural and Social Community. In as much as most members never meet each other yet feel a common bond it may be considered [108][109] While the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I was a pivotal milestone in the creation of the modern political situation of the Middle East, including especially the Arab-Israeli conflict,[110][111][112] the end of Ottoman rule also spawned lesser known disputes over water and other natural resources. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish [113]
Peace treaties
After the war, the Allies imposed a series of peace treaties on the Central Powers. The 1919 Treaty of Versailles, which Germany was kept under blockade until she signed, ended the war. The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. It declared Germany responsible for the war and required Germany to pay enormous war reparations and award territory to the victors. War reparations refer to the monetary compensation intended to cover damage or injury during a war Unable to pay them with exports (a result of territorial losses and postwar recession),[114] she did so by borrowing from the United States, until the reparations were suspended in 1931. The "Guilt Thesis" became a controversial explanation of events in Britain and the United States. The Treaty of Versailles caused enormous bitterness in Germany, which nationalist movements, especially the Nazis, exploited with a conspiracy theory they called the Dolchstosslegende. Nazism, which was a short name for National Socialism (Nationalsozialismus refers primarily to the Ideology and practices of the National Socialist German A conspiracy theory attributes the ultimate cause of an event or chain of events (usually Political, Social or Historical events or the concealment The stab-in-the-back legend ( German:, literally "Dagger stab legend" refers to a social Myth theory popular in Germany in the period after The treaty contributed to economic collapse of the Weimar Republic by sparking runaway inflation in the 1920s. The term Weimar Republic ( ˈvaɪmarɐ repuˈbliːk is used by historians to signify the democratic and Republican period of Germany from 1919 to 1933
The Ottoman Empire was to be partitioned by the Treaty of Sèvres in 1920. The Treaty of Sèvres ( 10 August 1920) was the Peace treaty between the Ottoman Empire and Allies at the end of World War The treaty, however, was never ratified by the Sultan and was rejected by the Turkish republican movement. The Turkish National Movement encompasses the political and military activities of the Turkish revolutionaries which resulted with the creation and shaping of the Republic This led to the Turkish Independence War and, ultimately, to the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne. The Turkish War of Independence (Kurtuluş Savaşı May 19, 1919 October 29, 1923) refers to the political and military resistance developed The Treaty of Lausanne ( July 24, 1923) was a Peace treaty signed in Lausanne that settled the Anatolian part of the Partitioning
Austria-Hungary was also partitioned, largely along ethnic lines. The details were contained in the Treaty of Saint-Germain and the Treaty of Trianon. The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, was signed on 10 September 1919 by the victorious Allies of World War I on the one hand and by the new The Treaty of Trianon is the peace treaty concluded at the end of World War I by the Allies of World War I, on one side and Hungary, seen as a successor
New national identities
Poland reemerged as an independent country, after more than a century. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia were entirely new nations. See also Kingdom of Yugoslavia, Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Yugoslavia ( Serbo-Croatian Czechoslovakia may also refer to what is now the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Russia became the Soviet Union and lost Finland, Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia, which became independent countries. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Finland, officially the Republic of Finland ( is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia ( Eesti or Eesti Vabariik) is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the Latvia ( Latvija officially the Republic of Latvia (Latvijas Republika is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. The Ottoman Empire was soon replaced by Turkey and several other countries in the Middle East. Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches
In the British Empire, the war unleashed new forms of nationalism. In Australia and New Zealand the Battle of Gallipoli became known as those nations' "Baptism of Fire". For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island It was the first major war in which the newly established countries fought and it was one of the first times that Australian troops fought as Australians, not just subjects of the British Crown. TalkCommonewalth realm.--> The monarchy Anzac Day, commemorating the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, celebrates this defining moment.
After the Battle of Vimy Ridge, where the Canadian divisions fought together for the first time as a single corps, Canadians began to refer to theirs as a nation "forged from fire". The Battle of Vimy Ridge was a military offensive by the Canadian Corps against elements of the German Sixth Army in World War I. Having succeeded on the same battleground where the "mother countries" had previously faltered, they were for the first time respected internationally for their own accomplishments. Having entered the war as a Dominion of the British Empire, by its end Canada emerged as a fully independent nation. [115] While the other Dominions were represented by Britain, Canada was an independent negotiator and signatory of the Versailles Treaty. The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I.
Social trauma
The experiences of the war led to a collective trauma for all participating countries. The optimism of the 1900s was gone and those who fought in the war became known as the Lost Generation. The ' Lost Generation' is a phrase made popular by American author Ernest Hemingway in his first published novel The Sun Also Rises. For the next few years, much of Europe mourned. Memorials were erected in thousands of villages and towns. The soldiers returning home from World War I suffered greatly from the horrors they had witnessed. Many returning veterans suffered from post-traumatic stress disorder, called shell shock at the time. Post traumatic stress disorder It is a severe and ongoing emotional reaction to
The social trauma caused by years of fighting manifested itself in different ways. Some people were revolted by nationalism and its results, and so they began to work toward a more internationalist world, supporting organisations such as the League of Nations. The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation For the Marxist concept of internationalism see Proletarian internationalism. The League of Nations was an International organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920 Pacifism became increasingly popular. Others had the opposite reaction, feeling that only strength and military might could be relied upon in a chaotic and inhumane world. Anti-modernist views were an outgrowth of the many changes taking place in society. Development criticism refers to criticisms of modern Technology, Industrialization, Capitalism and economic Globalization. The rise of Nazism and fascism included a revival of the nationalist spirit and a rejection of many post-war changes. Nazism, which was a short name for National Socialism (Nationalsozialismus refers primarily to the Ideology and practices of the National Socialist German Fascism is a totalitarian nationalist and corporatist ideology Similarly, the popularity of the Dolchstosslegende ("stab-in-the-back legend") was a testament to the psychological state of defeated Germany and was a rejection of responsibility for the conflict. The stab-in-the-back legend ( German:, literally "Dagger stab legend" refers to a social Myth theory popular in Germany in the period after Mental health is a term used to describe either a level of cognitive or Emotional wellbeing or an absence of a Mental disorder. The conspiracy theory of betrayal became common and the German public came to see themselves as victims. A conspiracy theory attributes the ultimate cause of an event or chain of events (usually Political, Social or Historical events or the concealment The Dolchstosslegende's popular acceptance in Germany played a significant role in the rise of Nazism. A sense of disillusionment and cynicism became pronounced, with nihilism growing in popularity. Cynicism (Kυνισμός originally comprised the various philosophies of a group of ancient Greeks called the Cynics, founded by Nihilism (from the Latin nihil, nothing is a philosophical position that argues that Existence is without objective meaning Purpose This disillusionment for humanity found a cultural climax with the Dadaist artistic movement. For other meanings see Dada (disambiguation DaDa is a Concept album by Alice Cooper, released An art movement is a tendency or style in art with a specific common philosophy or goal followed by a group of artists during a restricted period of time or at least with the heyday Many believed the war heralded the end of the world as they had known it, including the collapse of capitalism and imperialism. Capitalism is the Economic system in which the Means of production are owned by private Persons and operated for Profit and where Imperialism has two meanings one describing an action and the other describing an attitude Communist and socialist movements around the world drew strength from this theory and enjoyed a level of popularity they had never known before. Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution These feelings were most pronounced in areas directly or harshly affected by the war. [116][117]
On May 3, 1915, during the Second Battle of Ypres, Lieutenant Alexis Helmer was killed. Lieutenant Colonel John Alexander McCrae ( November 30, 1872 &ndash January 28, 1918) was a Canadian Poet " In Flanders Fields " is one of the most famous Poems written during the First World War, and has been called "the most popular poem" produced during Pneumonia is an inflammatory illness of the Lung. Frequently it is described as lung Parenchyma / alveolar inflammation and abnormal Events 1491 - Kongo monarch Nkuwu Nzinga is baptised by Portuguese missionaries adopting the baptismal name of João Year 1915 ( MCMXV) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year The Second Battle of Ypres was the first time Germany used poison gas on a large scale on the Western Front in World War I and the first time At his graveside, his friend John McCrae, M. Lieutenant Colonel John Alexander McCrae ( November 30, 1872 &ndash January 28, 1918) was a Canadian Poet D. , of Guelph, Ontario, Canada wrote the memorable poem In Flanders Fields as a salute to those who perished in the Great War. " In Flanders Fields " is one of the most famous Poems written during the First World War, and has been called "the most popular poem" produced during Published in Punch on December 8, 1915, it is still recited today, especially on Remembrance Day and Memorial Day. Punch was a British weekly Magazine of Humour and Satire published from 1841 to 1992 and from 1996 to 2002 Events 1609 - Biblioteca Ambrosiana opens its reading room the second public library of Europe. Year 1915 ( MCMXV) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Armistice Day is the anniversary of the symbolic end of World War I on 11 November, 1918. Memorial Day is a United States Federal holiday observed on the last Monday of May (on May in) [118][119]
Other names
Before World War II, the war was also known as The Great War, The World War, The War to End All Wars, The Kaiser's War, The War of the Nations and The War in Europe. In France and Belgium it was sometimes referred to as La Guerre du Droit (the War for Justice) or La Guerre Pour la Civilisation / de Oorlog tot de Beschaving (the War to Preserve Civilization), especially on medals and commemorative monuments. The term used by official histories of the war in Britain and Canada is The First World War, while American histories generally use the term World War I.
