Working class is a term used in academic sociology and in ordinary conversation. Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge"
In common with other terms relevant to social class, it is defined and used in many different ways, depending on context and speaker. Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions (or stratification) between individuals or groups in Societies or Cultures. The term incorporates references to education, to occupation, to culture, and to income. When used non-academically, it typically refers to a section of society dependent on physical labor, especially when remunerated with an hourly wage. A wage is a compensation workers receive in exchange for their labor.
Casual and geographical usage differs widely; in extreme cases, well-paid university-educated professionals in the United Kingdom may self-identify as working class based on family background, while many semi-skilled and skilled laborers in the United States are characterized as middle-class. A university is an institution of Higher education and Research, which grants Academic degrees in a variety of subjects This article is about people called professionals For the Movie, see The Professional or Leon. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located It is usually contrasted with the upper class and middle class in terms of access to economic resources, education and cultural interests. Is a concept in Sociology that refers to the group of people at the top of a Social hierarchy. The middle class, in colloquial usage consists of those who have some economic independence but not a great deal of social Influence or power. Education encompasses both the Teaching and Learning of Knowledge, proper conduct, and technical competency Its usage as a description can be pejorative, but many people self-identify as working class and experience a sense of pride analogous to a national identity. Working classes are mainly found in industrialized economies and in urban areas of non-industrialized economies. is a process of social and economic change whereby a human group is transformed from a Pre-industrial society into an industrial one An economy is the realized social system of production exchange distribution and consumption of goods and services of a country or other area
The variation between different socio-political definitions makes the term controversial in social usage, and its use in academic discourse as a concept, and as a subject of study itself, is very contentious, especially following the decline of manual labor in postindustrial societies. A post-industrial society is a society in which an economic transition has occurred from a manufacturing based economy to a service based economy, a diffusion Some academics (sociologists, historians, political theorists, etc. Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge" See also History An historian is an individual who studies and writes about History, and is regarded as an Authority on it Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions ) question the usefulness of the concept of a working class, while others use some version of the concept.
In the United States and the United Kingdom, sociologists Dennis Gilbert, James Henslin, William Thompson, Joseph Hickey and Thomas Ayling have brought forth class models in which the working class constitutes roughly one third of the population, with the majority of the population being either working or lower class. [1][2][3]
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History
In feudal Europe, the working class as such did not exist in large numbers. Feudalism, a term first used in the early modern period (17th century in its most classic sense refers to a Medieval Europe Political system composed Instead, society conceived of most people as the labouring class, a group which united different professions, trades and occupations. A lawyer, craftsman and peasant were all considered to be part of the same social unit, a "third estate" of people who were neither aristocrats nor church officials. The Estates of the realm were the broad divisions of society usually distinguishing Nobility, Clergy, and Commoners recognized in the Middle Ages Aristocracy is a form of Government, where rule is established through an internal struggle over who has the most status and influence over society and internal relations Similar hierarchies existed outside Europe in other pre-capitalist societies. Pre-industrial society refers to specific social attributes and forms of political and cultural organization that were prevalent before the advent of the Industrial Revolution The social position of these laboring classes was viewed as ordained by natural law and common religious belief. Natural law or the law of nature ( Latin: lex naturalis) is a theory that posits the existence of a law whose content is set by Nature and that This social position was contested, particularly by peasants, for example during the German Peasants' War. For other conflicts referred to as peasant wars or revolts see Peasant revolt (disambiguation.
In the late 18th century, under the influence of the Enlightenment, European society was in a state of change, and this change could not be reconciled with the idea of a changeless god-created social order. The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century Wealthy members of these societies created ideologies which blamed many of the problems of working-class people on the morals and ethics of the working class themselves (i. e. excessive consumption of alcohol, perceived laziness and inability to save money — "shiftless and thriftless").
These processes were identified in English history by E.P. Thompson in his book The Making of the English Working Class. The history of England is similar to the history of Britain until the arrival of the Saxons Edward Palmer Thompson ( February 3, 1924, Oxford &ndash August 28, 1993, Worcester) was an English historian The Making of the English Working Class is an influential and pivotal work of English social history written by E Thompson argues that the English working class was present at its own creation, and seeks to describe the transformation of pre-modern laboring classes into a modern, politically self-conscious, working class.
