Witchcraft, in various historical, anthropological, religious and mythological contexts, is the use of certain kinds of supernatural or magical powers. The term supernatural or supranatural ( Latin: super, supra "above" + natura "nature" pertains to entities events Magic, sometimes known as sorcery, is a Conceptual system that asserts human ability to control the natural world (including events objects people and

A witch is a practitioner of witchcraft. While mythological witches are often supernatural creatures, historically many people have been accused of witchcraft, or have claimed to be witches. The word mythology (from the Greek grc μυθολογία mythología, meaning "a story-telling a legendary lore" Witchcraft still exists in a number of belief systems, and indeed there are many today who self-identify with the term "witch" (see below, under Neopaganism).

The majority of Europeans historically accused of witchcraft were women,^[1][2] and in legends and popular culture the stereotype is female; however males were also often referred to as witches. ^[3]

Contents 1 Overview 2 Practices considered to be witchcraft 2.1 Spellcasting 2.2 Conjuring the dead 3 By location 3.1 Europe 3.2 Asia 3.2.1 Ancient Near East 3.2.2 Hebrew Bible 3.2.3 New Testament 3.2.4 Judaism 3.2.5 Islam 3.3 Africa 4 Russia 4.1 Further references 5 Neopaganism 5.1 Wicca 5.2 Judeo-Paganism 5.3 Reconstructive 5.4 Contemporary Witchcraft 6 Witches in popular culture 7 See also 8 Notes 9 External links

Overview

Practices and beliefs that have been termed "witchcraft" do not constitute a single identifiable religion, since they are found in a wide variety of cultures, both present and historical; however these beliefs do generally involve religious elements dealing with spirits or deities, the afterlife, magic and ritual. A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos The English word " spirit " comes from the Latin " spiritus " (breath See also List of deities A deity is a Postulated Preternatural or Supernatural Being, who is always AfterLife is a film drama set in Scotland directed by Alison Peebles made in 2003 about an ambitious Scottish journalist forced to choose between Magic, sometimes known as sorcery, is a Conceptual system that asserts human ability to control the natural world (including events objects people and A ritual is a set of actions often thought to have Symbolic value the performance of which is usually prescribed by a Religion or by the Traditions Witchcraft is generally characterised by its use of magic. Magic, sometimes known as sorcery, is a Conceptual system that asserts human ability to control the natural world (including events objects people and

Sometimes witchcraft is used to refer, broadly, to the practice of using magic , and has a connotation similar to shamanism. Depending on the values of the community, witchcraft in this sense may be regarded with varying degrees of respect or suspicion, or with ambivalence, being neither intrinsically good nor evil. Members of some religions have applied the term witchcraft in a pejorative sense to refer to all magical or ritual practices other than those sanctioned by their own doctrines – although this has become less common, at least in the Western world. The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings According to some religious doctrines, all forms of magic are labelled witchcraft, and are either proscribed or treated as superstitious. Doctrine (Latin doctrina) is a codification of beliefs or "a body of teachings quot or "instructions" taught principles or positions as the Superstition ( Latin superstitio, literally "standing over" derived perhaps from standing in awe used in Latin as a unreasonable or excessive belief Such religions consider their own ritual practices to be not at all magical, but rather simply variations of prayer. Prayer is the act of attempting to communicate with a Deity or spirit

"Witchcraft" is also used to refer, narrowly, to the practice of magic in an exclusively inimical sense. If the community accepts magical practice in general, then there is typically a clear separation between witches (in this sense) and the terms used to describe legitimate practitioners. This use of the term is most often found in accusations against individuals who are suspected of causing harm in the community by way of supernatural means. Belief in witches of this sort has been common among most of the indigenous populations of the world, including Europe, Africa, Asia and the Americas. The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America On occasion such accusations have led to witch hunts. "Witch trial" redirects here For the song by Rush, see Fear series.

Under the monotheistic religions of the Levant (primarily Christianity, and Islam), witchcraft came to be associated with heresy, rising to a fever pitch among the Catholics, Protestants, and secular leadership of the European Late Medieval/Early Modern period and sometimes leading to witch hunts. For the Celtic Frost album see Monotheist (album In Theology, monotheism (from Greek grc [[wiktμόνος μόνος]] See also Names of the Levant The Levant (lə'vænt is a geographical term that denotes a large area in Western Asia, roughly bounded on the north by the Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Heresy is an introduced change to some system of belief especially a religion that conflicts with the previously established canon of that belief Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. Secularity ( adjective form secular) is the state of being separate from Religion. The early modern period is a term initially used by historians to refer mainly to the period roughly from 1500 to 1800 in Western Europe ( Early modern Europe) "Witch trial" redirects here For the song by Rush, see Fear series. Throughout this time, the concept of witchcraft came increasingly to be interpreted as a form of Devil worship. Theistic Satanism also known as Traditional Satanism, is the belief that Satan is an actual Deity or force worthy of reverence or worship Accusations of witchcraft were frequently combined with other charges of heresy against such groups as the Cathars and Waldensians. General description The earliest Waldensians believed in poverty and austerity promoting true poverty public preaching and the personal study of the scriptures

The Malleus Maleficarum, a witch-hunting manual used by both Roman Catholics and Protestants, outlines how to identify a witch, what makes a woman more likely to be a witch, how to put a witch to trial and how to punish a witch. The Malleus Maleficarum (Latin for "The Hammer of Witches" or "Hexenhammer" in German is a famous treatise on Witches written in 1486 by The book defines a witch as evil and typically female.