German biologist and philosopher Ernst Haeckel wrote this shortly after the start of the war:
| “ | There is no doubt that the course and character of the feared "European War". Ernst Heinrich Philipp August Haeckel ( February 16, 1834 — August 9, 1919)also written von Haeckel, was an eminent German . . will become the first world war the full sense of the word. | ” |
This is the first known instance of the term First World War, which previously had been dated to 1931 for the earliest usage. The Indianapolis Star is a daily Newspaper which began publishing on June 6, 1903. Events 451 - The Battle of Chalons takes place in North Eastern France. Year 1914 ( MCMXIV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year The term was used again near the end of the war. The Times journalist Colonel Charles A. Repington (1858–1925) wrote:
| “ | [Diary entry, September 10, 1918]: We discussed the right name of the war. The Times is a daily national Newspaper published in the United Kingdom since 1785 when it was known as The Daily Universal Register. Lieutenant Colonel Charles à Court Repington (1858-1925 CMG, was a British Army officer and War correspondent. Events 506 - The Bishops of Visigothic Gaul meet in the Council of Agde. Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common I said the we called it now The War, but that this could not last. The Napoleonic War was The Great War. To call it The German War was too much flattery for the Boche. I suggested The World War as a shade better title, and finally we mutually agreed to call it The First World War in order to prevent the millennium folk from forgetting that the history of the world was the history of war. [121] | ” |
In many European countries, it appears the current usage is tending back to calling it The Great War / la Grande Guerre / de Grote Oorlog / der Große Krieg, because of the growing historical awareness that, of the two 20th century world wars, the 1914–1918 conflict caused more social, economic and political upheaval. It was also one of the prime factors in the outbreak of the Second World War.
Historical era
| Preceded by Colonisation |
World History 1914–1918 |
Succeeded by Interwar Period |
See also
- Timeline of World War I
- Surviving veterans of World War I
- War memorials
- World War I casualties
- World War One - Medal Abbreviations
- List of people associated with World War I
- List of wars by death toll
- Technology during World War I
- Russian Civil War
- List of wars
- World War II
- Room 40
Media
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Bombers of WWI
Tanks of WWI
- Problems seeing the videos? See media help.
Animated maps
- An animated map "Europe plunges into war"
- An animated map of Europe at the end of the First World War
Notes
- ^ a b Evans, David. Teach yourself, the First World War, Hodder Arnold, 2004. p. 188
- ^ The First World War.
- ^ Military Casualties of World War One.
- ^ The Treaty of Versailles and its Consequences
- ^ a b Ashworth, Tony. Trench warfare 1914–1918, pp3–4. 2000: Macmillan Press, London.
- ^ First World War.com Primary Documents: Archduke Franz Ferdinand's Assassination, 28 June 1914 (2002-11-03). See also 2002 (disambiguation Year 2002 ( MMII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 644 - Umar ibn al-Khattab, the second Muslim Caliph, is killed by a Persian slave in Medina. Retrieved on 2008-02-17. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1500 - Battle of Hemmingstedt. 1600 - Philosopher Giordano Bruno is burned alive at Campo de' Fiori
- ^ Stevenson, D. , Armaments and the Coming of War: Europe, 1904-1914, 1996 (Oxford University Press)
- ^ Herrmann, David G. The Arming of Europe and the Making of the First World War(1996)
- ^ Ferguson, Niall (1999). The Pity of War. Basic Books, 563. ISBN 046505711X.
- ^ Fromkin, David (2004). "Chapter 15: Europe Goes to the Brink", Europe's Last Summer: Who Started the Great War in 1914?. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 94. ISBN 0-375-72575-X.
- ^ Fischer, Fritz. Griff nach der Weltmacht: Die Kriegzielpolitik des kaiserlichen Deutschland 1914-1918 (published in English as Germany's Aims in the First World War)
- ^ Snyder, Jack. Ideology of the Offensive. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984; Dupuy, Trevor N. , Colonel, USA (rtd). Numbers Predictions, and War. Philadelphia: Bobbs-Merrill, 1979.
- ^ First World War.com A map of the French and German war plans.
- ^ First World War.com French and German war plans.
- ^ 30 October 1918 in Herbert Hoover, Ordeal of Woodrow Wilson p. Events 637 - Antioch surrenders to the Muslim forces under Rashidun Caliphate after the Battle of Iron bridge. Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Herbert Clark Hoover (August 10 1874 &ndash October 20 1964 was the thirty-first President of the United States (1929–1933 47
- ^ Fromkin, David (2004). "Chapter 45: What Did Not Happen", Europe's Last Summer: Who Started the Great War in 1914?. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 266–267. ISBN 0-375-72575-X.
- ^ “Imperialism" (1902) fordham.edu website
- ^ 1917 pamphlet "Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism".
- ^ Hull, Cordell (1948). The Memoirs of Cordell Hull: vol. 1. New York: Macmillan, 81.
- ^ Web reference (PDF).
- ^ Joll, James. The Origins of the First World War, 2nd ed. (Harlow, 1992), pp. 10–38
- ^ Duffy, Michael. First World War.com (English). Retrieved on February 25, 2007.
- ^ John Terraine "Ordeal of Victory"
- ^ "Vimy Ridge, Canadian National Memorial" (2007) Australians on the Western Front 1914-1918 New South Wales Department of Veteran's Affairs and Board of Studies
- ^ John M. Taylor, "Audacious Cruise of the Emden", The Quarterly Journal of Military History, Volume 19, Number 4, Summer 2007, pp. 39–47
- ^ Keene, Jennifer D. . World War I (The Greenwood Press Daily Life Through History Series). Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 5. ISBN 0-313-33181-2.
