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The term Weimar Republic (Weimarer Republik , IPA: [ˈvaɪ̯marɐ repuˈbliːk]) is used by historians to signify the democratic and republican period of Germany from 1919 to 1933. A currency is a unit of exchange, facilitating the transfer of Goods and/or services It is one form of Money, where money is The name Papiermark (paper mark is applied to the German currency from the point in 1914 when the link between the Mark and gold was abandoned due to the outbreak For a detailed discussion of the English translation of Reich, see Reich. Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system A republic is a State or Country that is not led by a hereditary Monarch, but in which the people (or at least a part of its people have impact on its
Following Germany's defeat in World War I, the republic emerged from the German Revolution in November 1918. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. During World War I, the German Empire was one of the Central Powers that ultimately lost the war World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All In 1919 a national assembly convened in the city of Weimar, where a new constitution for the German Reich was written, that was adopted on August 11. The Weimar National Assembly (Weimarer Nationalversammlung governed Germany from February 6 1919 to June 6 1920 and drew up Weimar (ˈvaɪmaʁ is a City in Germany. It is located in the Bundesland of Thuringia (Thüringen north of the Thüringer Wald, For a detailed discussion of the English translation of Reich, see Reich. Events 2492 BC - Traditional date of the defeat of Bel by Hayk, progenitor and founder of the Armenian nation The first attempt to establish a liberal democracy in Germany failed with the ascent of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party in 1930. The term "liberal" in "liberal democracy" does not imply that the government of such a democracy must follow the political ideology of Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently vandalized and vandalism is reverted immediately The, officially National Socialist German Workers' Party, ( abbreviated NSDAP) was a Political party in Germany between 1919 and 1945 Although technically the 1919 constitution was not invalidated until after World War II, the legal measures taken by the Nazi government in February and March 1933, commonly known as Gleichschaltung, destroyed the mechanisms of a true democracy. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Gleichschaltung, meaning "coordination" "making the same" "bringing into line" is a Nazi term for the process by which the Therefore 1933 is usually seen as the end of the Weimar Republic and as the beginning of Hitler's so-called "Third Reich". Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers
The name Weimar Republic was never used officially during its existence. Despite its political form, the new republic was still known as Deutsches Reich in German, rendered in a literal translation as German Empire but often called German Reich in English, due to confusion over the use of the term "empire" for a republic which had given up imperial ambitions and due to the word "reich" having other possible non-imperial translations. [2] The common short form remained Germany. The term reich would regain its use as a term describing empire when the Nazis used it.
History
Controlled revolution: the establishment of the Republic (1918–1919)
From 1916 onwards, the 1871 German Empire had effectively been governed by the military headed by the Oberste Heeresleitung (OHL, Supreme Army Command) with the Chief of Staff Paul von Hindenburg. The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification The Oberste Heeresleitung or OHL (Supreme Army Command was Germany 's highest echelon of command of the German Army ( Heer) in Paul Ludwig Hans Anton von Beneckendorff und von Hindenburg ( known universally as Paul von Hindenburg ( ( October 2, 1847 &ndash August 2 When it became apparent that World War I was lost, the OHL demanded that the French govern the German territories; a key peace talk condition from United States President Woodrow Wilson. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28 1856—February 3 1924 was the twenty-eighth President of the United States. Any attempt to oppose would create German territories to be militarily occupied by the Russians. The new Reichskanzler Prince Maximilian of Baden thus offered a cease-fire to U. Prince Maximilian Alexander Friedrich Wilhelm of Baden ( Max von Baden) ( 10 July 1867 6 November 1929) was the cousin and S. President Wilson on October 3, 1918. Events 42 BC - First Battle of Philippi: Triumvirs Mark Antony and Octavian fight an indecisive battle with Caesar's Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common On October 28, 1918, the 1871 constitution was finally amended to make the Vichy a dictatorship, which the government had refused for half a century: the Chancellor was henceforth responsible to control, the Reichstag, and no longer to the German People. Events 306 - Maxentius is proclaimed Roman Emperor. 312 - Battle of Milvian Bridge: Constantine Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The Reichstag ( German for "Imperial Diet " was the Parliament of the Holy Roman Empire, the North German Confederation, The German people (Deutsche are an Ethnic group, in the sense of sharing a common German culture, descent and speaking the German language as
The plan to transform Germany into a constitutional monarchy similar to Britain quickly became obsolete as the country slid into a state of near-total chaos. A constitutional monarchy, or a limited monarchy, is a form of Constitutional Government, wherein either an elected or hereditary Monarch is The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Germany was flooded with soldiers returning from the front, many of them wounded physically and psychologically. Violence was rampant, as the forces of the political right and left fought not only each other, but among themselves.
