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For other uses, see Werewolf (disambiguation).
A German woodcut from 1722
A German woodcut from 1722

Werewolves, also known as lycanthropes, are mythologic humans with the ability to shapeshift into a wolf or wolflike creature, either purposely, by eating Henbane, being bitten by a werewolf or after being placed under a curse. The word mythology (from the Greek grc μυθολογία mythología, meaning "a story-telling a legendary lore" Shapeshifting is a common theme in Mythology and Folklore, as well as in Science fiction and Fantasy. The grey wolf or gray wolf ( Canis lupus) also known as the timber wolf or simply wolf, is a Mammal of the order Carnivora Henbane ( Hyoscyamus niger) also known as stinking nightshade, is a plant of the family Solanaceae These psychoactive properties include visual A curse (also called execration) is any manner of Adversity thought to be inflicted by any supernatural power (such as a spell, a Prayer, an The medieval chronicler Gervase of Tilbury associated the transformation with the appearance of the full moon; however, there is evidence that the association existed among the ancient Greeks, appearing in the writings of Petronius. Gervase of Tilbury (c1150 – c 1228 was a 13th century Canon lawyer statesman and writer apparently born in either East Tilbury or West Tilbury, in Full moon is a Lunar phase that occurs when the Moon is on the opposite side of the Earth from the Sun. The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions Petronius (ca 27–66 was a Roman writer of the Neronian age he was a noted satirist. This concept was rarely associated with the werewolf until the idea was picked up by Gervase. Werewolves have been mentioned in many forms of media, such as the Harry Potter series, and are usually described as vicious monsters. Harry Potter is a series of seven Fantasy novels written by British author J

Shape-shifters similar to werewolves are common in tales from all over the world, though most of them involve animal forms other than wolves. Shapeshifting is a common theme in Mythology and Folklore, as well as in Science fiction and Fantasy.

Werewolves are a frequent subject of modern fictional books and films, although fictional werewolves have been attributed traits distinct from those of original folklore, most notably the vulnerability to silver bullets. Fiction is the telling of stories which are not real More specifically fiction is an imaginative form of Narrative, one of the four basic Rhetorical modes. A Book is a set or collection of written printed illustrated or blank sheets made of Paper, Parchment, or other material usually fastened together The Metaphor of the Silver Bullet applies to any straightforward solution perceived to have extreme effectiveness [1]

Contents

Origins

Many authors have speculated that werewolf and vampire legends may have been used to explain serial killings in less rationalistic ages. Vampires are mythological or folkloric revenants who subsist by feeding on the blood of the living This theory is given credence by the tendency of some modern serial killers to indulge in practices commonly associated with werewolves, such as cannibalism, mutilation, and cyclic attacks. The idea (although not the terminology) is well explored in Sabine Baring-Gould's seminal work The Book of Werewolves. The Reverend Sabine Baring-Gould ( 28 January 1834 &ndash 2 January 1924) was an English Hagiographer, Antiquarian, novelist

A recent theory has been proposed to explain werewolf episodes in Europe in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Ergot, which causes a form of foodborne illness, is a fungus that grows in place of rye grains in wet growing seasons after very cold winters. Ergot is the common name of a Fungus in the Genus Claviceps that is parasitic on certain grains and grasses Foodborne illness (also foodborne disease) is any Illness resulting from the consumption of food A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ Rye ( Secale cereale) is a grass grown extensively as a grain and forage crop Ergot poisoning usually affects whole towns or poor sections of towns, resulting in hallucinations and convulsions. A hallucination, in the broadest sense is a Perception in the absence of a stimulus. An epileptic seizure is caused by excessive and/or hypersynchronous electrical Neuronal activity and is usually self-limiting (The hallucinogen LSD was originally derived from ergot). Ergot poisoning has been propounded as both a cause of an individual believing that one is a werewolf and of a whole town believing that they had witnessed a werewolf. This theory, however, is controversial and not widely accepted.

Some modern researchers have tried to use conditions such as rabies, hypertrichosis (excessive hair growth over the entire body), or porphyria (an enzyme disorder with symptoms including hallucinations and paranoia) to explain werewolf beliefs. Rabies (from rabies “madness rage fury” Also known as “ hydrophobia ” is a viral Zoonotic neuroinvasive disease that Hypertrichosis, congenital generalized Hypertrichosis or werewolf syndrome is a medical term referring to a condition of excessive body Hair. Porphyrias are a group of inherited or acquired disorders of certain Enzymes in the Heme biosynthetic pathway (also called Porphyrin pathway Congenital erythropoietic porphyria has clinical features which include hairy hands and face, poorly healing skin, pink urine, reddish colour to the teeth, and photosensitivity, the latter of which leads sufferers to only go out at night. Porphyrias are a group of inherited or acquired disorders of certain Enzymes in the Heme biosynthetic pathway (also called Porphyrin pathway Photosensitivity is the amount to which an object reacts upon receiving Photons especially Visible light.

There is also a rare mental disorder called clinical lycanthropy, in which an affected person has a delusional belief that he or she is, or has transformed into, another animal, but not necessarily a wolf or werewolf. Mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as Clinical lycanthropy is defined as a rare Psychiatric syndrome which involves a Delusion that the affected person can or has transformed into an Animal, A delusion is commonly defined as a fixed False Belief and is used in everyday language to describe a belief that is either false fanciful or derived from Deception Supernatural lycanthropy myths could originate from people relating their experiences of what could be classified as a state of psychosis.