- ^ A Naval History of World War 1. New York: Routledge, 293. ISBN 1-85728-498-4.
- ^ Zieger, Robert H. (2001). America's Great War: World War I and the American experience. Lanham, Md: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 50. ISBN 0-8476-9645-6.
- ^ Coast Guard in the North Atlantic War. Retrieved on 2007-10-30. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 637 - Antioch surrenders to the Muslim forces under Rashidun Caliphate after the Battle of Iron bridge.
- ^ Gilbert, Martin. The First World War: A Complete History. Clearwater, Fla: Owl Books, 306. ISBN 0-8050-7617-4.
- ^ Jones, Howard (2001). Crucible of power: a history of U. S. foreign relations since 1897. Wilmington, Del: SR Books, 80. ISBN 0-8420-2918-4.
- ^ Nova Scotia House of Assembly Committee on Veterans' Affairs. Retrieved on 2007-10-30. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 637 - Antioch surrenders to the Muslim forces under Rashidun Caliphate after the Battle of Iron bridge.
- ^ Greek American Operational Group OSS, Part 3 continued. Retrieved on 2007-10-30. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 637 - Antioch surrenders to the Muslim forces under Rashidun Caliphate after the Battle of Iron bridge.
- ^ Price, Alfred. Aircraft versus the Submarine. (London: Wiliam Kimber, 1973).
- ^ Fromkin, David (2001). A peace to end all peace: the fall of the Ottoman Empire and the creation of the modern Middle East. New York: H. Holt, 119. ISBN 0-8050-6884-8.
- ^ a b Hinterhoff, Eugene (1984). The Campaign in Armenia. Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I, vol ii. New York: Marshall Cavendish Corporation, pp. 499-503. ISBN 0-86307-181-3.
- ^ Boghos Nubar the president of the "Armenian National Assembly" declared to Paris Peace Conference, 1919 through a letter to French Foreign Office - December 3, 1918
- ^ Triple Alliance. Boghos Nubar (1851-1930 was a liberal, the son of Egyptian Prime Minister Nubar Pasha and the founder alongside ten other Armenian national movement Armenian National Assembly was the governing body of the Armenian Millet established by Armenian National Constitution of 1863 under Ottoman
- ^ Participants from the Indian subcontinent in the First World War
- ^ Fraser 1977
- ^ Hughes 2002, p. 474
- ^ Dignan 1971, p. 57
- ^ Sykes 1921, p. 101
- ^ Singh, Jaspal. . History of the Ghadar Movement. panjab. org. uk. Retrieved on 2007-10-31. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 445 BC – Ezra reads the Book of the Law to the Israelites in Jerusalem (see Nehemiah 91 NLTse
- ^ Herbert 2003
- ^ Asghar, S. B. . A famous uprising. www. dawn. com. Retrieved on 2007-11-2.
- ^ Heyman, Neil M. (1997). World War I. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 146-147. ISBN 0-313-29880-7.
- ^ H. W. Brands, T. R. (1997) p. 756.
- ^ a b Karp, Walter. "Politics of War" (1979)
- ^ Barbara Tuchman, The Zimmerman Telegram
- ^ (see: Woodrow Wilson declares war on Germany.
- ^ African Americans during World War I.
- ^ William John Wilgus, Transporting the A. E. F. in Western Europe, 1917–1919 p. 52
- ^ Allan Reed Millett and Williamson Murray, Military Effectiveness, Routledge, p. 143
- ^ Ian Westwell. World War I Day by Day. Zenith Press. ISBN 0-7603-1937-5.
- ^ a b van Courtland Moon, John Ellis. "United States Chemical Warfare Policy in World War II: A Captive of Coalition Policy?" (JSTOR), The Journal of Military History, Vol. 60, No. 3. (Jul. , 1996), pp. 495-511. Retrieved 14 October 2007. Events 1066 - Norman Conquest: Battle of Hastings - In England on Senlac Hill seven miles from Hastings, the forces Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
- ^ a b Amiens
- ^ Map
- ^ Rickard J. (5 March 2001), "Erich von Ludendorff, 1865-1937, German General" accessed 2008-02-06
- ^ a b Ordeal Of Victory John Terraine
- ^ a b "1918 The Last Act" Barrie Pitt
- ^ Fredrick B. Maurice, "Foe's Reserves Now Only 16 Divisions; Allies'Counteroffensive Has Reduced Them from 60, Gen. Maurice Says. Ludendorff in Dilemma; He Must Choose Between Giving Up Offensive Projects and Shortening His Line" New York Times 1918-08-18
- ^ "1918 The last Act" Barrie Pitt
- ^ a b c d Chronicle Of The First World War
- ^ The Last Act Barrie Pitt
- ^ Nicholson CEF
- ^ Ludendorff My War Memories
- ^ The Meuse-Argonne Offensive: Overview. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats the combined army of Pompeian followers and Numidians under Metellus Scipio Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 293 BC - The oldest known Roman temple to Venus is founded starting the institution of Vinalia Rustica. Retrieved on 2007-10-30. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 637 - Antioch surrenders to the Muslim forces under Rashidun Caliphate after the Battle of Iron bridge.
- ^ "Ghent Burghers Hail Liberators" New York Times 1918-11-15
- ^ "Fall of Ghent Near, German Flank in Peril" New York Times dateline 1918-10-26, published 1918-10-30
- ^ Stevenson, Cataclysm (2004) p 383.
- ^ Stevenson, Cataclysm (2004) ch 17.
- ^ a b 1918 Timeline.
- ^ The Last Hours.
- ^ Forgotten Voices of the Great War. Forgotten Voices of the Great War is a collection of interviews with people who lived through the first World War Imperial War Museum. The Imperial War Museum is a Museum in London, England featuring military vehicles weapons war memorabilia an extensive library open to the public Retrieved on 2008-03-30. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 240 BC - 1st recorded Perihelion passage of Halley's Comet.
- ^ Geo G. Phillimore and Hugh H. L. Bellot, "Treatment of Prisoners of War", Transactions of the Grotius Society Vol. 5, (1919), pp. 47–64.
- ^ Niall Ferguson, The Pity of War (1999) pages 368-369
- ^ Dale Blair, No Quarter: Unlawful killing and surrender in the Australian war experience, 1915-1918(2005)
- ^ Tim Cook, The politics of surrender: Canadian soldiers and the killing of prisoners in the First World War The Journal of Military History, Vol. 70, No. 3, 2006, pp. 637-665
- ^ Richard B. Speed, III. (1990). Prisoners, Diplomats and the Great War: A Study in the Diplomacy of Captivity.
- ^ Ferguson, The Pity of War (1999) ch 13
- ^ Desmond Morton, Silent Battle: Canadian Prisoners of War in Germany, 1914-1919 (1992)
- ^ Bass, Gary Jonathan. Stay the Hand of Vengeance: The Politics of War Crimes Tribunals. Princeton, N. J: Princeton University Press, 107. ISBN 0-691-09278-8.