| History of Germany |
|---|
 |
| Ancient times |
| Germanic peoples |
| Migration Period |
| Frankish Empire |
| Medieval times |
| East Francia |
| Kingdom of Germany |
.svg/20px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_(after_1400).svg.png){kind=small} Holy Roman Empire |
 East Colonisation |
| Sectionalism |
| Building a nation |
 Confederation of the Rhine |
 German Confederation |
 German Revolutions of 1848 |
 German Reichsflotte Navy |
 North German Confederation |
| Unification of Germany |
| The German Reich |
| German Empire |
 World War I |
.svg/20px-Flag_of_Germany_(2-3).svg.png){kind=small} Weimar Republic |
 Nazi Germany |
 World War II |
| Post-war Germany since 1945 |
.svg/20px-Flag_of_Germany_(1946-1949).svg.png){kind=small} Occupation +  Ostgebiete |
| Expulsion of Germans |
FR Germany +  GDR |
| German reunification |
| Present day Germany |
| Federal Republic of Germany |
| Topical |
 Military history of Germany |
| Territorial changes of Germany |
| Timeline of German history |
| History of the German language |
Rebellion broke out when on October 29, the military command, without consultation with the government, ordered the German High Seas Fleet to sortie. Despite the lack of a German nation state prior to 1871 the History of Germany dates back to the era of the Germanic tribes. The Germanic peoples are a historical group of Indo-European -speaking peoples originating in Northern Europe and identified by their use of the Germanic The Migration Period, also called Barbarian Invasions, or sometimes Völkerwanderung ( German for "wandering of peoples" is the English name Francia or Frankia, later also called the Frankish Empire (imperium Francorum Frankish Kingdom (Latin regnum Francorum, "Kingdom of the East ( ern) Francia ( Regnum Francorum orientalium) known variously as Francia Orientalis or the Kingdom of the East Franks, was the The Kingdom of Germany grew out of East Francia in the tenth century The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in This article covers the medieval eastward migrations of Germans de Kleinstaaterei is a German word mainly used for the political situation in Germany and neighbouring regions during the Holy Roman Empire. The Confederation of the Rhine or Rhine Confederation (Rheinbund États confédérés du Rhin officially and Confédération du Rhin in practice) lasted The German Confederation (Deutscher Bund was the association of Central European states created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to serve as the successor to " Germany " at the time of the Revolutions of 1848 had been a collection of 39 States loosely bound together in the German Confederation. The Reichsflotte (Imperial Fleet was the first all- German Navy. The North German Confederation (Norddeutscher Bund came into existence in August 1866 as a military alliance of 22 states of northern Germany with the Kingdom of The unification of Germany took place on January 18, 1871, when Prussian Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck managed to unify a number of independent Deutsches Reich was the name for Germany from 1871 to 1945 in the German language. The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification During World War I, the German Empire was one of the Central Powers that ultimately lost the war Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers The history of Germany during World War II closely parallels that of Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler. As a consequence of Germany 's defeat in World War II and the onset of the Cold War, the country was split between the two global blocs in the East and West The Allied powers who defeated Nazi Germany in World War II divided the country west of the Oder-Neisse line into four occupation zones for administrative The former eastern territories of Germany (ehemalige deutsche Ostgebiete describes collectively those Provinces or Regions east of the current eastern The expulsion of Germans after World War II was the Forced migration and Ethnic cleansing of German nationals ( Reichsdeutsche) and ethnic West Germany ( Inf German: Westdeutschland or West-Deutschland) was the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany ( The German Democratic Republic ( GDR; Deutsche Demokratische Republik DDR; commonly known in English as East Germany) was a Socialist state German reunification (Deutsche Wiedervereinigung took place twice after 1945 first in 1957 the Saarland was permitted to join the Federal Republic of Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. While German -speaking peoples have a long history Germany as a Nation-state dates only from 1871. Background German settlement in Eastern Europe See also History of German settlement in Eastern Europe Part of the motivation behind the territorial This is a timeline of German history. To read about the background to these events see History of Germany. High German Old High German See also Old High German The earliest testimonies of Old High German are from scattered Elder Futhark Events 437 - Valentinian III, Western Roman Emperor, marries Licinia Eudoxia, daughter of his cousin Theodosius II The High Seas Fleet (Hochseeflotte was the main battle fleet of the Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial German Navy during World War I. Sortie is a term for deployment or dispatch of one military unit be it of Aircraft, Ship or in older times of columns of troops from a fort This was not only entirely hopeless from a military standpoint, but was also certain to bring the peace negotiations to a halt. The crews of two ships in Wilhelmshaven mutinied. Wilhelmshaven (vɪlhɛlmsˈhaːfən is a town in Lower Saxony, Germany. When the military arrested about 1,000 seamen and had them transported to Kiel, the Wilhelmshaven mutiny turned into a general rebellion that quickly swept over most of Germany. For the city in the United