Definitions
Definitions of social classes reflect a number of sociological perspectives, informed by anthropology, economics, psychology and sociology. Social theory is an essential tool used by scholars in the analysis of society through the use of theoretical frameworks social structures and phenomena are analyzed and placed in context The major perspectives historically have been Marxism and Functionalism. Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. In the Social sciences, specifically Sociology and Sociocultural anthropology, functionalism (also called functional analysis) is a Sociological
The parameters which define working class depend on the schema used to define social class. In Mathematics, Statistics, and the mathematical Sciences a parameter ( G auxiliary measure) is a quantity that defines certain characteristics A definition is a statement of the meaning of a Word or Phrase. Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions (or stratification) between individuals or groups in Societies or Cultures. For example, a simple stratum model of class might divide society into a simple hierarchy of lower class, middle class and upper class with working class not specifically designated. Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions (or stratification) between individuals or groups in Societies or Cultures. The middle class, in colloquial usage consists of those who have some economic independence but not a great deal of social Influence or power. Is a concept in Sociology that refers to the group of people at the top of a Social hierarchy.
Due to the political interest in the working class, debate has been raging over the nature of the working class since the early 19th century. Two broad schools of definitions emerge, those aligned with 20th-century sociological stratum models of class society, and those aligned with the 19th-century historical materialism economic models of the Marxists and Anarchists. Historical materialism is the methodological approach to the study of society economics and history which was first articulated by Karl Marx ( 1818 - 1883
As the concept of the working class is important in Marxist, Anarchist and Socialist thought, there is a great deal of political interest in the precise definition of who the working class is. Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Anarchism is a Political philosophy encompassing theories and attitudes which support the elimination of all compulsory Government, i Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution Key points of commonality amongst various ideas include the idea that there is one working class, even though it may be internally divided. The idea of one single working class should be contrasted with 18th-century conceptions of many laboring classes.
Marxist definition
Karl Marx defined the "working class" or proletariat as the multitude of individuals who sell their labor power for wages and do not own the means of production, and he defined them as being responsible for creating the wealth of a society. The proletariat (from Latin la ''proles'' "offspring" is a term used to identify a lower Social class; a member of such a class is proletarian A wage is a compensation workers receive in exchange for their labor. Means Of Production is a compilation of Aim 's early 12" and EP releases recorded between 1995 and 1998 Wealth derives from the old English word "weal" which means "well-being For example, the members of this class physically build bridges, craft furniture, fix cars, grow food, and nurse children, but do not themselves own the land, factories or means of production. A factory (previously manufactory) or manufacturing plant is an industrial Building where workers manufacture goods Means Of Production is a compilation of Aim 's early 12" and EP releases recorded between 1995 and 1998
A sub-section of the proletariat, the lumpenproletariat (rag-proletariat), are the extremely poor and unemployed, such as day laborers and homeless people. Lumpenproletariat (a German word meaning "raggedy proletariat" is a term first defined by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in Day labor is work done where the worker is hired and paid one day at a time with no promise that more work will be available in the future Homelessness is the condition and social category of people who lack housing because they cannot afford or are otherwise unable to maintain regular safe and adequate shelter
Marx himself argued that it was the destiny of the working class to displace the capitalist system with socialism, changing the social relationships underpinning the class system and then developing into a future classless and stateless communist society in which "the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all. Capitalism is the Economic system in which the Means of production are owned by private Persons and operated for Profit and where Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based " (From The Communist Manifesto). Manifesto of the Communist Party ( often referred to as The Communist Manifesto, was first published on February 21, 1848, and is
Key issues in Marxist arguments about working class membership include:
- Those in a temporary or permanent position of unemployment. Unemployment occurs when a person is available to work and currently seeking work but the person is without work.
- Domestic labor, particularly the children (see child labor) and also traditionally the wives of male workers who do not themselves work paying jobs outside the home. A domestic worker, domestic, servingman, servingwoman, or servant is one who works and often also lives within the employer's household Child labor is the employment of Children at regular and sustained labour
- Whether the term includes ownership of personal property. Personal property is a type of Property. In the Common law systems personal property may also be called chattels or personalty.