In the modern Western world, witchcraft accusations have often accompanied the Satanic Ritual Abuse hysteria. Satanic ritual abuse ( SRA, sometimes known as ritual abuse, cult related abuse, ritualized abuse, sadistic ritual abuse, ritual Hysteria in its colloquial use describes a state of Mind, one of unmanageable Fear or Emotional excesses Such accusations are a counterpart to blood libel of various kinds, which may be found throughout history across the globe. Blood libels are sensationalized allegations that a person or group engages in Human sacrifice, often accompanied by the claim that the Blood of victims is used in

Practices considered to be witchcraft

Practices to which the witchcraft label have historically been applied are those which influence another person's mind, body or property against his or her will, or which are believed, by the person doing the labelling, to undermine the social or religious order. Some modern commentators consider the malefic nature of witchcraft to be a Christian projection. The concept of a magic-worker influencing another person's body or property against his or her will was clearly present in many cultures, as there are traditions in both folk magic and religious magic that have the purpose of countering malicious magic or identifying malicious magic users. Many examples can be found in ancient texts, such as those from Egypt and Babylonia. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital Where malicious magic is believed to have the power to influence the mind, body or possessions, malicious magic users can become a credible cause for disease, sickness in animals, bad luck, sudden death, impotence and other such misfortunes. Luck (also called fortunity) is a chance happening, or that which happens beyond a person's control. Witchcraft of a more benign and socially acceptable sort may then be employed to turn the malevolence aside, or identify the supposed evil-doer so that punishment may be carried out. The folk magic used to identify or protect against malicious magic users is often indistinguishable from that used by the witches themselves.

There has also existed in popular belief the concept of white witches and white witchcraft, which is strictly benevolent. Jadis, commonly known as the White Witch, is the main Villain of The Lion the Witch and the Wardrobe, the first published book in C Many neopagan witches strongly identify with this concept, and profess ethical codes that prevent them from performing magic on a person without their request. In the context of a code that is adopted by a profession or by a governmental or quasi-governmental organ to regulate that profession an ethical code may be styled as a code of professional

Where belief in malicious magic practices exists, such practitioners are typically forbidden by law as well as hated and feared by the general populace, while beneficial magic is tolerated or even accepted wholesale by the people – even if the orthodox establishment objects to it.

Spellcasting

Main article: Magic (paranormal)

Probably the most obvious characteristic of a witch was the ability to cast a spell, a "spell" being the word used to signify the means employed to accomplish a magical action. Magic, sometimes known as sorcery, is a Conceptual system that asserts human ability to control the natural world (including events objects people and A spell could consist of a set of words, a formula or verse, or a ritual action, or any combination of these. ^[4] Spells traditionally were cast by many methods, such as by the inscription of runes or sigils on an object to give it magical powers, by the immolation or binding of a wax or clay image (poppet) of a person to affect him or her magically, by the recitation of incantations, by the performance of physical rituals, by the employment of magical herbs as amulets or potions, by gazing at mirrors, swords or other specula (scrying) for purposes of divination, and by many other means. Diabolical signatureA sigil ( or /ˈsɪgəl/ pl sigilia or sigils is a symbol created for a specific magical purpose The word poppet is an older spelling of Puppet, from the Middle English popet meaning a small child or doll An incantation or incantations are the words spoken during a Ritual, either a Hymn or Prayer invoking or praising a Deity, or in magic A ritual is a set of actions often thought to have Symbolic value the performance of which is usually prescribed by a Religion or by the Traditions A(n herb (ˈhɝb or /ˈɝb/ see pronunciation differences) is a plant that is valued for qualities such as medicinal properties flavor scent or the like "Seer stone" redirects here For the usage in Mormonism see Seer stone (Latter Day Saints. ^[5]

Conjuring the dead

Strictly speaking, "necromancy" is the practice of conjuring the spirits of the dead for divination or prophecy - although the term has also been applied to raising the dead for other purposes. Necromancy ( Greek νεκρομαντία nekromantía) is a form of Divination in which the practitioner seeks to summon "operative spirits" Divination (from Latin divinare "to be inspired by a god" related to Divine, Diva and Deus) is the attempt of ascertaining Prophecy, generally describes the disclosing of Information that is not known to the Prophet by any ordinary means The Biblical Witch of Endor is supposed to have performed it (1 Sam. In the First book of Samuel (an ancient Jewish prophetic book included in the collection of texts known to Christians as the Old Testament) chapter, the 28), and it is among the witchcraft practices condemned by Ælfric of Eynsham:

"Yet fares witches to where roads meet, and to heathen burials with their phantom craft and call to them the devil, and he comes to them in the dead man's likeness, as if he from death arises, but she cannot cause that to happen, the dead to arise through her wizardry. Ælfric of Eynsham (the Grammarian) (c 955 &ndash c 1010 was an English Abbot, as well as a consummate prolific writer in Old English of "

By location

Europe

Main article: European witchcraft

The familiar witch of folklore and popular superstition is a combination of numerous influences. History The concept of folklore developed as part of the 19th century ideology of Romantic nationalism, leading to the reshaping of oral traditions to serve modern ideological Superstition ( Latin superstitio, literally "standing over" derived perhaps from standing in awe used in Latin as a unreasonable or excessive belief The characterisation of the witch as an evil magic user developed over time.