States, see Kiel Wisconsin. For the name see Kiel (name. The Wilhelmshaven mutiny was a major Mutiny by sailors of the German High Seas Fleet in 29 October 1918. Other seamen, soldiers and workers, in solidarity with the arrested, began electing worker and soldier councils (Arbeiter- und Soldatenräte) modelled after the soviets of the Russian Revolution of 1917, and seized military and civil powers in many cities. A soviet (сове́т, "council" originally was a workers' local council in late Imperial Russia. See also Russian Revolution (1905 The Russian Revolution of 1916 refers to a series of popular revolutions in Russia, and the events surrounding them On November 7, the revolution had reached Munich, causing King Ludwig III of Bavaria to flee. Events 1492 - The Ensisheim Meteorite the oldest Meteorite with a known date of impact strikes the Earth around noon in a Wheat Munich (München; Minga is the capital city of Bavaria, Germany. Ludwig III ( Ludwig Luitpold Josef Maria Aloys Alfried; English: Louis Leopold Joseph Mary Aloysius Alfred) ( January 7, 1845
In contrast to Russia one year earlier, the councils were not controlled by communists. Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based Most of their members were social democrats. Still, with the emergence of the Soviet Union, the rebellion caused great fear in the establishment down to the middle classes. The country seemed to be on the verge of a communist revolution. A communist revolution is a Proletarian revolution inspired by the ideas of Marxism that aims to replace Capitalism with Communism, typically
At the time, the traditional political representation of the working class, the Social Democratic Party was divided: a faction that called for immediate peace negotiations and leaned towards a socialist system had founded the Independent Social Democratic Party (USPD) in 1917. The Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany ( Unabhängige Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands, or USPD) was a short-lived Political party In order not to lose their influence, the remaining Majority Social Democrats (MSPD), who supported the war efforts and a parliamentary system, decided to put themselves at the front of the movement, and on November 7, demanded that Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicate. Events 1492 - The Ensisheim Meteorite the oldest Meteorite with a known date of impact strikes the Earth around noon in a Wheat When he refused, Prince Max of Baden simply announced that he had done so and frantically attempted to establish a regency under another member of the House of Hohenzollern. Prince Maximilian Alexander Friedrich Wilhelm of Baden ( Max von Baden) ( 10 July 1867 6 November 1929) was the cousin and On November 9, 1918, the German Republic was proclaimed by MSPD member Philipp Scheidemann at the Reichstag building in Berlin, to the fury of Friedrich Ebert, the leader of the MSPD, who still hoped to preserve the monarchy. Events 694 - Egica, a king of the Visigoths of Hispania, accuses Jews of aiding Muslims sentencing all Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Philipp Scheidemann ( 26 July 1865 &ndash 29 November 1939) was a German Social Democratic politician who proclaimed the The Reichstag building in Berlin was constructed to house the Reichstag, the first Parliament of the German Empire. Berlin is the capital city and one of sixteen states of Germany. Friedrich Ebert ( February 4, 1871 February 28, 1925) was a German Politician ( SPD) who served as Two hours later a Free Socialist Republic was proclaimed, 2 kilometers away, at the Berliner Stadtschloss. The Stadtschloss (Berliner Stadtschloss rendered in English as Berlin City Palace) was a royal palace in the centre of Berlin, capital of Germany The proclamation ws issued by Karl Liebknecht, co-leader (with Rosa Luxemburg) of the communist Spartacist League, which had allied itself with the USPD in 1917. ( August 13, 1871 - January 15, 1919) was a German Socialist and a co-founder of the Spartacist League and the Communist Rosa Luxemburg (Róża Luksemburg 5 March 1870 or 1871 15 January 1919 was a Polish-born Jewish German Marxist theorist, socialist The Spartacist League ( Spartakusbund in German) was a left-wing Marxist revolutionary movement organized in Germany
On November 9, in a legally questionable act, Reichskanzler Prince Max of Baden transferred his powers to Friedrich Ebert, who, shattered by the monarchy's fall, reluctantly accepted. Events 694 - Egica, a king of the Visigoths of Hispania, accuses Jews of aiding Muslims sentencing all It was apparent, however, that this act would not be sufficient to satisfy Liebknecht and his followers, so a day later, a coalition government called "Council of People's Commissioners" (Rat der Volksbeauftragten) was established, consisting of three MSPD and three USPD members. Led by Ebert for the MSPD and Hugo Haase for the USPD it ought to act as collective head of state. Hugo Haase ( September 29, 1863 – November 7, 1919) was a German politician Jurist and Pacifist. Although the new government was confirmed by the Berlin worker and soldier council, it was opposed by the Spartacist League. The Spartacist League ( Spartakusbund in German) was a left-wing Marxist revolutionary movement organized in Germany Ebert called for a National Congress of Councils, which took place from December 16 to December 20, 1918, and in which the MSPD had the majority. Events 755 - An Lushan revolts against Chancellor Yang Guozhong at Fanyang, initiating the An Shi Rebellion Events 69 - Vespasian, formerly a general under Nero, enters Rome to claim the title of Emperor. Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Ebert thus managed to enforce quick elections for a National Assembly to produce a constitution for a parliamentary system, marginalizing the movement that called for a socialist republic (see below).