Others believe that werewolf legends were partly inspired from shamanism and totem animals in nature-based cultures. A totem is any supposed entity that watches over or assists a group of people such as a family Clan or tribe ( Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary and Webster's

Etymology

Werewolf, by Lucas Cranach der Ältere, 1512
Werewolf, by Lucas Cranach der Ältere, 1512

The name most likely derives from Old English wer (or were) and wulf. Lucas Cranach the Elder ( Lucas Cranach der Ältere, 4 October 1472 &ndash 16 October 1553) was a German painter WERE is an AM radio station licensed to Cleveland Heights Ohio and operating on 1490 kHz. The first part, wer, translates as "man" (in the sense of male human, not the race of humanity). It has cognates in several Germanic languages including Gothic wair, Old High German wer, and Old Norse verr, as well as in other Indo-European languages, such as Latin vir, Irish fear, Lithuanian vyras, and Welsh gŵr, which have the same meaning. Cognates in Linguistics are words that have a common origin They may occur within a language such as shirt and skirt as two English words descended from The Germanic languages are a group of related languages that constitute a branch of the Indo-European (IE Language family. A language is a dynamic set of visual auditory or tactile Symbols of Communication and the elements used to manipulate them Gothic is an extinct Germanic language that was spoken by the Goths. Old Norse is the North Germanic language that was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia and inhabitants of their overseas settlements during the Viking Age Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Irish (ga ''Gaeilge'' is a Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish. Lithuanian ( lietuvių kalba) is the official state language of Lithuania and is recognised as one of the official languages of the European Union. Welsh ( cy Cymraeg or cy y Gymraeg, kəmˈrɑːɨɡ and {{IPA|[ə ɡəmˈrɑːɨɡ]}}, is a member of the Brythonic branch of Celtic The second half, wulf, is the ancestor of modern English "wolf"; in some cases it also had the general meaning "beast. Modern English is the form of the English language spoken since the Great Vowel Shift, completed in roughly 1550 " An alternative etymology derives the first part from Old English weri (to wear); the full form in this case would be glossed as wearer of wolf skin. Etymology is the study of the History of Words &mdash when they entered a language from what source and how their form and meaning have changed over time This article is about the literary term For other uses see Gloss (disambiguation. Related to this interpretation is Old Norse ulfhednar, which denoted lupine equivalents of the berserker, said to wear a bearskin in battle. Old Norse is the North Germanic language that was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia and inhabitants of their overseas settlements during the Viking Age Berserkers (or Berserks) were Norse Warriors who wore coats of wolf or bear skin and who were commonly understood to have fought in an uncontrollable Berserkers (or Berserks) were Norse Warriors who wore coats of wolf or bear skin and who were commonly understood to have fought in an uncontrollable

Yet other sources derive the word from warg-wolf, where warg (or later werg and wero) is cognate with Old Norse vargr, meaning "rogue," "outlaw," or, euphemistically, "wolf". A Vargulf was the kind of wolf that slaughtered many members of a flock or herd but ate little of the kill. This was a serious problem for herders, who had to somehow destroy the rogue wolf before it destroyed the entire flock or herd. Herders would often hang the wolf's hide in the bedroom of a young infant, believing it to give the baby supernatural powers. The term supernatural or supranatural ( Latin: super, supra "above" + natura "nature" pertains to entities events The term Warg was used in Old English for this kind of wolf (see J. R. R. Tolkien's book The Hobbit) and for what would now be called a serial killer. The Hobbit or There and Back Again is an award-winning fantasy A serial killer is a person who Murders usually three or more people with a "cooling off" period between each murder and whose motivation for killing is largely based Possibly related is the fact that, in Norse society, an outlaw (who could be murdered with no legal repercussions and was forbidden to receive aid) was typically called vargr, or "wolf. " It is also speculated that werewolves are under the influence of a god who was once a lycanthrope. He visits them in their dreams before transformation and tells them specifically who to feed upon. Some believe it is the spirit of Lycaon, the first werewolf that does this deed.

The Greek term lycanthropy (a compound of which "lyc-" derives from the Proto-Indo-European root *wlkwo-, meaning "wolf") formally denotes the "wolf - man" transformation. Lycanthropy is but one form of therianthropy, the ability to metamorphose into animals in general. Therianthropy (from n therianthrope and adj therianthropic, part man and part beast from the Greek theríon, θηρίον meaning "wild Shapeshifting is a common theme in Mythology and Folklore, as well as in Science fiction and Fantasy. The term "therianthrope" literally means "beast-man," from which the words turnskin and turncoat are derived. (Latin: versipellis,[2] Russian : oboroten, O. Norse: hamrammr). The French name for a werewolf, sometimes used in English, is loup-garou, from the Latin noun lupus meaning wolf. Latin is an inflected language and as such its nouns pronouns and adjectives must be declined in order to serve a grammatical function [3] The second element is thought to be from Old French garoul meaning "werewolf. Old French was the Romance Dialect continuum spoken in territories which span roughly the northern half of modern France and parts of modern Belgium " This in turn is most likely from Frankish *wer-wulf meaning "man-wolf. The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group "[4]