- ^ The Mesopotamia campaign. British National Archives. Retrieved on 2007-03-10. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 241 BC - First Punic War: Battle of the Aegates Islands - The Romans sink the Carthaginian fleet bringing
- ^ Stolen Years: Australian Prisoners of War. Men of Kut Driven along like beasts. Australian War Memorial. Retrieved on 2007-03-10. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 241 BC - First Punic War: Battle of the Aegates Islands - The Romans sink the Carthaginian fleet bringing
- ^ Letter from the International Association of Genocide Scholars to Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, June 13, 2005
- ^ Lewy, Guenter, "The Armenian Massacres in Ottoman Turkey: A Disputed Genocide", p. The International Association of Genocide Scholars is a global interdisciplinary non-partisan organization that seeks to further research and teaching about the nature causes and consequences This is a chronological list of Prime Ministers of Turkey, since the establishment of that position in 1920, during the Turkish War of Independence. "Erdoğan" redirects here For the Turkish Helicopter Erdoğan see Kamov Ka-50. Events 1525 - Martin Luther marries Katharina von Bora, against the Celibacy rule decreed by the Roman Catholic Church for Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. 57
- ^ Ferguson, Niall. Niall Ferguson (b April 18, 1964 in Glasgow, Scotland) is a British Historian. The War of the World: Twentieth-Century Conflict and the Descent of the West. New York: Penguin Press, 2006, p. 177 ISBN 1-5942-0100-5.
- ^ Balakian, Peter. Peter Balakian (born 13 June 1951 is an Armenian-American poet writer and academic The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America's Response. New York: HarperCollins, 2003, pp. 195-196 ISBN 0-0605-5870-9.
- ^ Fromkin, David. David Fromkin is a noted Author, Lawyer, and Historian, best known for his historical account on the Middle East A Peace to End All Peace: The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East. A Peace to End All Peace (1989 is a history written by David Fromkin. New York: Owl, 1989 pp. 212-215 ISBN 0-8050-6884-8
- ^ Keegan, John. The First World War. 1998. pp82–83
- ^ Havighurst p. 134-5.
- ^ John Frederick Norman Green, 'Obituary: Albert Ernest Kitson', Geological Society, Quarterly Journal no 94, 1938, p. CXXVI
- ^ Mosier, John (2001). "Germany and the Development of Combined Arms Tactics", Myth of the Great War: How the Germans Won the Battles and How the Americans Saved the Allies. New York: Harper Collins, 42–48. ISBN 0-06-019676-9.
- ^ Chemical Warfare in World War I. Retrieved on 2007-10-30. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 637 - Antioch surrenders to the Muslim forces under Rashidun Caliphate after the Battle of Iron bridge.
- ^ Postwar, there were numerous pulp novels on future "gas wars", including Ghastly Dew The Gas War of 19--.
- ^ Winter, Denis. First of the Few.
- ^ a b Johnson, James Edgar, Full Circle: The Story of Air Fighting (2001) ISBN 0304358606
- ^ Lehmann, Hartmut; Veer, Peter van der (1999). Air Vice Marshal James Edgar "Johnnie" Johnson CB, CBE, DSO & Two Bars, DFC and Bar ( 9 March Nation and religion: perspectives on Europe and Asia. Princeton, N. J: Princeton University Press, 62. ISBN 0-691-01232-6.
- ^ The Threat of Pandemic Influenza: Are We Ready? Workshop Summary. Board on Global Health (2005). Retrieved on 2008-03-11. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1425 BC - Thutmose III, Pharaoh of Egypt, dies (according to the Low Chronology of the 18th Dynasty
- ^ Influenza Report.
- ^ BBC - History - The Ending of World War One, and the Legacy of Peace
- ^ The Rise of Hitler
- ^ World War II - Britannica Online Encyclopedia
- ^ Economist.com | Country Briefings: Israel
- ^ The Ottomans
- ^ Foreign Affairs - Us and Them - Jerry Z. Muller
- ^ Syria: Identity Crisis
- ^ How it all began - A concise history of Lebanon
- ^ Future of Iraq, Israel-Palestine Conflict, and Central Asia Weighed at International Conference, UCLA International Institute
- ^ Ottoman Rule
- ^ [1]
- ^ Roots of the Water Conflict in the Middle East
- ^ Keynes, J. M. The Economic Consequences of the Peace (New York : Harcourt, 1920).
- ^ "Canada's last WW1 vet gets his citizenship back" CBC News 2008-05-09
- ^ Baker, Kevin Stabbed in the Back! The past and future of a right-wing myth Harper's Magazine, June 2006
- ^ Chickering, Rodger, Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914-1918. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1457 BC - Battle of Megiddo (15th century BC between Thutmose III and a large Canaanite coalition under the King of " Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 2004
- ^ John McCrae (from Historica).
- ^ Evans David. John McCrae (from the Canadian Encyclopedia).
- ^ "The Yale Book of Quotations" (2006) Yale University Press, edited by Fred R. Yale University Press is a book Publisher founded in 1908. It became an official department of Yale University in 1961, but remained Shapiro
- ^ "The First World War, 1914–1918" (1920) "The Yale Book of Quotations" (2006) Yale University Press, edited by Fred R. Yale University Press is a book Publisher founded in 1908. It became an official department of Yale University in 1961, but remained Shapiro
References
- See also: List of World War I books
- American Battle Monuments Commission (1938). List of World War I books is an Annotated bibliography using APA style Citations of a selection of the most useful books on World War I as selected The American Battle Monuments Commission ( ABMC) is a small independent agency of the United States government. American armies and battlefields in Europe: a history, guide, and reference book. U. S. G. P. O. .
- American Battle Monuments Commission (1938). The American Battle Monuments Commission ( ABMC) is a small independent agency of the United States government. American armies and battlefields in Europe : a history, guide, and reference book. U. S. G. P. O. .
- (1993) Army art of World War I. U. S. Army Center of Military History: Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of American History.
- Coffman Edward M (1998). The War to End All Wars: The American Military Experience in World War I. ISBN 0813109558.
- Cruttwell Charles Robert Mowbray Fraser (2007). A History of the Great War, 1914–1918. ISBN 0897333152. general military history
- Eksteins Modris (1989). Modris Eksteins (born 1943 in Latvia) is a Canadian historian with a special interest in German history and modern culture Rites of Spring: The Great War and the Birth of the Modern Age. ISBN 0593018621. an analysis of cultural changes before, during, and after the war
- Ellis John, Cox Michael (2002). The World War I Databook: The Essential Facts and Figures for All the Combatants. ISBN 1854107666.
- Esposito Vincent J (1997). The West Point Atlas of American Wars: 1900–1918. despite the title covers entire war
- Falls Cyril (1960). The Great War. Capricorn. ISBN 0399501002. general military history
- Fussell Paul (1975). The Great War and Modern Memory. on literature
- Gray Edwyn A (1994). The U-Boat War, 1914–1918.
- Haber LF (1986). The Poisonous Cloud: Chemical Warfare in the First World War.
- Halpern Paul G (1995). A Naval History of World War I.
- Hardach Gerd (1977). The First World War 1914–1918. economics
- Henig Ruth (2002). The Origins of the First World War.
- Herrmann David G (1996). The Arming of Europe and the Making of the First World War.
- Herwig Holger H (1996). The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary 1914–1918.
- Higham Robin and Dennis E. Showalter, eds. (2003). Researching World War I: A Handbook. , historiography, stressing military themes
- Howard Michael (2002). The First World War, 175. , general military history
- Hubatsch Walther (1963). Germany and the Central Powers in the World War, 1914–1918.
- Joll James (1984). The Origins of the First World War.