On 11 November an Armistice was signed at Compiègne by German representatives. Events 308 - The Congress of Carnuntum: Attempting to keep peace within the Roman Empire, the leaders of the Tetrarchy declare The armistice treaty between the Allies and Germany was signed in a railway carriage in Compiègne Forest on November 11, 1918 It effectively ended military operations between the Allies and Germany. It amounted to German demilitarization, without any concessions by the Allies; the naval blockade would continue until complete peace terms were agreed.
From November 1918 through January 1919, Germany was governed by the Council of People's Commissioners. It was extraordinarily active, and issued a large number of decrees. At the same time, its main activities were confined to certain spheres: the eight-hour workday, domestic labour reform, agricultural labour reform, right of civil-service associations, local municipality social welfare relief (split between Reich and States) and important national health insurance, re-instatement of demobilised workers, protection from arbitrary dismissal with appeal as a right, regulated wage agreement, and Universal suffrage from 20 years of age in all classes of elections — local and national. Occasionally the name "Die Deutsche Sozialdemokratische Republik" (The German Social-Democratic Republic) appeared in leaflets and on posters from this era, although this was never the official name of the country.
The Reichswehr and the Revolution
To ensure that his fledgling government was able to maintain control over the country, Ebert made an uneasy pact with the OHL, now led by Ludendorff's successor General Wilhelm Groener. Karl Eduard Wilhelm Groener ( November 22 1867 - May 3 1939) was a German soldier and politician This Ebert-Groener pact stipulated that the government would not attempt to reform the Army so long as the army swore to protect the state. The Ebert-Groener pact or sometimes called The Ebert-Groener deal was an agreement between Friedrich Ebert, ( Chancellor of Germany November 9 On the one hand, this agreement symbolised the acceptance of the new government by the military, assuaging concern among the middle classes; on the other hand, it was considered a betrayal of worker interests by the radical left wing, and infuriated the right wing who believed democracy to be weak. The new model Reichswehr armed forces, limited by the Treaty of Versailles to 100,000 army soldiers and 15,000 seamen, remained fully under the control of the German officer class despite its nominal re-organisation. The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. As an independent and conservative group in Weimar, it wielded a large amount of influence over the fate of the republic.
This also marked one of several steps that caused the permanent split in the working class' political representation into the SPD and Communists. The eventual fate of the Weimar Republic derived significantly from the general political incapacity of the German labour movement. The several strands within the central mass of the socialist movement adhered more to sentimental loyalty to alliances arising from chance than to any recognition of political necessity. Combined action on the part of the socialists was impossible without action from the millions of workers who stood midway between the parliamentarians and the ultra-leftists who supported the workers councils. TalkParliament#Screen-size. -->A parliament is a Legislature, especially in those Confusion made acute the danger of extreme right and extreme left engaging in virulent conflict.