Early converts to Christianity looked to Christian clergy to work magic more effectively than the old methods under Roman paganism, and Christianity provided a methodology involving saints and relics, similar to the gods and amulets of the Pagan world. As Christianity became the dominant religion in Europe its concern with magic lessened. ^[6]

The Protestant Christian explanation for witchcraft, such as those typified in the confessions of the Pendle Witches, commonly involve a diabolical pact or at least an appeal to the intervention of the spirits of evil. The Pendle witch trials of 1612 are among the most famous witch trials in English history and some of the best recorded of the 17th century A deal with the Devil, pact with the Devil, or Faustian bargain is a cultural motif widespread wherever the Devil is vividly present most familiar The witches or wizards addicted to such practices were alleged to reject Jesus and the sacraments, observe "the witches' sabbath" (performing infernal rites which often parodied the Mass or other sacraments of the Church), pay Divine honour to the Prince of Darkness, and, in return, receive from him preternatural powers. Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) A sacrament, as defined in Hexam's Concise Dictionary of Religion is "a Rite in which God is uniquely active The Witches' Sabbath or Sabbat is a supposed meeting of those who practice Witchcraft, Satanism, or other rites Mass is a fundamental concept in Physics, roughly corresponding to the Intuitive idea of how much Matter there is in an object Satan, ( Standard Hebrew Satan'el, English accuser) is a term that originates from the Abrahamic faiths, being traditionally The preternatural or praeternatural is that which appears outside or beyond (Latin præter) the natural. Witches were most often characterized as women. Witches disrupted the societal institutions, and more specifically, marriage. It was believed that a witch often joined a pact with the devil to gain powers to deal with infertility, immense fear for her children's well-being, or revenge against a lover.

The Church and European society was not always obsessed with hunting witches and blaming them for bad occurrences. Saint Boniface declared in the 8th century that belief in the existence of witches was un-Christian. Saint Boniface ( Latin: Bonifacius c 672 – June 5, 754) the Apostle of the Germans, born Winfrid or Wynfrith at The emperor Charlemagne decreed that the burning of supposed witches was a pagan custom that would be punished by the death penalty. Charlemagne (ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus meaning Charles the Great) (747 – 28 January 814 was King of the Franks from 768 to his Capital punishment, the death penalty or execution, is the Killing of a person by judicial process as Punishment. In 820 the Bishop of Lyon and others repudiated the belief that witches could make bad weather, fly in the night, and change their shape. This denial was accepted into Canon law until it was reversed in later centuries as the witch-hunt gained force. Canon law is internal ecclesiastical law governing the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox churches and the Anglican Communion of churches "Witch trial" redirects here For the song by Rush, see Fear series. Other rulers such as King Coloman of Hungary declared that witch-hunts should cease because witches (more specifically, strigas) do not exist. Coloman I the Book-lover (I (Könyves Kálmán) also spelled Koloman (c

The Church did not invent the idea of witchcraft as a potentially harmful force whose practitioners should be put to death. This idea is commonplace in pre-Christian religions and is a logical consequence of belief in magic. According to the scholar Max Dashu, the concept of medieval witchcraft contained many of its elements even before the emergence of Christianity. These can be found in Bacchanalias, especially in the time when they were led by priestess Paculla Annia (188-186). The bacchanalia were wild and mystic festivals of the Roman and Greek god Bacchus. Paculla Annia was a priestess from the southern Italian region of Campania.

However, even at a later date, not all witches were assumed to be harmful practicers of the craft. In England, the provision of this curative magic was the job of a witch doctor, also known as a cunning man, white witch, or wiseman. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland A witch doctor often refers to Healers in Third world regions who use traditional healing rather than Science or developed Medicine. In English history, the cunning man or cunning woman is a professional or semi-professional folk magic user up until the 20th century and to a lesser degree Jadis, commonly known as the White Witch, is the main Villain of The Lion the Witch and the Wardrobe, the first published book in C The term "witch doctor" was in use in England before it came to be associated with Africa. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland Toad doctors were also credited with the ability to undo evil witchcraft. Toad doctors were practitioners of a specific tradition of medicinal folk magic, operating in Western England until the end of the 19th Century (Other folk magicians had their own purviews. Girdle-measurers specialised in diagnosing ailments caused by fairies, while magical cures for more mundane ailments, such as burns or toothache, could be had from charmers. Girdle-measurers were practitioners of a specific type of curative English Folk magic. For the Kings of Leon song see Charmer (song. Charmers were English practitioners of a specific kind of folk magic specialising )

"In the north of England, the superstition lingers to an almost inconceivable extent. Lancashire abounds with witch-doctors, a set of quacks, who pretend to cure diseases inflicted by the devil. . . The witch-doctor alluded to is better known by the name of the cunning man, and has a large practice in the counties of Lincoln and Nottingham. "^[7]

Such "cunning-folk" did not refer to themselves as witches and objected to the accusation that they were such. Caprichos is a set of 80 Aquatint prints created by the Spanish artist Francisco Goya during the 1790s Records from the Middle Ages, however, make it appear that it was, quite often, not entirely clear to the populace whether a given practitioner of magic was a witch or one of the cunning-folk. In addition, it appears that much of the populace was willing to approach either of these groups for healing magic and divination. When a person was known to be a witch, the populace would still seek to employ their healing skills; however, as was not the case with cunning-folk, members of the general population would also hire witches to curse their enemies. The important distinction is that there are records of the populace reporting alleged witches to the authorities as such, whereas cunning-folk were not so incriminated; they were more commonly prosecuted for accusing the innocent or defrauding people of money.