- Keegan John (1999). Sir John Desmond Patrick Keegan OBE (born 15 May, 1934) is a British Military historian, lecturer and journalist The First World War. , general military history
- Karp Walter (1979). The Politics of War. , Wilson's maneuvering U. S. into war
- Kennedy David M (1982). Over Here: The First World War and American Society. , covers politics & economics & society
- Kennett Lee B (1992). The First Air War, 1914–1918.
- Lee Dwight E (ed. ) (1958). The Outbreak of the First World War: Who Was Responsible?. , readings from multiple points of view
- Lyons Michael J (1999). World War I: A Short History, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall.
- Morton Desmond, and Granatstein JL (1989). Jack Lawrence Granatstein OC, FRSC (born 1939 is a Canadian Historian who specializes in political and Military history. Marching to Armageddon: Canadians and the Great War 1914–1919.
- Pope Stephen, Wheal Elizabeth-Anne (eds. ) (1995). The Macmillan Dictionary of the First World War.
- Robbins Keith (1993). The First World War. , short overview
- Silkin Jon ed. (1997). The Penguin Book of First World War Poetry, 2nd ed. .
- Stevenson David (2004). David Stevenson (born 1954 is a British academic and historian specialising in World War I. Cataclysm: The First World War As Political Tragedy, 560pp. , major reinterpretation
- Stevenson David (2005). David Stevenson (born 1954 is a British academic and historian specialising in World War I. The First World War and International Politics.
- Stokesbury James (1981). A Short History of World War I.
- Strachan Hew (2004). Professor Hew Francis Anthony Strachan, DL, FRSE is a Scottish Military historian, well known for his work on the administration of The First World War: Volume I: To Arms. : the major scholarly synthesis. Thorough coverage of 1914; Also:
- Strachan Hew (2004). Professor Hew Francis Anthony Strachan, DL, FRSE is a Scottish Military historian, well known for his work on the administration of The First World War. : a 385pp version of his multivolume history
- Taylor AJP (1963). Alan John Percival Taylor ( March 25, 1906 – September 7, 1990) was a renowned English Historian of the 20th century The First World War: An Illustrated History. Hamish Hamilton.
- Tuchman Barbara. Barbara Wertheim Tuchman ( January 30, 1912 &ndash February 6, 1989) was an American self-trained Historian and author The Guns of August. The Guns of August ( 1962) is a Military history book written by Barbara Tuchman. , tells of the opening diplomatic and military manoeuvres
- Tucker Spencer, ed. (2005). The Encyclopedia of World War I: A Political, Social, and Military History. , online at eBook. com
- Tucker Spencer, ed. (1999). European Powers in the First World War: An Encyclopedia.
- Venzon Anne ed. (1995). The United States in the First World War: An Encyclopedia.
- Winter Jay M (2005). Jay M Winter is an American historian He is the Charles J Stille Professor of History at Yale University, where he focuses his research on World War I and The Experience of World War I, 2nd ed, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195207769. , topical essays; well illustrated
- van der Vat Dan (1988). Daniel Francis Jeroen van der Vat (born 28 October 1939, Alkmaar) is a Journalist and historian of military, primarily Naval The Atlantic Campaign. ISBN 0586206957. Connects submarine and antisubmarine operations between wars, and suggests a continuous war
- Price Alfred, Dr. Aircraft versus the Submarine. Deals with technical developments, including the first dipping hydrophones
- Dignan, Don (1971), The Hindu Conspiracy in Anglo-American Relations during World War I. The Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 40, No. 1. (Feb. , 1971), pp. 57-76. , University of California Press.
- Fraser, Thomas G (1977), Germany and Indian Revolution, 1914-18. Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 12, No. 2 (Apr. , 1977), pp. 255-272. , Sage Publications
- Hughes, Thomas L (2002), The German Mission to Afghanistan, 1915-1916. German Studies Review, Vol. 25, No. 3. (Oct. , 2002), pp. 447-476. , German Studies Association
- Herbert, Edwin (2003), Small Wars and Skirmishes 1902-1918: Early Twentieth-century Colonial Campaigns in Africa, Asia and the Americas, Nottingham, Foundry Books Publications. , ISBN 1901543056
Western Front
American Operations
- American Battle Monuments Commission, "American operations in the Aisne-Marne region: May 31–October 12, 1918"
- American Battle Monuments Commission, "American operations in the St. Mihiel region: September 12–November 11, 1918"
- American Battle Monuments Commission, "The Meuse-Argonne offensive of the American First Army: September 26–November 11, 1918"
Literature and movies
Poetry and songs (contemporary)
- In Flanders Fields (1915), poem by John McCrae [2]
- On Receiving News of the War (1914), poem by Isaac Rosenberg
- It's a Long, Long Way to Tipperary (1914), song by Jack Judge (1878–1938) - sheet music
- Pack Up Your Troubles in Your Old Kit-Bag (1916), song by Felix Powell (1878–1942) and George Asaf (1880–1951) - RealAudio
- Keep the Home Fires Burning (1916), song by Ivor Novello and Lena Guilbert Ford
- Hello Boys! (1919), poems by Ella Wheeler Wilcox
- There's A Long Long Trail A-Winding 1916
- Anthem for Doomed Youth (1917), poem by Wilfred Owen
- Dulce et Decorum Est (1917), poem by Wilfred Owen
- Disabled (1917), poem by Wilfred Owen
- Over There (1917), song by George M. Cohan
- They (1918), poem by Siegfried Sassoon
- Base details (1918), poem by Siegfried Sassoon
- The Rose of No Man's Land (1918), song by Jack Caddigan and James Alexander Brennan - sheet music
Poetry and songs (latter day)
- "And The Band Played Waltzing Matilda" (1972), song by Eric Bogle
- "No Man's Land" (also known as The Green Fields of France and Willie McBride) (1976), song by Eric Bogle
- "Christmas in the Trenches" (1984) by John McCutcheon
- "All Together Now" (1990), Song by The Farm
- "Children's Crusade" (2000), Song by Sting
- "Paschendale" (2003), Song by Iron Maiden
Books
Nonfiction
- Storm of Steel, autobiography of Ernst Jünger. The American Battle Monuments Commission ( ABMC) is a small independent agency of the United States government. The American Battle Monuments Commission ( ABMC) is a small independent agency of the United States government. The American Battle Monuments Commission ( ABMC) is a small independent agency of the United States government. World War I has inspired great Novels drama and Poetry. During the war itself it has been estimated that thousands of poems were written every day by combatants World War I has inspired great Novels drama and Poetry. During the war itself it has been estimated that thousands of poems were written every day by combatants " In Flanders Fields " is one of the most famous Poems written during the First World War, and has been called "the most popular poem" produced during Lieutenant Colonel John Alexander McCrae ( November 30, 1872 &ndash January 28, 1918) was a Canadian Poet On Receiving News of the War is a poem by Isaac Rosenberg which he wrote after hearing of the outbreak of World War I while in Cape Town, South Africa Isaac Rosenberg ( November 25, 1890 - April 1, 1918) was an English poet of the First World War who was considered " It's a Long Way to Tipperary " is a British Music hall and marching Song written by Jack Judge and Harry Williams (Henry Jack Judge, (christened John born in Oldbury, Worcestershire in 1878 died 28 July 1938 West Bromwich) was a song-writer and music-hall entertainer best Pack Up Your Troubles in Your Old Kit-Bag and Smile Smile Smile is the full name of a World War I marching song published in 1915 in London. Felix Powell ( 1878 - 10 February 1942) was a British Staff Sergeant most famous for writing the music for marching song " George Henry Powell ( 1880 - 3 December 1951) was known under the pseudonym George Asaf for writing the lyric of the marching song David Ivor Davies (15 January 1893 &ndash 6 March 1951 better known as Ivor Novello, was a Welsh Composer, Singer and Actor, who Ella Wheeler Wilcox ( November 5, 1850 &ndash October 30, 1919) was an American author and poet. There's A Long Long Trail is a popular song of World War I The lyrics were by Stoddard King (1889-1933 and the music by Alonzo "Zo" Elliot, both Anthem for Doomed Youth is one of the best-known and most popular of Wilfred Owen 's poems Wilfred Edward Salter Owen MC (18 March 1893 &ndash 4 November 1918 was an English Poet and Soldier, regarded by many as one of the leading "Dulce et Decorum Est" is a poem written