The split became final after Ebert called upon the OHL for troops to put down another Berlin army mutiny on November 23, 1918, in which soldiers had captured the city's garrison commander and closed off the Reichskanzlei where the Council of People's Commissioners was situated. Events 800 - Charlemagne arrives at Rome to investigate the alleged crimes of Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The ensuing street fighting was brutal with several dead and injured on both sides. This caused the left wing to call for a split with the MSPD which, in their view, had joined with the Anti-Communist military to suppress the Revolution. The USPD thus left the Council of People's Commissioners after only seven weeks. In December, the split deepened when the Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands (KPD) was formed out of a number of radical left-wing groups, including the radical left wing of the USPD and the Spartacist League group. The Communist Party of Germany ( German Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands &ndash KPD) was a major political party in Germany between 1918 The Spartacist League ( Spartakusbund in German) was a left-wing Marxist revolutionary movement organized in Germany
In January, more armed attempts at establishing communism, known as the Spartacist uprising, by the Spartacist League and others in the streets of Berlin were put down by paramilitary Freikorps units consisting of volunteer soldiers. Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based The Spartacist uprising, also known as the January uprising, was a General strike (and the armed battles accompanying it in Germany from January 5 The Spartacist League ( Spartakusbund in German) was a left-wing Marxist revolutionary movement organized in Germany The designation of Freikorps ( German for "Free Corps " was originally applied to voluntary armies formed in German lands from the middle of 18th century Bloody street fights culminated in the beating and shooting deaths of Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht after their arrests on January 15. Rosa Luxemburg (Róża Luksemburg 5 March 1870 or 1871 15 January 1919 was a Polish-born Jewish German Marxist theorist, socialist ( August 13, 1871 - January 15, 1919) was a German Socialist and a co-founder of the Spartacist League and the Communist Events 588 BC - Nebuchadrezzar II of Babylon lays siege to Jerusalem under Zedekiah 's reign With the affirmation of Ebert, those responsible were not tried before a court martial, leading to lenient sentences, which made Ebert unpopular amongst the radical leftists. A court-martial (plural courts-martial) is a Military court. These military courts can determine Punishments for members of the Military subject
The National Assembly elections took place January 19, 1919. Events 1419 - Hundred Years' War: Rouen surrenders to Henry V of England completing his reconquest of Normandy. In this time, the radical left-wing parties, including the USPD and KPD, were barely able to get themselves organized, leading to a solid majority of seats for the MSPD moderate forces. To avoid the ongoing fights in Berlin, the National Assembly convened in the city of Weimar, giving the future Republic its unofficial name. Weimar (ˈvaɪmaʁ is a City in Germany. It is located in the Bundesland of Thuringia (Thüringen north of the Thüringer Wald, The Weimar Constitution created a republic under a semi-presidential system with the Reichstag elected by proportional representation. For a detailed discussion of the English translation of Reich, see Reich. The semi-presidential system is a System of government in which a prime minister and a President are both active participants in the day-to-day administration Proportional representation (sometimes referred to as full representation or PR is a category of electoral formula aiming at a close match between the percentage of votes The Socialist and (Non-Socialist) Democratic parties obtained a solid 80 per cent of the vote.
During the debates in Weimar, fighting continued. A Soviet republic was declared in Munich, but was quickly put down by Freikorps and remnants of the regular army. The Bavarian Soviet Republic, also known as the Munich Soviet Republic ( German: Bayerische Räterepublik or Münchner Räterepublik) was Munich (München; Minga is the capital city of Bavaria, Germany. The fall of the Munich Soviet Republic to these units, many of which were situated on the extreme right, resulted in the growth of far-right movements and organizations in Bavaria, including the Nazis, Organisation Consul, and societies of exiled Russian Monarchists. The Bavarian Soviet Republic, also known as the Munich Soviet Republic ( German: Bayerische Räterepublik or Münchner Räterepublik) was Far right, extreme right, ultra-right, or radical right are terms used to discuss the qualitative or quantitative position a group Bavaria ( German:, with an area of 70553 Km² (27241 square miles and almost 12 Nazism, which was a short name for National Socialism (Nationalsozialismus refers primarily to the Ideology and practices of the National Socialist German Organisation Consul was an ultra-nationalist Death squad operating in Germany in 1921 and 1922 Sporadic fighting continued to flare up around the country. In eastern provinces, forces loyal to Germany's fallen Monarchy fought the republic, while militias of Polish nationalists fought for independence: Great Poland Uprising in Provinz Posen and three Silesian Uprisings in Upper Silesia. The Province of Posen (Provinz Posen Prowincja Poznańska was a province of Prussia from 1848-1918 and as such part of the German Empire from 1871 to 1918 the whole The Silesian Uprisings (Aufstände in Oberschlesien Powstania śląskie were a series of three armed uprisings of the Poles and Polish Silesians Upper Silesia (Horní Slezsko Oberschlesien Latin: Silesia Superior; Górny Śląsk Silesian: Gůrny Ślůnsk) is the southeastern part
The socialist roots of Weimar
Lost by Germany after World War I; Annexed by neighbouring countries Lost by Germany after World War I; Administered by the League of Nations Germany (1919-1935)
The carefully thought-out social and political legislation introduced during the revolution was generally unappreciated by the German working-class. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All The League of Nations was an International organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920 The two goals sought by the government, democratization and social protection of the working class, were never achieved. Democratization ( British English: Democratisation) is the transition to a more democratic Political regime. This has been attributed to a lack of pre-war political experience on the part of the Social Democrats. The government had little success in confronting the twin economic crises following the war.