World literature and folklore

Classical Literature

Zeus turning Lycaon into a wolf, engraving by Hendrik Goltzius.
Zeus turning Lycaon into a wolf, engraving by Hendrik Goltzius. Hendrik Goltzius ( 1558 - January 1, 1617) Dutch Printmaker, draftsman, and painter, was born at Millebrecht

In Greek mythology, the story of Lycaon provides one of the earliest examples of a werewolf legend. Greek mythology is the body of stories belonging to the ancient Greeks concerning their gods and Heroes the nature of the world and the origins and significance Lycaon was the son of Pelasgus and Meliboea (or of Oread nymph Cyllene) father of Oenotrus and the mythical first king According to one version, Lycaon was transformed into a wolf as a result of eating human flesh; one of those who were present at periodical sacrifice on Mount Lycæon was said to suffer a similar fate. Herodotus in his Histories[5] tells us that the Neuri, a tribe he places to the north-east of Scythia, were annually transformed for a few days, and Virgil is familiar with transformation of human beings into wolves. Herodotus of Halicarnassus ( Greek: Hēródotos Halikarnāsseús) was a Greek Historian who lived in the 5th century BC ( 484 BC&ndash The Histories of Herodotus of Halicarnassus is considered the first work of history in Western literature. According to Herodotus the Neuri were a tribe living beyond the Scythian cultivators one of the nations along the course of the river Hypanis ( Bug In Classical Antiquity, Scythia ( Greek Skuthia) was the area in Eurasia inhabited by the Scythians, from the 8th Publius Vergilius Maro ( October 15, 70 BCE &ndash September 21, 19 BCE later called Virgilius, and known in English as Virgil or [6]

The Roman scholar Pliny the Elder, relates two tales of lycanthropy. Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author Quoting Euanthes,[7] he mentions a man who hung his clothes on an ash tree and swam across an Arcadian lake, transforming him into a wolf. An ash can be any of four different tree genera from four very distinct families; most commonly in a combined form (e Arcadia or Arkadía ( Greek Αρκαδία is a region of Greece in the Peloponnesus. On the condition that he attacked no human being for nine years, he would be free to swim back across the lake to resume human form. Pliny also quotes Agriopas regarding a tale of a man who was turned into a wolf after tasting the entrails of a human child. Agriopas was a writer of Ancient Greece mentioned by Pliny the Elder.

In the Latin work of prose, the Satyricon, written about 60 C. Satyricon (or Satyrica) is a Latin work of fiction in a mixture of prose and poetry E. by Gaius Petronius Arbiter, one of the characters, Niceros, tells a story at a banquet about a friend who turned into a wolf (chs. Petronius (ca 27–66 was a Roman writer of the Neronian age he was a noted satirist. 61-62). He describes the incident as follows, "When I looked for my friend I saw he'd stripped and piled his clothes by the roadside. . . He urinated in a circle round his clothes and then, just like that, turned into a wolf!. . . after he turned into a wolf he started howling and then ran off into the woods. "[8]

European cultures

Many European countries and cultures influenced by them have stories of werewolves, including Albania (oik), Armenia (mardagayl) France (loup-garou), Greece (lycanthropos), Spain (hombre lobo), Mexico (hombre lobo and nahual), Bulgaria (varkolak), Turkey (kurtadam), Czech Republic/Slovakia (vlkodlak), Serbia/Montenegro/Bosnia (vukodlak, вукодлак), Russia (vourdalak, оборотень), Ukraine (vovkulak(a), vurdalak(a), vovkun, перевертень), Croatia (vukodlak), Poland (wilkołak), Romania (vârcolac, priculici), Macedonia (vrkolak), Slovenia (volkodlak), Scotland (werewolf, wulver), England (werewolf), Ireland (faoladh or conriocht), Germany (Werwolf), the Netherlands (weerwolf), Denmark/Sweden/Norway (Varulv), Norway/Iceland (kveld-ulf, varúlfur), Galicia (lobisón), Portugal/ (lobisomem), Lithuania (vilkolakis and vilkatlakis), Latvia (vilkatis and vilkacis), Andorra/Catalonia (home llop), Hungary (Vérfarkas and Farkasember), Estonia (libahunt), Finland (ihmissusi and vironsusi), and Italy (lupo mannaro). This article is about the country in southern Europe For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Albania topics. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. The state of Bulgaria (България transliterated bg-Latn ''Balgaria'' The country preserves the traditions (in ethnic name language and alphabet of the First Bulgarian Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches The Czech Republic ( ˈt͡ʃɛskaː ˈrɛpuˌblɪka short form in Česko ˈt͡ʃɛskɔ also called Czechia, Slovakia (long form Slovak Republic; Slovak:, long form, is a Landlocked country in Central Europe with a population of over five million Serbia (Србија Srbija) officially the Republic of Serbia (Република Србија Republika Srbija) is a Landlocked Country Montenegro ( British English) Montenegrin / Serbian: PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THE LANGUAGES WITHOUT CONSENSUS ON THE TALK PAGE! Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Latin script: Bosna i Hercegovina, Cyrillic script: Босна и Херцеговина is a country on the Balkan Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Croatia (Hrvatska ˈxȓvatska officially the Republic of Croatia ( Republika Hrvatska) is a southern Central European country at the crossroads between Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland Romania ( dated: Rumania, Roumania The Republic of Macedonia (Република Slovenia, officially the Republic of Slovenia (Republika Slovenija) is a Country in southern Central Europe bordering Italy to the west Scotland ( Gaelic: Alba) is a Country in northwest Europethat occupies the northern third of the island of Great Britain. The wulver is a kind of werewolf that is exclusively part of the Folklore of the Shetland Islands of Scotland. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. Norway ( Norwegian: Norge ( Bokmål) or Noreg ( Nynorsk) officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Constitutional Norway ( Norwegian: Norge ( Bokmål) or Noreg ( Nynorsk) officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Constitutional Iceland, officially the Republic of Iceland ( ( Ísland or Lýðveldið Ísland ( Galicia (occasionally Galiza) is an autonomous community in northwest Spain. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the Latvia ( Latvija officially the Republic of Latvia (Latvijas Republika is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. Andorra, officially the Principality of Andorra ( Catalan: Principat d'Andorra) is a small Landlocked country in western Catalonia (Cataluña Catalunya Aranese: Catalonha) is an Autonomous Community in the northeast part of Spain. Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia ( Eesti or Eesti Vabariik) is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region Finland, officially the Republic of Finland ( is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest In northern Europe, there are also tales about people changing into animals including bears, as well as wolves. Northern Europe is a term for the northern part of Europe. The United Nations defines Northern Europe as (Finland