The long-term result of this amalgamation of distinct types of magic-worker into one is the considerable present-day confusion as to what witches actually did, whether they harmed or healed, what role (if any) they had in the community, whether they can be identified with the "witches" of other cultures and even whether they existed as anything other than a projection. Present-day beliefs about the witches of history attribute to them elements of the folklore witch, the charmer, the cunning man or wise woman, the diviner and the astrologer. For the Kings of Leon song see Charmer (song. Charmers were English practitioners of a specific kind of folk magic specialising Astrology (from Greek grc ἄστρον astron, "constellation star" and grc -λογία -logia) is a group of Systems

Powers typically attributed to European witches include turning food poisonous or inedible, flying on broomsticks or pitchforks, casting spells, cursing people, making livestock ill and crops fail, and creating fear and local chaos.

See also:

• Malleus Maleficarum
• Witch-hunt
• Flying ointment
• Stregheria (Italian Witchcraft)
• Sorginak (Basque witches)

Asia

Main article: Asian witchcraft

Ancient Near East

The belief in witchcraft and its practice seem to have been widespread in the past. The Malleus Maleficarum (Latin for "The Hammer of Witches" or "Hexenhammer" in German is a famous treatise on Witches written in 1486 by "Witch trial" redirects here For the song by Rush, see Fear series. Flying ointment, also known as witches' flying ointment, green ointment, magic salve and lycanthropic ointment, is a hallucinogenic Stregheria is an archaic Italian word meaning " Witchcraft " that has been revived principally by Raven Grimassi, to refer to an Italian Sorginak (radical sorgin, sing (nom int sorgina) are the assistants of the goddess Mari in Basque mythology. Asian Witchcraft is the Witchcraft of Asia Middle East Ancient Near East See also Lilitu The belief in witchcraft Both in ancient Egypt and in Babylonia it played a conspicuous part, as existing records plainly show. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital It will be sufficient to quote a short section from the Code of Hammurabi (about 2000 B. The Code of Hammurabi ( Codex Hammurabi) is the best-preserved ancient Law code, created ca C. ). It is there prescribed,

If a man has put a spell upon another man and it is not justified, he upon whom the spell is laid shall go to the holy river; into the holy river shall he plunge. If the holy river overcome him and he is drowned, the man who put the spell upon him shall take possession of his house. If the holy river declares him innocent and he remains unharmed the man who laid the spell shall be put to death. He that plunged into the river shall take possession of the house of him who laid the spell upon him. ^[8]

Hebrew Bible

In the Hebrew Bible references to witchcraft are frequent, and the strong condemnations of such practices found there do not seem to be based so much upon the supposition of fraud as upon the abomination of the magic in itself. The term Hebrew Bible is a generic reference to those books of the Bible originally written in Biblical Hebrew (and the related Biblical Aramaic In the broadest sense a fraud is a Deception made for personal gain or to damage another individual

Verses such as Deuteronomy 18:11-12 and Exodus 22:18 "Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live" provided scriptural justification for Christian witch hunters in the early Modern Age (see Christian views on witchcraft). Deuteronomy (Greek deuteronomion, Δευτερονόμιον "second law" is the fifth book of the Hebrew Bible and of the Old Testament Exodus ( Greek: έξοδος eksodos = "departure" is the second book of the Jewish Torah and of the Christian Old Testament. "Witch trial" redirects here For the song by Rush, see Fear series. The term modern period or modern era (sometimes also modern times) is the period of history that followed the Middle Ages between c Christian views on magic vary widely across Denominational and individual barriers and are often influenced by Biblical, Theological, and historical The word "witch" is a translation of the Hebrew kashaph, "sorcerer". The Bible provides some evidence that these commandments were enforced under the Hebrew kings:

"And Saul disguised himself, and put on other raiment, and he went, and two men with him, and they came to the woman by night: and he said, I pray thee, divine unto me by the familiar spirit, and bring me him up, whom I shall name unto thee. In Early modern English Superstition, a familiar spirit, Imp, or familiar (from Middle English familiar, related to family And the woman said unto him, Behold, thou knowest what Saul hath done, how he hath cut off those that have familiar spirits, and the wizards, out of the land: wherefore then layest thou a snare for my life, to cause me to die?"^[9] (The Hebrew verb "Hichrit" (הכרית) translated in the King James as "cut off", can also be translated as "kill wholesale" or "exterminate")

New Testament

See also: Christian views on witchcraft

The New Testament condemns the practice as an abomination, just as the Old Testament had (Galatians 5:20, compared with Revelation 21:8; 22:15; and Acts 8:9; 13:6). Bible Authorized King James Version King James Version (disambiguation Monarchs Scottish Christian views on magic vary widely across Denominational and individual barriers and are often influenced by Biblical, Theological, and historical The Epistle to the Galatians is a book of the New Testament. It is a letter from Paul of Tarsus to a number of early Christian communities in the Roman province of The Book of Revelation, also called Revelation to John, Apocalypse of John ( pronounced, from the Ἀποκάλυψις Ἰωάννου The Acts of the Apostles is a book of the Bible, which now stands fifth in the New Testament. The word in most New Testament translations is "sorcerer"/"sorcery" rather than "witch"/"witchcraft".