The answers are:
- Unemployed workers are proletariat.
- Class for dependents is determined by primary income earner.
- Personal property is clearly different than private property
- The proletariat can own houses, this is personal property.
- The self-employed worker may be a member of the petite bourgeoisie (for example a highly paid professional, athlete, etc. Petit-bourgeoisie (or petty bourgeois through Folk etymology) is a French term that originally referred to the members of the lower middle social-classes ), or a member of the proletariat (for example a contract worker whose income may be relatively high but is precarious).
- Students' class status depends on that of their family, and also on whether they remain financially dependent on them.
In general, in Marxist terms, wage laborers and those dependent on the welfare state are working class, and those who live on accumulated capital and/or exploit the labor of others are not. Wage slavery is a term first coined by the Lowell Mill Girls in 1836 though articulated as a concept at least as early as Cicero and elaborated by subsequent thinkers This article refers specifically to the Welfare state of the United Kingdom. This dichotomy defines the class struggle as such, with respect to which different fine strata or individuals may at any given time be on one side or the other. Class struggle is the active expression of Class conflict looked at from any kind of socialist perspective For example, retired factory workers are working class in the obvious sense, but to the extent that they live off fixed incomes, financed by stock in corporations whose earnings are profit extracted from current workers, they are not. Fixed income refers to any type of Investment that yields a regular (or fixed return Surplus value is a concept created by Karl Marx in his critique of Political economy, where its ultimate source is unpaid Surplus labor
Other definitions
Identification of a person as a member of the working class is often based on the nature of the work performed (blue collar/white collar), the income, and the extent of formal education. White-collar worker refers to a salaried professional or an educated Worker who performs semi-professional office administrative and sales coordination tasks as opposed to However, studies of social class generally include other traits, such as the basis for the person's access to the means of production, or amount of control that the person has over his work environment. Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions (or stratification) between individuals or groups in Societies or Cultures.
Working-class people are generally paid wages, usually on a weekly or monthly basis. A wage is a compensation workers receive in exchange for their labor. In popular American political discourse, medium-income skilled workers and tradespeople are termed "middle class", despite having minimal investment income, as are college-educated white-collar workers. A skilled worker is any worker who has some special skill, Knowledge, or (usually acquired ability in his work. This article is about the skilled manual worker meaning of the term for other uses see Tradesperson (disambiguation A tradesman is a skilled manual worker
Explanations for the situation of the working class have varied dramatically over the centuries and are still hotly contested. The main points of contention are what causes an individual to be a member of the working class, and what are the causes for troubles faced by the working class.
American working class
- Further information: Social structure of the United States
In the United States, the concept of a working class remains vaguely defined. There is considerable controversy regarding social class in the United States, and it remains a concept with many competing definitions As many members of the working class, as defined by academic models, are often identified in the vernacular as being middle class, there is considerable ambiguity over the term's meaning. Sociologists such as Dennis Gilbert and Joseph Kahl see the working class as the most populous in the United States,[2] while other sociologists such as William Thompson, Joseph Hickey and James Henslin deem the lower middle class slightly more populous. [1][3] In the class models devised by these sociologists, the working class comprises between 30% and 35% of the population, roughly the same percentages as the lower middle class. According to the class model by Dennis Gilbert, the working class compromises those between the 25th and 55th percentile of society. Those in the working class are commonly employed in clerical, retail sales and low-skill manual labor occupations. It should be noted that low-level white-collar employees are included in this class. Economic and occupational insecurity have become a major problem for working-class employees. While out-sourcing has brought considerable economic insecurity to working-class employees in the "traditional" blue collar fields, there is an ever-increasing demand for service personnel, including clerical and retail occupations. [2]