Werewolves in European tradition were sometimes innocent folk suffering from the witchcraft of others, or simply from an unhappy fate, and who, as wolves, behaved in a truly touching fashion, adoring and protecting their human benefactors. In Marie de France's poem Bisclavret (c. Marie de France ("Mary of France" was a Poet evidently born in France and living in England during the late 12th century " Bisclavret " is one of the twelve Lais of Marie de France written in the 12th century. 1200), the nobleman Bizuneh, for reasons not described in the lai, had to transform into a wolf every week. A lai was a song form composed in northern Europe, mainly France and Germany, from the 13th to the late 14th century. When his treacherous wife stole his clothing needed to restore his human form, he escaped the king's wolf hunt by imploring the king for mercy and accompanied the king thereafter. His behaviour at court was so much gentler than when his wife and her new husband appeared at court, that his hateful attack on the couple was deemed justly motivated, and the truth was revealed. Other tales of this sort include William and the Werewolf (translated from French into English ca. Guillaume de Palerme ( "William of Palerne") is a French romance poem which has been translated into English 1350), and the German fairy tales Märchen, in which several aristocrats temporarily transform into beasts. A fairy tale or fairy story is a fictional Story that may feature folkloric characters (such as fairies, enchantments]] often involving See Snow White and Rose Red, where the tame bear is really a bewitched prince, and The Golden Bird where the talking fox is also a man. Snow-White and Rose-Red ( German: Schneeweißchen und Rosenrot) is a German Fairy tale. " The Golden Bird " is a Brothers Grimm Fairy tale, number 57 about the pursuit of a golden bird by a king's three sons

The legends of ulfhednar mentioned in Vatnsdœla saga, Haraldskvæði, and the Völsunga saga resemble some werewolf legends. Berserkers (or Berserks) were Norse Warriors who wore coats of wolf or bear skin and who were commonly understood to have fought in an uncontrollable The Völsunga saga is a Legendary saga, a late 13th century Icelandic prose rendition of the origin and decline of the Volsung clan The ulfhednar were fighters similar to the berserkers, who were dressed in bear hides and reputed to channel the spirits of these animals to enhance effectiveness in battle. These warriors were resistant to pain and killed viciously in battle, much like wild animals. Ulfhednar and berserkers are closely associated with the Norse god Odin. Odin (ˈoʊdɪn from Old Norse Óðinn) is considered the chief god in Norse paganism.

In Latvian folklore, a vilkacis was someone who transformed into a wolf-like monster, which could be benevolent at times. Another collection of stories concern the skin-walkers. In some Native American legends a skin-walker is a person with the supernatural ability to turn into any animal he or she desires The vilkacis and skin-walkers probably have a common origin in Proto-Indo-European society, where a class of young unwed warriors were apparently associated with wolves. The society of the Proto-Indo-Europeans (PIE existed during the Bronze Age (roughly fifth to fourth millennium BC and has been reconstructed According to the Random House Dictionary, the term warrior has two meanings

According to the first dictionary of modern Serbian language (published by Vuk Stefanović-Karadžić in 1818) vukodlak / вукодлак (werewolf) and vampir / вампир (vampire) are synonyms, meaning a man who returns from his grave for purposes of fornicating with his widow. Vuk Stefanović Karadžić ( Serbian Cyrillic: Вук Стефановић Караџић ( November 7, 1787 - February 7, 1864 Vampires are mythological or folkloric revenants who subsist by feeding on the blood of the living The dictionary states this to be a common folk tale.

Common amongst the Kashubs of what is now northern Poland, and the Serbs and Slovenes, was the belief that if a child was born with hair, a birthmark or a caul on their head, they were supposed to possess shape-shifting abilities. Kashubians/Kashubs/Kaszubians (Kaszëbi Kaszubi also called Kassubians or Cassubians, are a West Slavic Ethnic group of north-central Serbs ( Serbian: Срби Srbi) are a South Slavic people living in the Balkans and Central Europe, mainly in Serbia, Slovenes or Slovenians ( Slovene Slovenci, dual Slovenca, singular Slovenec, feminine Slovenke, dual Slovenki Though capable of turning into any animal they wished, it was commonly believed that such people preferred to turn into a wolf[9].