Judaism

Jewish law views the practice of witchcraft as being laden with idolatry and/or necromancy; both being serious theological and practical offenses in Judaism. Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut Idolatry is usually defined as Worship of any Cult image, Idea, or object, as opposed to the worship of a monotheistic God. Necromancy ( Greek νεκρομαντία nekromantía) is a form of Divination in which the practitioner seeks to summon "operative spirits" According to Traditional Judaism, it is acknowledged that while magic exists, it is forbidden to practice it on the basis that it usually involves the worship of other gods. Conservadox is the term sometimes used to describe Jews whose beliefs and practices place them on the religious continuum somewhere between Conservative Judaism Rabbis of the Talmud also condemned magic when it produced something other than illusion, giving the example of two men who use magic to pick cucumbers (Sanhedrin 67a). The one who creates the illusion of picking cucumbers should not be condemned, only the one who actually picks the cucumbers through magic. However, some of the Rabbis practiced "magic" themselves. For instance, Rabbah created a person and sent him to Rabbi Zera, and Rabbi Hanina and Rabbi Oshaia studied every Sabbath evening together and created a small calf to eat (Sanhedrin 65b). In these cases, the "magic" was seen more as divine miracles (i. e. , coming from God rather than pagan gods) than as witchcraft. God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity.

Judaism also makes clear that witchcraft while always forbidden to Jews, may be performed by Gentiles outside the holy land (i. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ The term Gentile (from Latin, gentilis, meaning of or belonging to a clan or tribe refers to non- Israelite tribes or nations in the Bible. e. Israel). For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics.

Islam

Divination and Magic in Islam encompass a wide range of practices, including black magic, warding off the evil eye, the production of amulets and other magical equipment, conjuring, casting lots, astrology and physiognomy. Magic, sometimes known as sorcery, is a Conceptual system that asserts human ability to control the natural world (including events objects people and Black magic or dark magic is a form of sorcery that draws on malevolent powers Muslims do commonly believe in magic (Sihr) and explicitly forbid its practice. Sihr translates from Arabic as sorcery or black magic. The best known reference to magic in Islam is the Surah Al-Falaq (meaning dawn or daybreak), which is a prayer to ward off black magic. Sura (sometimes spelt "Surah" ar سورة, plural "Suwar" ar سور is an Arabic term literally meaning "something enclosed or surrounded Sura Al-Falaq (سورة الفلق) ( Dawn, Daybreak) is the 113th Sura of the Qur'an.

Say: I seek refuge with the Lord of the Dawn From the mischief of created things; From the mischief of Darkness as it overspreads; From the mischief of those who practise secret arts; And from the mischief of the envious one as he practises envy. (Quran 113:1-5, translation by YusufAli)

Many Muslims believe that the devils taught sorcery to mankind:

And they follow that which the devils falsely related against the kingdom of Solomon. King Solomon ( Ge'ez: ስለሞን Arabic: ar سليمان, Sulayman, all from the Triliteral root S-L-M, "peace" Solomon disbelieved not; but the devils disbelieved, teaching mankind sorcery and that which was revealed to the two angels in Babel, Harut and Marut. . . . And surely they do know that he who trafficketh therein will have no (happy) portion in the Hereafter; and surely evil is the price for which they sell their souls, if they but knew. (al-Qur'an 2:102)

However, whereas performing miracles in Islamic thought and belief is reserved for only Messengers and Prophets; supernatural acts are also believed to be performed by Awliyaa - the spiritually accomplished. Disbelief in the miracles of the Prophets is considered an act of disbelief; belief in the miracles of any given pious individual is not. Neither are regarded as magic, but as signs of Allah at the hands of those close to Him that occur by His will and His alone.

Muslim practitioners commonly seek the help of the Jinn (singular--jinni) in magic. GEnie (General Electric Network for Information Exchange was an online service It is a common belief that jinn can possess a human, thus requiring Exorcism. Exorcism (from Late Latin exorcismus, from Greek exorkizein - to adjure is the practice of evicting Demons or other evil (The belief in jinn is part of the Muslim faith. Imam Muslim narrated the Prophet said: "Allah created the angels from light, created the jinn from the pure flame of fire, and Adam from that which was described to you (i. Abul Husayn Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj Qushayri al-Nisapuri ( Arabic: أبو الحسين مسلم بن الحجاج القشيري النيشابوري (lived c e. , the clay. )") To cast off the jinn from the body of the possessed, the "ruqya," which is from the Prophet's sunnah is used. Sunnah ar (سنة plural سنن Sunan literally means “trodden path” and therefore the sunnah of the prophet means “the way and the manners of the prophet” The ruqya contains verses of the Qur'an as well as prayers which are specifically targeted against demons. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran The knowledge of which verses of the Qur'an to use in what way is what is considered "magic knowledge". The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran

Students of the history of religion have linked several magical practises in Islam with pre-islamic Turkish and East African customs. Most notable of these customs is the Zar Ceremony. Zār or Zaar ( زار) is a Pagan religious custom apparently originating in central Ethiopia during the eighteenth century ^[10][11]

In 2006 Fawza Falih Muhammad Ali, a citizen of Saudi Arabia, was condemned to death for practicing witchcraft. Fawza Falih Muhammad Ali is a Saudi woman who made international headlines after she was condemned to death for practicing Witchcraft in 2006 ^[12]