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". . . views were quite varied at every class level, but the values we are calling working-class become increasingly common at lower class levels. . . Kohn's interpretation. . . is based on the idea that the middle-class parents who stress the values of self-control, curiosity, and consideration are cultivating capacities for self-direction. . . while working class parents who focus on obedience, neatness, and good manners are instilling behavioral conformity. " - Dennis Gilbert, The American Class Structure, 1998. [2] |
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The socio-economic disposition of this class is largely a result of lacking educational attainment, which has become more and more essential in the American economy. Members of the working class commonly have a high school diploma and few have some or any college education. With the increasing complexity of the nation's economy, more and more employers require their clerical staff to attain at least some post-secondary education, which in turn provides increased opportunity for working-class employees. Due to differences between middle and working class culture and value systems, working-class college students may face "culture shock" upon entering the post-secondary education system. [4] Research conducted by sociologist Melvin Kohn showed that working-class values emphasized external standards, such as obedience and a strong respect for authority as well as little tolerance for deviance. This is opposed to middle-class individuals who emphasized internal standards, self-direction, curiosity and a tolerance for non-conformity. [2] A class-cultural difference between working and middle class culture noted by other social scientists and professors such as Barbara Jensen shows that middle-class culture tends to be highly individualistic, while working-class culture tends to center around the community. [4] Such cultural value differences are closely linked to an individual's occupation. Working-class employees tend to be closely supervised and thus emphasize external values and obedience. One does need to note, however, that there were great variations in cultural values among the members of all classes and that any statement pertaining to the cultural values of such large social groups needs to be seen as a broad generalization. [2]
According to Rubin (1976) there is a differential in social and emotional skills both between working-class men and women and between the blue-color working-class and college-educated workers. Working-class men are characterized by Rubin as taking a rational posture while women are characterized as being more emotional and oriented towards communication of feelings. This constellation of issues has been explored in the popular media, for example, the television shows, Roseanne or All in the Family featuring Archie Bunker and his wife Edith Bunker. Roseanne is an American sitcom broadcast on ABC from 1988 to 1997 starring Stand-up comedian Roseanne All in the Family is an American Situation comedy that was originally broadcast on the CBS television network from January 12 1971 to April } Archibald "Archie" Bunker was a Fictional character in the long-running and top-rated American television Sitcom All in the Family Edith Bunker ( Née Baines) is a fictional 1970s Sitcom mom on All in the Family (and occasionally Archie Bunker's Place These popular television programs also explored generational change and conflict in working-class families.
Culture and personal characteristics
As the working class is divided among nations, and internally divided along very broad lines of rural, blue collar and white collar occupations, there is no one unitary culture. Working-class cultures tend to be identified on national and occupational bases; for instance, Australian rural working class culture, or New Zealand white-collar working-class culture. There are, however, many stereotypes of the working class. A stereotype (from Greek: stereo + týpos = "solid impression" is a generalized perception of first impressions behaviors presumed by a group These and other stereotypes of working class are studied in painstaking detail by sociologist Isaac Ogburn in "Life at the Bottom".
See also
- Apprentice
- Globalization
- Household income in the United States
- Illegal immigration
- Knowledge worker
- Proletarian literature
- Living wage and Minimum wage
- Social class
- Social mobility
- Trade union
- Unfree labor
- Vocational education
- Wage slavery
- Working class culture
- Skinhead
References
- ^ a b Thompson, William; Joseph Hickey (2005). Apprenticeship is a system of Training a new generation of practitioners of a skill Globalization (or globalisation) in its literal sense is the process of transformation of local or regional phenomena into global ones Household income is a measure of current private income commonly used by the United States government and private institutions Illegal immigration refers to Immigration across National Borders in a way that violates the Immigration laws of the destination Country Knowledge worker (also referred to as as intellectual worker or brain worker) is someone who is employed due to his or her knowledge of a subject matter rather than Proletarian literature refers to a literature tradition created by proletarian authors or working-class