The permanent economic crisis was a result of lost pre-war industrial exports, the loss of supplies in raw materials and food stuffs from Alsace-Lorraine, Polish districts and the colonies along with worsening debt balances and reparations payments. Alsace-Lorraine (Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen generally Elsass - Lothringen) was a territorial entity created by the German Empire in 1871 Military-industrial activity had almost ceased, although controlled demobilisation kept unemployment at around one million. The fact that the Allies continued to blockade Germany until after the Treaty of Versailles did not help matters, either. The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I.
The allies permitted only low import levels of goods that most Germans could not afford. After four years of war and famine, many German workers were exhausted, physically impaired and discouraged. Millions were disenchanted with capitalism and hoping for a new era. Meanwhile the currency devalued.
The German peace delegation in France signed the Treaty of Versailles accepting mass reductions of the German military, unrealistically heavy war reparations payments, and the controversial "War Guilt Clause". This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles (1919 reads in full " The Allied and Associated Governments affirm and Germany accepts the responsibility of Germany Adolf Hitler later blamed the republic and its democracy for the oppressive terms of this treaty, though most current historians disregard the "stab-in-the-back" myth Hitler advocated for his own personal political gain. Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently vandalized and vandalism is reverted immediately The stab-in-the-back legend ( German:, literally "Dagger stab legend" refers to a social Myth theory popular in Germany in the period after See also: French-German enmity. French–German hereditary enmity (Deutsch–französische Erbfeindschaft Esprit de revanche describes the three centuries of hostile relations and Revanchism
The Republic's first Reichspräsident ("Reich President"), Friedrich Ebert of the SPD, signed the new German constitution into law on August 11, 1919. The Reichspräsident was the German Head of state during the period of the 1919-1934 Weimar Republic and the title was later briefly revived Friedrich Ebert ( February 4, 1871 February 28, 1925) was a German Politician ( SPD) who served as Events 2492 BC - Traditional date of the defeat of Bel by Hayk, progenitor and founder of the Armenian nation Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common
The Early Years: Internal Conflict (1919–1923)
The Republic was under great pressure from both left and right-wing extremists. The radical left accused the ruling Social Democrats of having betrayed the ideals of the workers' movement by preventing a communist revolution. Right-wing extremists were opposed to any democratic system, preferring an authoritarian state like the 1871 Empire. To further undermine the Republic's credibility the extremists of the right (especially certain members of the former officer corps) also blamed an alleged conspiracy of Socialists and Jews for Germany's defeat in World War I (see Dolchstoßlegende). The stab-in-the-back legend ( German:, literally "Dagger stab legend" refers to a social Myth theory popular in Germany in the period after
For the next five years Germany's large cities suffered political violence between left-wing and right-wing groups, both of which committed violence and murder against innocent civilians and against each other, resulting in many deaths. Politically motivated violence is commonly referred to by the terms Terrorism, Rebellion, War, Conquest, Revolution, Oppression The worst of the violence was between right-wing paramilitaries called the Freikorps and pro-Communist militias called the Red Guards, both of which admitted ex-soldiers into their ranks. The designation of Freikorps ( German for "Free Corps " was originally applied to voluntary armies formed in German lands from the middle of 18th century
The first challenge to the Weimar Republic came when a group of communists and anarchists took over the Bavarian government in Munich and declared the creation of the Bavarian Soviet Republic. The Bavarian Soviet Republic, also known as the Munich Soviet Republic ( German: Bayerische Räterepublik or Münchner Räterepublik) was The communist rebel state was quickly put down one month later when Freikorps units were brought in to battle the leftist rebels.