by a British soldier and poet Wilfred Owen during the First World War in 1917 and published posthumously in 1920 Wilfred Edward Salter Owen MC (18 March 1893 &ndash 4 November 1918 was an English Poet and Soldier, regarded by many as one of the leading Disabled is a poem written by Wilfred Owen, a World War I Poet. Wilfred Edward Salter Owen MC (18 March 1893 &ndash 4 November 1918 was an English Poet and Soldier, regarded by many as one of the leading " Over There " is a 1917 Song popular with United States soldiers in both World wars It was written by George M George Michael Cohan ( July 3, 1878 &ndash November 5, 1942) was a United States Entertainer, Playwright, They is a 1917 Poem by the English soldier and poet Siegfried Sassoon published in The Old Huntsman and Other Poems. Siegfried Loraine Sassoon, CBE MC ( 8 September 1886 &ndash 1 September 1967) was an English poet and Author Base Details is a War poem by the English war poet Siegfried Sassoon. Siegfried Loraine Sassoon, CBE MC ( 8 September 1886 &ndash 1 September 1967) was an English poet and Author The Rose of No Man's Land by Jack Caddigan and James Alexander Brennan is a contemporary song written as a tribute to the Red Cross Nurses at Jack Caddigan (1879-1952 also known as John J Caddigan was an American songwriter James Alexander Brennan (1885-1956 was an American songwriter "And The Band Played Waltzing Matilda" is a song written by Eric Bogle in 1972 describing the futility gruesome reality and the destruction of war while criticising Eric Bogle (born 23 September, 1944 in Peebles, Scotland) is a folk Singer-songwriter. "No Man's Land" (also known as "The Green Fields of France" and "Willie McBride") is a song written in 1976 by Scottish Eric Bogle (born 23 September, 1944 in Peebles, Scotland) is a folk Singer-songwriter. " Christmas in the Trenches " is a melancholy Ballad from John McCutcheon's 1984 Album Winter Solstice. Wisconsin native John McCutcheon (born August 14, 1952) is an American Folk music singer and Multi-instrumentalist " All Together Now " is a song by Liverpudlian pop band The Farm from their album Spartacus, and is said to link many of the band's The Farm is a band from Liverpool, England. They were popular through the early 1990s The Dream of the Blue Turtles is the first solo album released by Sting. STING ( S equence T o and with' IN' G raphics is a free Web-based suite of programs for a comprehensive analysis of the relationship between protein sequence Paschendale is a Song by the British Heavy metal band Iron Maiden from their 2003 Album Dance of Death For other uses see Iron maiden. Storm of Steel (in German: In Stahlgewittern, ISBN 0-86527-310-3 is the Memoir of German officer Ernst Jünger 's experiences Ernst Jünger ( March 29, 1895 — February 17, 1998) was a German Writer. First published 1920 and revised several times through 1961
- Seven Pillars of Wisdom (1922), by T. E. Lawrence
- Testament of Youth (1933), memoir by Vera Brittain
- Infanterie greift an (Infantry Attacks) (1937), military textbook by Erwin Rommel
- Goodbye to All That (1929), autobiography of Robert Graves
- Hussar's Picture Book (1972), memoir by Pál Kelemen
- Padre E. Seven Pillars of Wisdom A Triumph is the autobiographical account of the experiences of T Testament of Youth is the first installment covering 1913–1925 in the Autobiography of Vera Brittain. Vera Mary Brittain ( 29 December 1893 – 29 March 1970) was an English writer feminist and pacifist best remembered as the Erwin Johannes Eugen Rommel ( ( 15 November 1891 – 14 October 1944) (also known as the " Desert Fox " Wüstenfuchs Good-bye to All That is the Autobiography of Robert Graves. First published in 1929 the work is a landmark anti-war memoir of life in the trenches Robert Graves (24 July 1895 &ndash 7 December 1985 was an English Poet, Translator and Novelist. Hussar's Picture Book is a memoir by the Hungarian author Pál Kelemen. C. Crosse and 'the Devonshire Epitaph': The Astonishing Story of One Man at the Battle of the Somme (with Antecedents to Today's 'Just War' Dialogue) (2007), research by David Roberts MacDonald ISBN 978-1-929569-45-8 Cloverdale Books
- World War I, available at Project Gutenberg. Cloverdale Corporation has for 29 years been involved in publishing scholarly research for the scientific community Project Gutenberg, abbreviated as PG, is a volunteer effort to Digitize, archive and distribute Cultural works , Punch magazine's history
Fiction
- Le Feu (Under Fire) (1916), semi-autobiographical novel by Henri Barbusse
- Rilla of Ingleside (1920), novel by L.M. Montgomery, an account of the war as experienced by Canadian women of the time. Under Fire The Story of a Squad (French Le Feu journal d'une escouade) by Henri Barbusse, published in 1917 was one of the first novels about the Henri Barbusse ( May 17, 1873, Asnières-sur-Seine &mdash August 30, 1935, Moscow) was a French Novelist Rilla of Ingleside (1921 is the final book in the Anne of Green Gables series by Lucy Maud Montgomery, but was the sixth of the eight "Anne" Lucy Maud Montgomery CBE, (always called "Maud" by family and friends and publicly known as L
- Three Soldiers (1921), novel by John Dos Passos
- One of Ours (1922), novel by Willa Cather
- The Good Soldier Švejk (1923), satirical novel by Jaroslav Hašek
- All Quiet on the Western Front (1929), novel written by Erich Maria Remarque
- Death of a Hero (1929), novel by Richard Aldington
- A Farewell to Arms (1929), novel by Ernest Hemingway
- The Memoirs of George Sherston semi-autobiographical series of three novels by Siegfried Sassoon
- Paths of Glory (1935), novel by Humphrey Cobb
- Johnny Got His Gun (1939), novel by Dalton Trumbo later turned into a film directed by the author. Three Soldiers is a 1920 novel by the American writer and critic John Dos Passos. John Roderigo Dos Passos ( January 14, 1896 &ndash September 28, 1970) was an American Novelist and artist One of Ours is a novel by Willa Cather which won the 1923 Pulitzer Prize. Willa Sibert Cather ( December 7, 1873 &ndash April 24, 1947) was an American author who grew up in Nebraska. The Good Soldier Švejk (spelled Schweik or Schwejk in many translations and pronounced or "shvayk" in plain English transcription is Jaroslav Hašek (ˈjaroslaf ˈɦaʃɛk ( April 30, 1883 – January 3, 1923) was a Czech humorist and satirist best known for his All Quiet on the Western Front (Im Westen nichts Neues is an Anti-war Novel written by Erich Maria Remarque, a German veteran Erich Maria Remarque (Erich Paul Remark 22 June 1898 &ndash 25 September 1970) was a German author. Death of a Hero is a World War I Novel by Richard Aldington. It was his first novel written in 1929 and thought to be partly autobiographical Richard Aldington (born Edward Godfree Aldington July 8 1892 &ndash July 27 1962 was an English writer and poet. A Farewell to Arms is a semi-autobiographical Novel written by Ernest Hemingway, first published in 1929 Ernest Miller Hemingway (July 21 1899 — July 2 1961 was an American novelist short-story writer, and Journalist. A series of books by the English poet and Novelist, Siegfried Sassoon, consisting of Memoirs of a Fox-Hunting Man, Memoirs of an Infantry Siegfried Loraine Sassoon, CBE MC ( 8 September 1886 &ndash 1 September 1967) was an English poet and Author Paths of Glory ( 1957) is a Black and white war Film by Stanley Kubrick based on the novel of the same name by Humphrey Humphrey Cobb ( September 5, 1899 &ndash April 25, 1944) was a Screenwriter and Novelist. Johnny Got His Gun is an English language Antiwar novel written in 1938 (published 1939 by American novelist and Screenwriter Dalton Trumbo ( December 9, 1905 &ndash September 10, 1976) was an American Screenwriter and Novelist, Johnny Got His Gun is a 1971 Anti-war film based on the novel of the same name written and directed by Dalton Trumbo and starring Timothy
- La Main coupée (1946) by Blaise Cendrars. Frédéric Louis Sauser ( September 1, 1887 &ndash January 21, 1961) better known as Blaise Cendrars, was a Swiss novelist and poet
- Joe's War: Memoirs of a Doughboy (1983), autobiography by Joseph N. Rizzi
- Regeneration (1991), The Eye in the Door, (1993); The Ghost Road, (1995) novels by Pat Barker; also Life Class. For the 1997 film adaptation of the novel see Regeneration (1997 film. The Eye in the Door is a novel by Pat Barker, first published in 1993 and forming the second part of the Regeneration trilogy The Ghost Road is a Novel by Pat Barker, first published in 1995 and winner of the Booker Prize. Pat Barker (born May 8, 1943) is an English Writer and Historian.