writers Living wage is a term used to describe the minimum hourly wage necessary for a person to achieve some specific standard of living A minimum wage is the lowest hourly daily or monthly Wage that employers may legally pay to employees or workers Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions (or stratification) between individuals or groups in Societies or Cultures. White-collar worker refers to a salaried professional or an educated Worker who performs semi-professional office administrative and sales coordination tasks as opposed to The middle class, in colloquial usage consists of those who have some economic independence but not a great deal of social Influence or power. Proletarianization is a concept in Marxism and Marxist Sociology. The proletariat (from Latin la ''proles'' "offspring" is a term used to identify a lower Social class; a member of such a class is proletarian The term ruling class refers to the Social class of a given society that decides upon and sets that society's political policy Reserve army of labour is a concept in Karl Marx 's critique of Political economy. The contemporary concept of the underclass is a sanitized term for what was known in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries as the undeserving poor and may have been coined by American sociologist Lumpenproletariat (a German word meaning "raggedy proletariat" is a term first defined by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in Is a concept in Sociology that refers to the group of people at the top of a Social hierarchy. See also Economic mobility Social mobility is the degree to which in a given society an individual's family's or group's social status A trade union or labour union is an organization of workers who have banded together to achieve common goals in key areas such as wages hours and working conditions forming Unfree labour is a generic or collective term for those work relations especially in modern or early modern history in which people are employed against their will Vocational education or Vocational Education and Training (VET also called Career and Technical Education (CTE prepares learners for jobs that are based Wage slavery is a term first coined by the Lowell Mill Girls in 1836 though articulated as a concept at least as early as Cicero and elaborated by subsequent thinkers Working class culture is a range of Cultures created by or popular among Working class people A skinhead is a member of a Subculture that originated among Working class youths in the United Kingdom in the 1960s and then spread to other parts of Society in Focus. Boston, MA: Pearson. 0-205-41365-X.
- ^ a b c d e f Gilbert, Dennis (1998). The American Class Structure. New York: Wadsworth Publishing. 0-534-50520-1.
- ^ a b Williams, Brian; Stacey C. Sawyer, Carl M. Wahlstrom (2005). Marriages, Families & Intimate Relationships. Boston, MA: Pearson. 0-205-36674-0.
- ^ a b Zweig, Michael (2004). What's Class Got To Do With It, American Society in the Twenty-First Century. New York, NY: Cornell University Press. 0-8014-8899-0.
Further reading
- Engels, Friedrich, Condition of the Working Class in England [in 1844], Stanford University Press (1968), trade paperback, ISBN 0-8047-0634-4 Numerous other editions exist; first published in German in 1845. Better editions include a preface written by Engels in 1892.
- Ernest Mandel, Workers under Neo-capitalism [1]
- Moran, W. (2002). Belles of New England: The women of the textile mills and the families whose wealth they wove. New York: St Martin's Press, ISBN 0-312-30183-9.
- Rubin, Lillian Breslow, Worlds of Pain: Life in the Working Class Family, Basic Books (1976), hardcover ISBN 0-465-09245-4; trade paperback, 268 pages, ISBN 0-465-09724-3
- Shipler, David K. , The Working Poor: Invisible in America, Knopf (2004), hardcover, 322 pages, ISBN 0-375-40890-8
- Skeggs, Beverley. Class, Self, Culture, Routledge, (2004),
- Thompson, E. P, The Making of the English Working Class - paperback Penguin, ISBN 0-14-013603-7
- Zweig, Michael, Working Class Majority: America's Best Kept Secret, Cornell University Press (2001), trade paperback, 198 pages, ISBN 0-8014-8727-7
External links
- The Center for Working-Class Studies at Youngstown State University
- International Labor and Working-Class History
- Images of the working class between 1840 and 1945 from the McCord Museum's online collection
- libcom.org Working Class History page
- The Working-Class poetry of Gerald Massey
- Definition of "Working Class", Dictionary. The Making of the English Working Class is an influential and pivotal work of English social history written by E com
- An introduction to the working class, Prole.info
- Bibliography - WORK, WORKERS AND THEIR WORKPLACES
- List of Working Class Literature
- List of Working Class Videos — Movies, and Documentaries
- Paulo Freire Research Center–Finland
Dictionary
working class
-noun
- The social class of those who perform physical work for a living, as opposed to the professional or middle class, the upper class, or others.
-adjective
- Relating to the working class; suggestive of the working class in manner of speaking, outlook, appearance or other qualities.
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