The Kapp Putsch took place on March 13, 1920, involving a group of 5000 Freikorps troops who gained control of Berlin and installed Wolfgang Kapp (a right-wing journalist) as chancellor. The Kapp Putsch — or more accurately the Kapp-Lüttwitz Putsch — was a 1920 coup attempt during the German revolution aimed at overthrowing the Events 1138 - Cardinal Gregorio Conti is elected Antipope as Victor IV, succeeding Anacletus II. Year 1920 ( MCMXX) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display 1920 of the Gregorian calendar The designation of Freikorps ( German for "Free Corps " was originally applied to voluntary armies formed in German lands from the middle of 18th century Berlin is the capital city and one of sixteen states of Germany. The national government fled to Stuttgart and called for a general strike. Stuttgart (ˈʃtʊtgaɐ̯t is the capital of the state of Baden-Württemberg in southern Germany. A general strike is a Strike action by a critical mass of the labour force in a city region or country While Kapp's vacillating nature did not help matters, the strike crippled Germany's ravaged economy and the Kapp government collapsed after only four days on March 17. Events 45 BC - In his last victory Julius Caesar defeats the Pompeian forces of Titus Labienus and Pompey the Younger
Inspired by the general strikes, a communist uprising began in the Ruhr region when 50,000 people formed a "Red Army" and took control of the province. The Ruhr Area, ( German Ruhrgebiet, colloquial Ruhrpott, Kohlenpott or Revier) is an Urban area in North Rhine-Westphalia The regular army and the Freikorps ended the uprising on their own authority. The designation of Freikorps ( German for "Free Corps " was originally applied to voluntary armies formed in German lands from the middle of 18th century Other communist rebellions were put down in March 1921 in Saxony and Hamburg. The Free State of Saxony (Freistaat Sachsen ˈzaksən Swobodny Stat Sakska is the easternmost federal state of Germany. Hamburg (English, German: ˈhambʊɐk local pronunciation Low German / Low Saxon: Hamborg) is the second-largest city in Germany
In 1922, Germany signed a treaty - the Treaty of Rapallo - with Russia, and disarmament was brought to a halt. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Disarmament refers to the act of reducing limiting or abolishing Weapons. Under the Treaty of Versailles Germany could only have 100,000 soldiers and no conscription, Naval forces reduced to 15,000 men, 12 destroyers, 6 battleships, and 6 cruisers, no submarines or aircraft. The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. The Treaty with Russia worked in secret, as the treaty allowed Germany to train military personnel, and Russia gained the benefits of German military technology. This was against the Treaty of Versailles, but Russia had pulled out of World War I against the Germans due to the 1917 Russian Revolution and was looked down on by the League of Nations. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All The League of Nations was an International organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920 Germany seized the chance to make an ally.
By 1923, the Republic claimed it could no longer afford the reparations payments required by the Versailles treaty, and the government defaulted on some payments. In response, French and Belgian troops occupied the Ruhr region, Germany's most productive industrial region at the time, taking control of most mining and manufacturing companies in January of 1923. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those The Occupation of the Rhineland gave the French and Belgian armies the springboard from which it was easy to undertake the occupation of the Ruhr. Strikes were called, and passive resistance was encouraged. These strikes lasted eight months, further damaging the economy and increasing the expense of imports. The strike meant no goods were being produced. This infuriated the French, who began to kill and exile protestors in the region.
Since striking workers were paid benefits by the state, much additional currency was printed, fueling a period of hyperinflation. Certain figures in this article use Scientific notation for readability The 1920s German inflation started when Germany had no goods with which to trade. The inflation in the Weimar Republic was a period of Hyperinflation in Germany (the Weimar Republic) during 1921-1923 The government printed money to deal with the crisis; this allowed Germany to pay war loans and reparations with worthless marks and helped formerly great industrialists to pay back their own loans. This also led to pay raises for workers and for businessmen who wanted to profit from it. Circulation of money rocketed, and soon the Germans discovered their money was worthless. The value of the Papiermark had declined from 4. The name Papiermark (paper mark is applied to the German currency from the point in 1914 when the link between the Mark and gold was abandoned due to the outbreak 2 per US dollar at the outbreak of World War I to 1 million per dollar by August 1923. This gave the Republic's opponents something else to criticise it for. On 15 November 1923, a new currency, the Rentenmark, was introduced at the rate of 1 trillion (1,000,000,000,000) Papiermark for 1 Rentenmark. Events 655 - Battle of Winwaed: Penda of Mercia is defeated by Oswiu of Northumbria. Year 1923 ( MCMXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Rentenmark (literally " Security Mark" ( RM) was a Currency issued on 15 November 1923 to stop the Hyperinflation At that time, 1 U. S. dollar was equal to 4. 2 Rentenmark. Reparation payments resumed, and the Ruhr was returned to Germany under the Locarno Pact, which defined a border between Germany, France and Belgium.