- Birdsong (1993), novel by Sebastian Faulks
- No Graves As Yet (2003), first volume of a trilogy of novels by Anne Perry
- Deafening (2003), novel written by Frances Itani
- A Long, Long Way (2005), novel by Sebastian Barry
- To the Last Man (2005), novel by Jeff Shaara
- Turn Right at Istanbul novel by Tony Wright
- Three Day Road novel by Joseph Boyden
- A World Undone (2006), novel by G. Birdsong is a 1993 War novel by the English Author Sebastian Faulks. Sebastian Faulks CBE FRSL (born 20 April 1953) is an acclaimed English Novelist. Anne Perry (born Juliet Marion Hulme in Blackheath, London on 28 October 1938 is an English Author of historical Deafening is a 2003 Novel written by Frances Itani. Author Frances Itani brings the reader to a small pre-World War I Ontario Frances Susan Itani (born 25 August 1942) is a Canadian fiction writer poet and essayist Sebastian Barry (b 5 July 1955, Dublin) is an Irish Playwright, Novelist, and Poet. To the Last Man A Novel of the First World War ( 2004) is an historical novel written by Jeff Shaara about the experience of a number of combatants Jeffrey M Shaara (born 1952) is an American novelist, the son of Pulitzer Prize winner Michael Shaara. Three Day Road is a Novel by Canadian writer Joseph Boyden. Set in 1919 following the end of World War I, the novel takes place Joseph Boyden (born 1966 is a Canadian Novelist and Short story writer J. Meyer
Films, plays, and television series and mini-series
- The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (1921), movie directed by Rex Ingram, from a novel by Vicente Blasco Ibáñez
- Mare Nostrum (1926), movie directed by Rex Ingram, from a novel by Vicente Blasco Ibáñez
- Wings (1927), directed by William A. Wellman, tells the story about two fighter pilots; only silent movie to win the Academy Oscar
- Journey's End (1928), play by R. C. Sherriff
- All Quiet on the Western Front (1930), movie directed by Lewis Milestone, from the novel by Erich Maria Remarque (1929)
- Hell's Angels (1930), movie directed by Howard Hughes
- Grand Illusion (1937), directed by Jean Renoir
- Sergeant York (1941), movie directed by Howard Hawks
- Yankee Doodle Dandy (1942), directed by Michael Curtiz
- Paths of Glory (1957), movie directed by Stanley Kubrick, based on the novel by Humphrey Cobb (1935)
- Marš na Drinu (1961), Serbian war film about a Serbian artillery battalion in the Battle of Cer
- Lawrence of Arabia (1962), movie covering events surrounding T. E. Lawrence in the pan-Arabian Theater, starring Peter O'Toole, Alec Guinness, Anthony Quinn, and Omar Sharif and directed by David Lean
- World War I (1964), CBS News documentary narrated by Robert Ryan
- The Great War (1964), TV series by Correlli Barnett and others of BBC
- Doctor Zhivago (1965), movie by David Lean, based on the novel by Boris Pasternak, deals with Russia's involvement in the war and how it led to that country's Revolution. The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse is a 1921 Silent movie produced by Metro Pictures Corporation, directed by Rex Ingram and starring Rex Ingram ( January 15, 1892 &ndash July 21, 1950) was a Film director, producer writer and actor Vicente Blasco Ibáñez ( January 29, 1867 – January 28, 1928) was a Spanish realist Novelist writing in Mare Nostrum ( 1926) is a Silent film set during World War I. Wings ( is a silent movie about World War I fighter pilots directed by William A William Augustus Wellman (29 February &ndash19 December) was an American Movie director, noted for directing the film which received the first Academy Award Journey's End is the seventh and most famous play by R C Sherriff. Robert Cedric Sherriff ( 6 June 1896 &ndash 13 November 1975) was an English Playwright and Scriptwriter, best All Quiet on the Western Front is a War film based on the Erich Maria Remarque novel of the same name. Lewis Milestone (born Lev Milstein) ( September 30 1895 - September 25 1980) was an Academy Award -winning motion picture Erich Maria Remarque (Erich Paul Remark 22 June 1898 &ndash 25 September 1970) was a German author. Hell's Angels is a 1930 American epic War film, directed by Howard Hughes and starring Jean Harlow, Ben Howard Robard Hughes Jr (December 24 1905 – April 5 1976 was an American Aviator, Industrialist, Film producer / director, Philanthropist Grand Illusion (French La Grande Illusion) is a 1937 war Film directed by Jean Renoir (1894–1979 the son of artist Pierre-Auguste Jean Renoir (French ʁəˈnwaʁ ( September 15, 1894 – February 12, 1979) born in the Montmartre district of Paris For the unsuccessful US weapon system see M247 Sergeant York. Howard Winchester Hawks ( May 30, 1896 &ndash December 26, 1977) was an American Film director, producer and Yankee Doodle Dandy ( is a biographical film about George M Cohan, the actor-singer-dancer-playwright-songwriter-producer-theatre owner-director-choreographer Michael Curtiz ( December 24, 1886 - April 10, 1962) was an Academy Award -winning Hungarian-American Film director Paths of Glory ( 1957) is a Black and white war Film by Stanley Kubrick based on the novel of the same name by Humphrey Humphrey Cobb ( September 5, 1899 &ndash April 25, 1944) was a Screenwriter and Novelist. Marš na Drinu ( Serbian Cyrillic: Марш на Дрину Eng War film is a Film genre concerned with Warfare usually about naval, air or land battles sometimes focusing instead on The Battle of Cer also known as Battle of Jadar (main operations were held near the estuary of the Jadar river Peter O'Toole (born 2 August 1932) is an Irish and British actor who achieved instant stardom in 1962 playing T Sir Alec Guinness, CH, CBE (2 April 1914 &ndash 5 August 2000 was an English Actor. For other people named Anthony Quinn see Anthony Quinn (disambiguation Anthony Quinn ( April 21, 1915 &ndash Omar Sharif ( عمر الشريف; born April 10, 1932) is a two-time Academy Award -nominated and Golden Globe -winning Egyptian Sir David Lean KBE ( 25 March, 1908 &ndash 16 April, 1991) was an English Film director and producer CBS News is the news division of American Television and Radio network CBS. Correlli Douglas Barnett CBE (born June 28 1927) is an English Military historian, who has also written extensively on the United Kingdom Doctor Zhivago ( Доктор Живаго) is a 1965 drama - romance - War film directed by David Lean and loosely Sir David Lean KBE ( 25 March, 1908 &ndash 16 April, 1991) was an English Film director and producer Boris Leonidovich Pasternak (Бори́с Леони́дович Пастерна́к ( — May 30, 1960) was a Nobel Prize -winning Soviet