Africa

Africans have a wide range of views of traditional religions. African Christians typically accept Christian dogma as do their counterparts in Latin America and Asia. The term witch doctor, often attributed to Zulu inyanga, has been misconstrued to mean "a healer who uses witchcraft" rather than its original meaning of "one who diagnoses and cures maladies caused by witches". A witch doctor often refers to Healers in Third world regions who use traditional healing rather than Science or developed Medicine. Inyanga is also the former name of the Zimbabwean city of Nyanga. Combining Roman Catholic beliefs and practices and traditional West African religious beliefs and practices are several syncretic religions in the Americas, including Vodou, Obeah, Candomblé, Quimbanda and Santería. West Africa or Western Africa is the Westernmost Region of the African Continent. The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America vodoo, vodun, or vodoun may refer to any of West African vodun, a west African religion Haitian vodou, mostly derived Obeah (sometimes spelled "Obi" is a term used in the West Indies to refer to Folk magic, sorcery, and religious practices derived from Central Candomblé (pronounced /kɐ̃dõˈblɛ/is an African-originated or Afro-Brazilian religion practiced chiefly in Brazil. Quimbanda is an Afro-American religion practiced in Brazil. It is often also called Macumba and found mostly in urban areas such as Rio de Janeiro Santería, also known as La Regla de Lukumi (Lukumi's Rule and The Way of the Saints is an Afro-Cuban religious tradition derived from traditional beliefs

In Southern African traditions, there are three classifications of somebody who uses magic. Southern Africa is the Southernmost Region of the African Continent, variably defined by Geography or Geopolitics. The thakathi is usually improperly translated into English as "witch", and is a spiteful person who operates in secret to harm others. In South African English a tagati is a wizard, Witch, or a spiteful person who operates in secret to harm others or who uses use Poisons and The sangoma is a diviner, somewhere on a par with a fortune teller, and is employed in detecting illness, predicting a person's future (or advising them on which path to take), or identifying the guilty party in a crime. A sangoma is a practitioner of Herbal medicine, Divination and counselling in traditional Nguni ( Zulu, Xhosa, Ndebele and Fortune-telling is the practice of predicting the future usually of an individual through mystical or supernatural means and often for commercial gain She also practices some degree of medicine. Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the The inyanga is often translated as "witch doctor" (though many Southern Africans resent this implication, as it perpetuates the mistaken belief that a "witch doctor" is in some sense a practitioner of malicious magic). The inyanga's job is to heal illness and injury and provide customers with magical items for everyday use. Of these three categories the thakatha is almost exclusively female, the sangoma is usually female, and the inyanga is almost exclusively male.

In some Central African areas, malicious magic users are believed by locals to be the source of terminal illness such as AIDS and cancer. Central Africa is a core Region of the African Continent often considered to include Burundi, the Central African Republic, Chad Terminal illness is a medical term popularized in the 20th century to describe an active and Malignant Disease that cannot be cured or adequately treated Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled In such cases, various methods are used to rid the person from the bewitching spirit, occasionally Physical abuse and Psychological abuse. Physical abuse is abuse involving contact intended to cause feelings of intimidation Pain, Injury, or other physical Suffering or Harm. Psychological abuse or emotional abuse is a form of abuse characterized by a person subjecting or exposing another to behavior that is psychologically harmful Children may be accused of being witches, for example a young niece may be blamed for the illness of a relative. Most of these cases of abuse go unreported since the members of the society that witness such abuse are too afraid of being accused of being accomplices. It is also believed that witchcraft can be transmitted to children by feeding. Parents discourage their children from interacting with people believed to be witches.

Russia

Russia, and its surrounding area for example, have, much like other cultures, their own witchcraft and superstitious tales. And again, much like other societies, these tales clash with those of the church and traditional religious thoughts. However, today, acceptance of healing practices in contemporary Russian folklore are common. By looking at the different types of superstitions then understanding their purposes we can comprehend their impact on the people and the church and can better understand the culture of Russia and its folklore.

Casual encounters are ones of surprise and unexpectedness and puts the character at the mercy of the supernatural being. The ritual encounter however, is a more planned event, where the individual is the subject and he or she knows beforehand the kind of experience they will take part in. The Russian word for witch, ведьма (ved'ma), shows exactly that (the literal translation means "The one who knows"). Russia, as well as many other cultures, produces tales with both encounters. These parts of folklore including omens, guardian spirits, and fate – all have little to do with the eastern orthodox religion yet seem to appear in much of the folklore of the 19th century. Eastern Orthodox Christian theology is the Theology particular to the Eastern Orthodox Church. Visual omens, often in dreams, are well-known, including a gloved man indicating death, fish predicting marital luck, and children’s games foretelling marital life, fertility and even wars. Passed down are tales of how other indicators, include the crying of a baby that is not within sight, the hammering of nails off in the distance, and also ringing of the ears, can foretell different things. ^[13]

Further references

• Lindquest, Galina. Conjuring Hope: Healing and Magic in Contemporary Russia. Vol. 1. New York: Berghahn Books, 2006.
• Pentikainen, Juha. "Marnina Takalo as an Individual. " C. Jstor. 26 Feb. 2007.
• Pentikainen, Juha. "The Supernatural Experience. " F. Jstor. 26 Feb. 2007.
• Moore, Henrietta L. and Todd Sanders 2001. Magical Interpretations, Material Realities: Modernity, Witchcraft and the Occult in Postcolonial Africa. London: Routledge.
• Worobec, Caroline. "Witchcraft Beliefs and Practices in Prerevolutionary Russia and Ukrainian Villages. " Jstor. 27 Feb. 2007.