According to Armenian lore, there are women who, in consequence of deadly sins, are condemned to spend seven years in wolf form. Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani [10] In a typical account, a condemned woman is visited by a wolfskin-toting spirit, who orders her to wear the skin, which causes her to acquire frightful cravings for human flesh soon after. With her better nature overcome, the she-wolf devours each of her own children, then her relatives' children in order of relationship, and finally the children of strangers. She wanders only at night, with doors and locks springing open at her approach. When morning arrives, she reverts to human form and removes her wolfskin. The transformation is generally said to be involuntary, but there are alternate versions involving voluntary metamorphosis, where the women can transform at will.

The 11th Century Russian Prince Vseslav of Polotsk was considered to have been a Werewolf, capable of moving at supehuman speeds, as recounted in The Tale of Igor's Campaign: "Vseslav the prince judged men; as prince, he ruled towns; but at night he prowled in the guise of a wolf. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Vseslav of Polotsk or Vseslav Bryachislavich, also known as Vseslav the Sorcerer or Vseslav the Seer (c The Tale of Igor's Campaign ( Old East Slavic: Слово о плъку Игоревѣ Slovo o plŭku Igorevě; Слово о полку Ігоревім From Kiev, prowling, he reached, before the cocks crew, Tmutorokan. The path of Great Sun, as a wolf, prowling, he crossed. For him in Polotsk they rang for matins early at St. Sophia the bells; but he heard the ringing in Kiev. "

There were numerous reports of werewolf attacks – and consequent court trials – in sixteenth century France. In some of the cases there was clear evidence against the accused of murder and cannibalism, but none of association with wolves; in other cases people have been terrified by such creatures, such as that of Gilles Garnier in Dole in 1573, there was clear evidence against some wolf but none against the accused. Cannibalism (from Spanish es ''caníbal'' in connection with cannibalism among the Antillean Caribs, also called anthropophagy (from Greek ἄνθρωπος Giles Garnier (died January 18 1573 Was a French Hermit and Cannibalistic, Serial murderer convicted of being a Werewolf. The loup-garou eventually ceased to be regarded as a dangerous heretic and reverted to the pre-Christian notion of a "man-wolf-fiend. " The lubins or lupins were usually female and shy in contrast to the aggressive loup-garous.

Some French werewolf lore is based on documented events caused by the full moon. The Beast of Gévaudan terrorized the general area of the former province of Gévaudan, now called Lozère, in south-central France. The Beast of Gévaudan (La bête du Gévaudan is a name given to man-eating wolf-like animals that terrorized the former province of Gévaudan The Kingdom of France was organised into Provinces until March 4, 1790, when the establishment of the département Gévaudan is an historical area of France, nowadays situated in Lozère département. Lozère (in Occitan Losera) is a department in southeast France near the Massif Central. From the years 1764 to 1767, an unknown entity killed upwards of 80 men, women, and children. The creature was described as a giant wolf by the sole survivor of the attacks, which ceased after several wolves were killed in the area.

At the beginning of the seventeenth century witchcraft was prosecuted by James I of England, who regarded "warwoolfes" as victims of delusion induced by "a natural superabundance of melancholic. As a means of recording the passage of Time, the 17th Century was that Century which lasted from 1601 - 1700 in the Gregorian calendar Witchcraft, in various historical anthropological religious and mythological contexts is the use of certain kinds of Supernatural or magical powers James VI and I (19 June 1566 – 27 March 1625 was King of Scotland as James VI, and King of England and King of Ireland as James "[11]

American cultures

The Naskapi's believed that the caribou afterlife is guarded by giant wolves which kill careless hunters venturing too near. The Navajo people feared witches in wolf's clothing called "Mai-cob". The Navajo or Diné people (also spelled Navaho) of the Southwestern United States [12]

Characteristics

Becoming a werewolf

Historical legends describe a wide variety of methods for becoming a werewolf, one of the simplest being the removal of clothing and putting on a belt made of wolfskin, probably as a substitute for the assumption of an entire animal skin (which also is frequently described). [13] In other cases, the body is rubbed with a magic salve. [13] To drink water out of the footprint of the animal in question or to drink from certain enchanted streams were also considered effectual modes of accomplishing metamorphosis. [14] Olaus Magnus says that the Livonian werewolves were initiated by draining a cup of specially prepared beer and repeating a set formula. Ralston in his Songs of the Russian People gives the form of incantation still familiar in Russia. According to Russian lore, a child born on December 24 shall be a werewolf. Events 563 - The Byzantine church Hagia Sophia in Constantinople is dedicated for the second time after being destroyed by Earthquakes Folklore and literature also depict that a werewolf can be spawned from two werewolf parents.