- The Blue Max (1966), movie directed by John Guillermin, titled after the Prussian military award, or Pour le Mérite
- Oh! What a Lovely War (1969), movie directed by Richard Attenborough, from the 1963 musical play by Joan Littlewood
- Johnny Got His Gun (1971), movie of the book directed by the book's author Dalton Trumbo
- Gallipoli (1981), movie directed by Peter Weir
- Observe the Sons of Ulster Marching Towards the Somme, (1985), play by Frank McGuinness
- The Lighthorsemen (1987), movie directed by Simon Wincer
- Blackadder Goes Forth (1989), TV series by Richard Curtis and Ben Elton
- The Great War and the Shaping of the 20th Century (1996), PBS narrated by Judi Dench
- Capitaine Conan (1996), movie directed by Bertrand Tavernier
- Regeneration (1997), movie directed by Gillies MacKinnon, from a novel by Pat Barker (1991)
- The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles (1992), television series in which the title character joins the Belgian army and participates in many major battles and events of the war. The Blue Max is a 1966 British film about a German Fighter pilot on the Western Front during World War I. John Guillermin (born on 11 November 1925) is a British Film director, Writer, and producer who was most active in big A military decoration is a decoration given to Military personnel or units for Heroism in battle or distinguished service The Pour le Mérite, known informally during World War I as the Blue Max (Blauer Max was the Kingdom of Prussia 's highest military order until Oh! What a Lovely War is Stage musical and 1969 Musical film. Richard Samuel Attenborough Baron Attenborough Musical theatre is a form of Theatre combining Music, Songs spoken Dialogue and Dance. Joan Maud Littlewood ( 6 October, 1914 - 20 September, 2002) was a British theatrical director famous for her work in developing the left-wing Johnny Got His Gun is a 1971 Anti-war film based on the novel of the same name written and directed by Dalton Trumbo and starring Timothy Johnny Got His Gun is an English language Antiwar novel written in 1938 (published 1939 by American novelist and Screenwriter Dalton Trumbo ( December 9, 1905 &ndash September 10, 1976) was an American Screenwriter and Novelist, Gallipoli is a 1981 Australian Film, directed by Peter Weir and starring Mel Gibson and Mark Lee, about several young Peter Lindsay Weir AM (born 21 August 1944 is an Australian Film director. Observe the Sons of Ulster Marching Towards the Somme, is perhaps one of Frank McGuinness 's most respected plays Frank McGuinness (born 29 July 1953 in County Donegal, Ireland) is an award-winning Irish Playwright, translator and Simon Wincer (born 1943 in Sydney) is an Australian Film director and Film producer. Blackadder Goes Forth is the fourth and final series of the BBC Situation comedy Blackadder, written by Richard Curtis For the former state representative from Washington State see Richard Curtis (politician Richard Whalley Anthony Curtis, CBE (born Benjamin Charles Elton (born 3 May 1959 is an English Comedian, writer and director. The Public Broadcasting Service ( PBS) is a Non-profit Public broadcasting Television service with 354 member TV stations in the Dame Judith Olivia Dench, CH, DBE, FRSA, (born 9 December, 1934) usually known as Judi Dench, is an English Bertrand Tavernier (b April 25, 1941 in Lyon) is a French director, Screenwriter, Actor, and producer For the 1997 film adaptation of the novel see Regeneration (1997 film. Gillies MacKinnon (born 8 January 1948 in Glasgow) is a Scottish Film director and writer. Pat Barker (born May 8, 1943) is an English Writer and Historian. The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles, also known as The Adventures of Young Indiana Jones, is an Emmy Award -winning American
- The Lost Battalion (2001), movie and screenplay directed by Russell Mulcahy
- A Very Long Engagement (2004), movie directed by Jean-Pierre Jeunet, based on the novel by Sebastien Japrisot (1991)
- Joyeux Noël (2005), Based on the 1914 Christmas truce. The Lost Battalion is the 1919 film about the 77th Infantry Division (the " Lost Battalion " penetrating deep into the Argonne Russell Mulcahy (born June 23, 1953 born in Melbourne, Victoria) is an Australian Film director. A Very Long Engagement (French Un long dimanche de fiançailles) is a 2004 Romance, War Film, directed Jean-Pierre Jeunet (born 3 September 1953) is a French Film director. Sébastien Japrisot ( 4 July 1931 &ndash 4 March 2003) was a French author screenwriter and film director born in Marseille Joyeux Noël ( English: Merry Christmas) ( 2005) is a film about the World War I Christmas truce of December The " Christmas Truce " is a term used to describe several brief unofficial cessations of hostilities that occurred on Christmas Eve or
- Passchendaele (2006), movie directed by and starring Paul Gross
- Flyboys (2006), Movie directed by Tony Bill, tells the story of American pilots who volunteered for the French military before America entered World War I. Passchendaele is a 2008 Canadian War film from Alliance Films, written and directed by and starring Paul Gross. Paul Michael Gross (born April 30, 1959) is a Canadian Actor, producer, director, Singer and WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout Gerard Anthony "Tony" Bill (born 23 August 1940) is an American Actor, producer, and director. The Military of France encompasses an army, a navy, an air force and a military police force.
- My Boy Jack (2007), Movie about a British boy named Jack Kipling (son of the poet Rudyard) and his war service. Joseph Rudyard Kipling (30 December 1865 – 18 January 1936 was an English Author and poet
External links
- A multimedia history of World War I
- The Heritage of the Great War, Netherlands
- The War to End All Wars on BBC
- The Commonwealth War Graves Commission
- World War I : Soldiers Remembered Presented by the Washington State Library and Washington State Archives
- Royal Engineers Museum Royal Engineers and the First World War
- World War 1 Atlas A day-by-day map of the First World War
- WWI Service Questionnaires at Gettysburg College
- Collection of World War I Color Photographs
Dictionary
World War I
-proper noun
- The war from 1914 to 1918 between the Entente Powers of the British Empire, France, the United States, Russia, Italy and other allied nations, against the Central Powers represented by Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria.
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