Neopaganism

Modern practices identified by their practitioners as "witchcraft" have arisen in the twentieth century which may be broadly subsumed under the heading of Neopaganism. However, as forms of Neopaganism can be quite different and have very different origins, these representations can vary considerably despite the shared name.

Wicca

Main article: Wicca

During the 20th century interest in witchcraft in English-speaking and European countries began to increase, inspired particularly by Margaret Murray's theory of a pan-European witch-cult originally published in 1921, since discredited by further careful historical research. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Margaret Alice Murray ( July 13 1863 &ndash November 13 1963) was a prominent British Anthropologist and Egyptologist ^[14] Interest was intensified, however, by Gerald Gardner's claim in 1954 in Witchcraft Today that a form of witchcraft still existed in England. Gerald Brousseau Gardner ( June 13 1884 - February 12 1964) was an English civil servant amateur anthropologist England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland The truth of Gardner's claim is now disputed too, with different historians offering evidence for^[15][16] or against^[17][18] the religion's existence prior to Gardner.

The Wicca that Gardner initially taught was a witchcraft religion having a lot in common with Margaret Murray's hypothetically posited cult of the 1920s. ^[19] Indeed Murray wrote an introduction to Gardner's Witchcraft Today, in effect putting her stamp of approval on it. Wicca is now practised as a religion of an initiatory secret society nature with positive ethical principles, organised into autonomous covens and led by a High Priesthood. Initiation is a Rite of passage Ceremony marking entrance or acceptance into a group or society Secret society is a term used to describe a variety of organizations Coven or covan was originally a late medieval Scots word (c1500 meaning a gathering of any kind according to the Oxford English Dictionary There is also a large "Eclectic Wiccan" movement of individuals and groups who share key Wiccan beliefs but have no initiatory connection or affiliation with traditional Wicca. Wiccan writings and ritual show borrowings from a number of sources including 19th and 20th century ceremonial magic, the medieval grimoire known as the Key of Solomon, Aleister Crowley's Ordo Templi Orientis and pre-Christian religions. Ceremonial magic is a broad term used to encompass a wide variety of long elaborate and complex Rituals it is named as such because the works included are characterized by The Key of Solomon, Clavis Salomonis, is a medieval book on magic originally attributed to King Solomon. Aleister Crowley, born Edward Alexander Crowley (ˈkroʊli (12 October 1875 – 1 December 1947 was a British Occultist Writer, mountaineer Ordo Templi Orientis (OTO ( Order of the Temple of the East, or the Order of Oriental Templars) is an international fraternal and Religious ^[20][21][22] Both men and women are equally termed "witches. " They practice a form of duotheistic universalism. Dualism denotes a state of two parts The word's origin is the Latin duo, "two". Universalism can be classified as a Religion, Theology and Philosophy that generally holds all persons and creatures are related to God or the Divine and

Since Gardner's death in 1964 the Wicca that he claimed he was initiated into has attracted many initiates, becoming the largest of the various witchcraft traditions in the Western world, and has influenced various occult movements and groups. In particular it has inspired a large movement of "sole practitioners", who are not initiated into the original lineage but live according to practices and beliefs that are in keeping with the original tenets of the religion, most notably the "Three Laws".

Judeo-Paganism

Some Neopagans study and practice forms of magery based on a syncretism between classical Jewish mysticism and modern witchcraft. Neopaganism or Neo-Paganism is an Umbrella term used to identify a wide variety of modern religious movements particularly those influenced by historical Magic, sometimes known as sorcery, is a Conceptual system that asserts human ability to control the natural world (including events objects people and Syncretism consists of the attempt to reconcile disparate or contradictory beliefs often while melding practices of various schools of thought Kabbalah (קַבָּלָה lit "receiving" is a discipline and school of thought discussing the mystical aspect of Judaism. (See "The Witches Qabalah", in the list of references below. ) These practitioners tend to identify with Judeo-Paganism (also known as Jewish Paganism), and/or practice Jewitchery, or Jewish Witchcraft. Jewitchery (from the terms Jew and witch, "shaman"/"sage" in its pure meaning or Jewish Neopaganism is a religious movement that These individuals and groups either borrow from existing Jewish magical traditions or reconstruct rituals based on Judaism and NeoPaganism. Several references on these subjects include Ellen Cannon Reed's book "The Witches Qabala: The Pagan Path and the Tree of Life" and "The Hebrew Goddess", by Raphael Patai. Ellen Cannon Reed ( 21 March 1943 &ndash 7 October 2003) was the most widely known Priestess of the Isian Tradition of Raphael Patai ( November 22, 1910 - July 20, 1996) born Ervin György Patai, was a Hungarian-Jewish Ethnographer

Reconstructive

Main article: Polytheistic reconstructionism

The basis of various historical forms of witchcraft find their roots in pre-Christian cultural practices. Polytheistic reconstructionism, or simply Reconstructionism, is an approach to Neopaganism first emerging in the late 1960s to early 1970s and gatherig momentum There has been a strong movement to recreate pre-Christian traditions where the old forms have been lost for various reasons, including practices such as Divination, Seid and various forms of Shamanism. Divination (from Latin divinare "to be inspired by a god" related to Divine, Diva and Deus) is the attempt of ascertaining Seid or seiðr is an Old Norse term for a type of Sorcery or Witchcraft which was practiced by the pre-Christian Norse. There have been a number of pagan practitioners such as Paul Huson^[23] claiming inheritance to non-Gardnerian traditions as well. Paul Huson is a British -born author and artist currently living in the United States. ^[24]