In Galician, Portuguese, and Brazilian folklore, it is the seventh of the sons (but sometimes the seventh child, a boy, after a line of six daughters) who becomes a werewolf (Lobisomem). Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld In mathematics Seven is the fourth Prime number. It is not only a Mersenne prime (since 23 &minus 1 = 7 but also a [15] In Portugal, the seventh daughter is supposed to become a witch and the seventh son a werewolf; the seventh son often gets the Christian name "Bento" (Portuguese form of "Benedict", meaning "blessed") as this is believed to prevent him from becoming a werewolf later in life. In Brazil, the seventh daughter becomes a headless (replaced with fire) horse called "Mula-sem-cabeça" (Headless Mule). The belief in the curse of the seventh son was so widespread in Northern Argentina (where the werewolf is called the lobizón), that seventh sons were frequently abandoned, ceded in adoption, or killed. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Argentina topics. A 1920 law decreed that the President of Argentina is the official godfather of every seventh son. The President of Argentina (full title President of the Argentine Nation, Spanish: Presidente de la Nación Argentina) is the Head of state A godparent, in many denominations of Christianity, is someone who sponsors a child's Baptism. Thus, the State gives a seventh son one gold medal in his baptism and a scholarship until his twenty first year. In Christianity, baptism ( Greek, "immersing" "performing Ablutions " is the ritual act with the use of water by which one is admitted This effectively ended the abandonments, but there still persists a tradition in which the President godfathers seventh sons.

In other cases, the transformation was supposedly accomplished by Satanic allegiance for the most loathsome ends, often for the sake of sating a craving for human flesh. For other uses of the word see Satanism (disambiguation. Satanism can refer to a number of belief systems depending on the user and context "The werewolves", writes Richard Verstegan (Restitution of Decayed Intelligence, 1628),

are certayne sorcerers, who having annoynted their bodies with an ointment which they make by the instinct of the devil, and putting on a certayne inchaunted girdle, does not only unto the view of others seem as wolves, but to their own thinking have both the shape and nature of wolves, so long as they wear the said girdle. Richard Rowlands (c 1550 &ndash 1640 Anglo - Dutch antiquary whose real name was Verstegen (usually anglicized Verstegan was the son of a cooper, whose And they do dispose themselves as very wolves, in worrying and killing, and most of humane creatures.

Such were the views about lycanthropy current throughout the continent of Europe when Verstegan wrote.

The power of transforming others into wild beasts was attributed not only to malignant sorcerers, but to Christian saints as well. This is an incomplete list of Christian Saints in alphabetical order by Christian name but if necessary by surname the place or attribute part of name as well Omnes angeli, boni et Mali, ex virtute naturali habent potestatem transmutandi corpora nostra ("All angels, good and bad have the power of transmutating our bodies") was the dictum of St. Thomas Aquinas. In most Christian traditions a fallen angel is an Angel that has been Exiled or banished from Heaven. St. Patrick was said to have transformed the Welsh king Vereticus into a wolf; St. Saint Patrick (Patricius Irish: Naomh Pádraig) was a Roman Britain -born Christian Missionary and is the Patron saint Natalis supposedly cursed an illustrious Irish family whose members were each doomed to be a wolf for seven years. In other tales the divine agency is even more direct, while in Russia, again, men supposedly became werewolves when incurring the wrath of the Devil.

Exception

A notable exception to the association of Lycanthropy and the Devil, comes from a rare and lesser known account of a man named Thiess. In 1692, in Jurgenburg, Livonia, Thiess testified under oath that he and other werewolves were the Hounds of God. Livonia (Līvõmō Latvian and Livonija Estonian: Liivimaa; Finnish: Liivinmaa; German and Swedish: Livland [16] He claimed they were warriors who went down into hell to do battle with witches and demons. Their efforts ensured that the Devil and his minions did not carry off the abundance of the earth down to hell. Thiess was steadfast in his assertions, claiming that werewolves in Germany and Russia also did battle with the devil's minions in their own versions of hell, and insisted that when werewolves died, their souls were welcomed into heaven as reward for their service. Thiess was ultimately sentenced to ten lashes for Idolatry and superstitious belief. Superstition ( Latin superstitio, literally "standing over" derived perhaps from standing in awe used in Latin as a unreasonable or excessive belief

A distinction is often made between voluntary and involuntary werewolves. The former are generally thought to have made a pact, usually with the Devil, and morph into werewolves at night to indulge in mischievous acts. Involuntary werewolves, on the other hand, are werewolves by an accident of birth or health. Accident of Birth is a heavy metal Album released in 1997 by Bruce Dickinson. In some cultures, individuals born during a new moon or suffering from epilepsy were considered likely to be werewolves. This article is about the lunar phase for other uses see New Moon (disambiguation.

Becoming a werewolf simply by being bitten by another werewolf as a form of contagion is common in modern horror fiction, but this kind of transmission is rare in legend. A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly Horror fiction is broadly Fiction in any medium intended to scare unsettle or horrify the audience

Vulnerabilities

Werewolves have several described weaknesses, the most common being an aversion to wolfsbane (a plant that supposedly sprouted from weeds watered by the drool of Cerberus while he was brought out of Hades by Heracles). Aconitum ( A-co-ní-tum) known as aconite, monkshood, wolfsbane, leopard's bane, women's bane In Greek mythology, Cerberus or Kerberos ( Greek Κέρβερος Kérberos) the ker or Daimon of Hades (from Greek, Hadēs, originally, Haidēs or, Aidēs, probably from Indo-European *n̥-wid- 'unseen' refers both to the ancient In Greek mythology, Heracles or Herakles ("glory of Hera " or Unlike vampires, werewolves are not harmed by religious artifacts such as crucifixes and holy water. Vampires are mythological or folkloric revenants who subsist by feeding on the blood of the living A crucifix (from Latin cruci fixus meaning "(one fixed to a cross" is a cross with a representation of Jesus ' body or corpus Holy water can also refer to water that has been blessed, such as by a Priest, and is considered Holy.