Contemporary Witchcraft

Main article: Contemporary Witchcraft

Contemporary witchcraft in Western cultures is a spiritual and magical practice, which may have strong religious elements to it. This article is about Contemporary Witchcraft click here for Wicca Contemporary, or Modern, Witchcraft is a term that refers to any one Many modern witches see themselves as reviving ancient practices, mostly of European and British origin. The religious beliefs of witches can vary; many are strongly influenced by Wicca and Neopaganism, while others hold Abrahamic or other religious views, or none at all. Neopaganism or Neo-Paganism is an Umbrella term used to identify a wide variety of modern religious movements particularly those influenced by historical Contemporary witchcraft often involves the use of divination, magic, and working with the classical elements and unseen forces such as spirits and the forces of nature. Magic, sometimes known as sorcery, is a Conceptual system that asserts human ability to control the natural world (including events objects people and Many ancient philosophies used a set of archetypal classical "elements" to explain patterns in Nature. The practice of natural medicine, folk medicine, and spiritual healing is also common, as are alternative medical and New Age healing practices. The term traditional medicine ( Indigenous medicine or folk medicine) describes medical knowledge systems which developed over centuries within various societies New Age ( New Age Movement and New Age Spirituality) is a Social Collective Phenomenon and a Spiritual Nature Some schools of modern witchcraft, such as traditional forms of Wicca, are secretive and operate as initiatory secret societies. Initiation is a Rite of passage Ceremony marking entrance or acceptance into a group or society Secret society is a term used to describe a variety of organizations

Witches in popular culture

Especially in media aimed at children (such as fairy tales), witches are often depicted as wicked old women with wrinkled skin and pointy hats, clothed in black or purple, with warts on their noses and sometimes long claw-like fingernails. A fairy tale or fairy story is a fictional Story that may feature folkloric characters (such as fairies, enchantments]] often involving Pointy hats have been a distinctive item of Headgear of a wide range of cultures throughout history in particular suggesting an ancient Indo-European tradition A wart (also known as verruca) is generally a small rough Tumor, typically on hands and feet but often other locations that can resemble a Cauliflower A claw is a curved pointed appendage found at the end of a toe or finger in most Mammals, Birds, and some Reptiles. Like the Three Witches from Macbeth, they are often portrayed as concocting potions in large cauldrons. Macbeth is among the best-known of William Shakespeare 's plays, and is his shortest tragedy, believed to have been written some time between Witches typically ride through the air on a broomstick as in the Harry Potter universe or in more modern spoof versions, a vacuum cleaner as in the Hocus Pocus universe. A broom is a Cleaning Tool consisting of stiff fibres attached to and roughly parallel to a cylindrical handle, the broomstick. Harry Potter is a series of seven Fantasy novels written by British author J A vacuum cleaner (in colloquial British English also hoover) is a device that uses an air Pump to create a partial Vacuum to Suck Hocus Pocus is a children's 1993 Halloween -themed film released by Disney, and directed by Kenny Ortega (known mainly for his They are often accompanied by black cats. A black cat is a Felid whose fur is uniformly black It is not a particular breed of cat and may be mixed or of a specific breed One of the most famous recent depictions is the Wicked Witch of the West, from L. Frank Baum's The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. The Wicked Witch of the West (or simply The Wicked Witch) is a character in the fictional Land of Oz created by American author L Lyman Frank Baum ( May 15 1856 &ndash May 5 1919) was an American Author, Actor, and Independent filmmaker

Witches may also be depicted as essentially good, as in Bewitched, or Terry Pratchett's Discworld novels, as well as in the television show Charmed, where the main characters are witches and they must protect the innocents from demons and other malevolent creatures. Bewitched is an American Situation comedy originally broadcast for eight seasons on ABC from 1964 to 1972. Terence David John Pratchett, OBE (born 28 April 1948 is an English fantasy, Science fiction, and children's author. Discworld is a comedic Fantasy Book series by the British author Terry Pratchett, set on the Discworld, a flat

Following the movie The Craft, popular fictional depictions of witchcraft have increasingly drawn from Wiccan practices, and portrayed witchcraft as having a religious basis. The Craft is a 1996 Horror film directed by Andrew Fleming and starring Robin Tunney, Rachel True, Fairuza Balk

Though now in modern culture witches can be depicted as just normal looking humans such as Harry Potter and the line between "good and evil" is becoming less distinct. Harry Potter is a series of seven Fantasy novels written by British author J

See also

Notes

External links

• The Witches' Voice 1997-2007 The Witches' Voice Inc
• Bibliography for the Study of Magic Witchcraft and Religion, James Dow, Professor of Anthropology at Oakland University
• Some historical notes on the witch-craze from historian Trevor Roper
• Kabbalah On Witchcraft - A Jewish view (Audio) chabad. org
• Over One Hundred Free Articles On Witchcraft
• Jewish Encyclopedia: Witchcraft
• Witchcraft in the Catholic Encyclopedia on (New Advent)
• Witchcraft and Devil Lore in the Channel Islands, 1886, by John Linwood Pitts, from Project Gutenberg
• A Treatise of Witchcraft, 1616, by Alexander Roberts, from Project Gutenberg
• [2] Traditional British witchcraft site. Project Gutenberg, abbreviated as PG, is a volunteer effort to Digitize, archive and distribute Cultural works
• University of Edinburgh's Scottish witchcraft database

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