Various methods have existed for removing the werewolf form. The simplest method was the act of the enchanter (operating either on oneself or on a victim), and another was the removal of the animal belt or skin. To kneel in one spot for a hundred years, to be reproached with being a werewolf, to be struck three blows on the forehead with a knife, or to have at least three drops of blood drawn have also been mentioned as possible cures. Many European folk tales include throwing an iron object over or at the werewolf, to make it reveal its human form, naked in cases from 1859.

Another vulnerability is to use a weapon of silver (bullet, knife etc). Silver (ˈsɪlvɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol " Ag " (argentum from the Ancient Greek: ἀργήντος - argēntos gen To stab a werewolf with a silver dagger, or to shoot it with a silver bullet is said to not only kill a werewolf, but to also cause it agony in the time before it dies, rather resembling being slowly burned from the inside.

In fiction

Main article: Werewolf fiction

The process transmogrification is often portrayed as painful in film and literature. Werewolf fiction denotes the portrayal of Werewolves and other Shapeshifting man-beasts in the media of literature drama film games and music Shapeshifting is a common theme in Mythology and Folklore, as well as in Science fiction and Fantasy. Literature is the Art of written works Literally translated the word means "acquaintance with letters" (from Latin littera letter The resulting wolf is typically cunning but merciless and prone to killing and eating people without compunction, regardless of the moral character of its human counterpart. Moral character or character is an evaluation of a particular individual's moral qualities The form a werewolf assumes is not always that of an ordinary wolf but often anthropomorphic or otherwise larger and more powerful than an ordinary wolf. Anthropomorphism is the attribution of uniquely Human characteristics to non-human creatures and beings natural and supernatural phenomena material states and objects Many modern werewolves are supposedly immune to damage caused by ordinary weapons, being vulnerable only to silver objects (usually a bullet or blade). Silver (ˈsɪlvɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol " Ag " (argentum from the Ancient Greek: ἀργήντος - argēntos gen The Metaphor of the Silver Bullet applies to any straightforward solution perceived to have extreme effectiveness This negative reaction to silver is sometimes so strong that the mere touch of the metal on a werewolf's skin will cause burns. Current-day werewolf fiction almost exclusively involves lycanthropy being either a hereditary condition or being transmitted like an infectious disease by the bite of another werewolf. An infectious disease is a clinically evident Disease resulting from the presence of Pathogenic microbial agents including Pathogenic viruses Pathogenic In some fiction, the power of the werewolf extends to human form, such as invulnerability, super-human speed and strength and falling on their feet from high falls. Also aggressiveness and animalistic urges may be harder to control (hunger, sexual arousal). Usually in these cases the abilities are diminished in human form. In other fictions it can even be cured by medicine men or even antidotes.

The first feature film to use an anthropomorphic werewolf was Werewolf of London in 1935 (not to be confused with the 1981 film of a similar title) establishing the canon that the werewolf always kills whom he loves most. Werewolf of London is a Werewolf movie starring Henry Hull and produced in 1935 by Universal Pictures. Year 1935 ( MCMXXXV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The main werewolf of this film is a dapper London scientist who retains some of his style and most of his human features after his transformation. [17]

However, he lacks warmth, and it is left to the tragic character Talbot played by Lon Chaney Jr. in 1941's The Wolf Man to capture the public imagination. Lon Chaney Jr ( February 10, 1906 – July 12, 1973) was an American Character actor, known mainly for his roles This catapulted the werewolf into public consciousness. [17] Sympathetic portrayals are few but notable, An American Werewolf In London and those in the Harry Potter literature being more recent examples. An American Werewolf in London is a comedy / Horror film released in 1981, written and directed by John Landis Harry Potter is a series of seven Fantasy novels written by British author J Other werewolves are decidedly more willful and malevolent, such as those in the Howling series. The Howling is a 1981 Horror film directed by Joe Dante. Based on the novel of the same name by Gary Brandner, the

With the rise of environmentalism and other back-to-nature ideals, the werewolf has come to be seen by some authors as a representation of humanity allied more closely with nature. Environmentalism is a broad philosophy and Social movement centered on a concern for the conservation and improvement of the environment. Some recent fiction also discards the idea that the werewolf dominates the mind when one transforms, and instead postulates that the wolf form can be used at will, with the lycanthrope retaining its human thought processes and intelligence.

Other uses of the term

In World War 2, the German SS formed an irregular network of Partisan-like units known as Operation Werwolf to resist the occupation of allied forces. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The ( German for "Protective Squadron" abbreviated SS - or ( Runic)- was a major Nazi organization under Adolf Hitler and the A partisan is a member of an Irregular military force formed to oppose control of an area by a foreign power or by an army of occupation Werwolf ( German for " Werewolf " the spelling "Wehrwolf" is incorrect was a World War II Nazi plan for a The Allies of World War II were the countries officially opposed to the Axis powers during the Second World War. These units were under the leadership of the SS and were comprised of members of that group, along with members of the Heer and Hitler Youth. The German Army (Deutsches Heer heɐ) is the land component of the armed forces of the Federal Republic of Germany. For the SS division with the nickname Hitlerjugend see 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend The Hitler Youth ( German:, Their campaign of resistance was, however, an almost complete fiasco, especially following their disownment by Hitler's successor, Grand Admiral Karl Doenitz. Karl Dönitz (ˈdøːnɪts) (16 September 1891 &ndash 24 December 1980 was a German naval Commander who served

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ They originated in Germany, and there were similar creatures in IndiaSummers, Montague. The Beast of Bray Road (or the Bray Road Beast) is a cryptozoological creature first reported in the 1980s on a rural road outside of Elkhorn Wisconsin The Beast of Gévaudan (La bête du Gévaudan is a name given to man-eating wolf-like animals that terrorized the former province of Gévaudan Clinical lycanthropy is defined as a rare Psychiatric syndrome which involves a Delusion that the affected person can or has transformed into an Animal, Hypertrichosis, congenital generalized Hypertrichosis or werewolf syndrome is a medical term referring to a condition of excessive body Hair. Underworld and Underworld Evolution, depict two races living among the human race in secret Vampires and Lycans a type of Werewolf The Rougarou (alternately spelled as Roux-Ga-Roux, Rugaroo, or Rugaru) is a legendary creature in Laurentian French communities linked to European notions A soul eater is a folklore figure in the traditional belief systems of some African peoples notably the Hausa people of Nigeria and Niger. Therianthropy (from n therianthrope and adj therianthropic, part man and part beast from the Greek theríon, θηρίον meaning "wild Vampires are mythological or folkloric revenants who subsist by feeding on the blood of the living Werecats (also written in a hyphenated form as were-cats) are creatures of Folklore, Fantasy fiction Horror fiction, and Occultism Magical creatures comprise a colourful and integral aspect of the Wizarding world in the Harry Potter series by J In the Buffyverse, created by Joss Whedon, werewolves are introduced as a type of demonic humanoid. Werewolf The Forsaken is a Role-playing game set in the new World of Darkness created by White Wolf Game Studio. Werwolf ( German for " Werewolf " the spelling "Wehrwolf" is incorrect was a World War II Nazi plan for a Witchcraft, in various historical anthropological religious and mythological contexts is the use of certain kinds of Supernatural or magical powers A vârcolac in Romanian folklore may refer to several different figures Damarchus (Δάμαρχος fl ~400 BC was a victorious Olympic boxer from Parrhasia (Arcadia said to have changed his shape into that of a wolf at the sacrifice Augustus Montague Summers ( 10 April, 1880 - 10 August, 1948) was an eccentric English author and clergyman The Werewolf in Lore and Legend. Dover. ISBN 0-486-43090-1.  
  2. ^ Versipellis. Perseus Digital Library. Retrieved on 2006-09-23. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1122 - Concordat of Worms. 1459 - Battle of Blore Heath, the first major battle of the English
  3. ^ (2000) "loup-garou", The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, 4.  
  4. ^ (2000) "Appendix I: Indo-European Roots: w-ro-", The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, 4.  
  5. ^ Herodotus. "iv", Histories, 105.  
  6. ^ Virgil. "viii", Eclogues, 98. An eclogue is a Poem in a classical style on a Pastoral subject  
  7. ^ Pliny the Elder. "viii", Historia Naturalis, 81.   22/34
  8. ^ Petronius (1996). Petronius (ca 27–66 was a Roman writer of the Neronian age he was a noted satirist. Satyrica. Berkeley: University of California, 56. ISBN 0-520-20599-5.  
  9. ^ Willis, Roy & Davidson, Hilda Ellis (1997), World Mythology: The Illustrated Guide, Piaktus, ISBN 0-7499-1739-3 
  10. ^ The Fables of Mkhitar Gosh (New York, 1987), translated with an introduction by R. Bedrosian, edited by Elise Antreassian and illustrated by Anahid Janjigian
  11. ^ "iii", Demonologie.  
  12. ^ Lopez, Barry (1978). Of wolves and men, pp. 320. ISBN 0743249364.  
  13. ^ a b Bennett, Aaron. “So, You Want to be a Werewolf?” Fate. Fate is a magazine of Paranormal phenomena founded in 1948 by Raymond A Vol. 55, no. 6, Issue 627. July 2002.
  14. ^ O'Donnell, Elliot. Werwolves. Methuen. London. 1912. pp. 65-67
  15. ^ Bennett, Aaron. “Lobo-Hombres of Latin America. ” Fang, Claw, & Steel. Issue #13. Winter 2002.
  16. ^ Gershenson, Daniel. Apollo the Wolf-God. (Journal of Indo- European Studies, Monograph, 8. ) McLean, Virginia: Institute for the Study of Man, 1991, ISBN 0941694380 pp. 136-7
  17. ^ a b Searles B (1988). Films of Science Fiction and Fantasy. New York: Harry N. Abrams, p. 165-67. ISBN 0-8109-0922-7.  

References

External links

The United States National Library of Medicine ( NLM) operated by the United States federal government, is the world's largest Medical library.

Dictionary

werewolf

-noun

  1. (mythology) A person who is transformed into a wolf or a wolflike human when there is a full moon.
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