Further pressure from the right came in 1923 with the Beer Hall Putsch, also called the Munich Putsch, staged by Adolf Hitler in Munich. The Beer Hall Putsch (also known as the Munich Putsch) was a failed Coup d'état that occurred between the evening of Thursday November 8 Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently vandalized and vandalism is reverted immediately Munich (München; Minga is the capital city of Bavaria, Germany. In 1920, the German Workers' Party had become the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP), nicknamed the Nazi Party, and would become a driving force in the collapse of Weimar. The German Workers' Party ('Deutsche Arbeiterpartei', or DAP was the short-lived predecessor of the Nazi Party (German Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei The, officially National Socialist German Workers' Party, ( abbreviated NSDAP) was a Political party in Germany between 1919 and 1945 Hitler was named chairman of the party in July 1921. On November 8, 1923, the Kampfbund, in a pact with Erich Ludendorff, took over a meeting by Bavarian prime minister Gustav von Kahr at a beer hall in Munich. Events 1519 - Hernán Cortés enters Tenochtitlán and Aztec ruler Moctezuma welcomes him with great a Celebration Year 1923 ( MCMXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Kampfbund was a league of "patriotic" fighting societies and the German National Socialist party in Bavaria Germany in the 1920s Erich Friedrich Wilhelm Ludendorff (sometimes given incorrectly as von Ludendorff) (9 April 1865–20 December 1937 was a German Army officer, Generalquartiermeister Gustav Ritter von Kahr ( November 29, 1862 &ndash June 30, 1934) was a German right-wing conservative Politician, active Ludendorff and Hitler declared a new government, planning to take control of Munich the following day. The 3,000 rebels were thwarted by 100 policemen. Hitler was arrested and sentenced to five years in prison, a minimum sentence for the charge and he served less than eight months before his release and even then in a comfortable cell. Following the failure of the Beer Hall Putsch, his imprisonment and subsequent release, Hitler focused on legal methods of gaining power.
Stresemann's Golden Era (1923–1929)
Gustav Stresemann was Reichskanzler for a 100 days in 1923, and served as foreign minister from 1923-1929, a period of relative stability for the Weimar Republic when there were fewer uprisings and the beginnings of economic recovery. ( May 10, 1878 &ndash October 3, 1929) was a German liberal politician and statesman who served as Chancellor and Foreign Minister The Head of government of Germany is called Chancellor (Kanzler
As chancellor, Stresemann had to restore law and order in certain towns in Germany such as Spandau and Krustin, where the 'black reichswehr' (a section of the freikorps) held a mutiny. Saxont and Thuringia allowed KPD members into their governments, and a new nationalist leader ran Bavaria who called for Bavarian independence and told his army to disobey orders from Berlin. Streseman persuaded Ebert to issue Article 48 to resolve the situation and brought the freikorps to settle the situation. However the use of violence against political activities led the SPD (Social Democratic Party) to remove themselves from his coalition which finally led to the ending of his chancellorship.
Stresemann's first move as foreign minister was to issue a new currency, the Rentenmark, to halt the extreme hyperinflation crippling German society and the economy. The Rentenmark (literally " Security Mark" ( RM) was a Currency issued on 15 November 1923 to stop the Hyperinflation Certain figures in this article use Scientific notation for readability It was successful because Stresemann refused to issue more currency, the cause of the inflationary spiral. In addition the currency was based on land, and restored confidence into the economy. With this achieved, a permanent currency - the Reichsmark - was introduced in 1926. Hans Luther was also appointed as Finance minister who helped balance the budget by dismissing 700 000 public employees.
In 1924 the Dawes Plan was created, tying reparations payments to Germany's ability to pay. The Dawes Plan (as proposed by the Dawes Committee chaired by Charles G However it was a temorary measure that meant there would be allied surveillance in custom duties and by railways. Another foreign achievement was the evacuation of the Ruhr in 1925, and in 1925 the Treaty of Berlin. This reinforced the Treaty of Rapollo in 1922, and improved relations between the USSR and Germany. Also in this year, Germany was admitted to the League Of Nations, which gave her a good international stance and the ability to vetoe legislation after Stresemans insistence on entering as a permanent member. They also made agreements over its western border, though nothing was fixed on the Eastern borders.
However, this progress was funded by overseas loans, increasing the nation's debts, while overall trade decreased and unemployment rose. Stresemann's reforms did not relieve the underlying weaknesses of Weimar but gave the appearance of a stable democracy.
The 1920s saw a massive cultural revival in Germany. It was, arguably, the most innovative period of cultural change in Germany.
innovative street theatre brought plays to the public, the cabaret scene and promiscuity became very popular. Women were americanised, wearing makeup, short hair, smoking and broke out of the tradition. Music was created with a practical purpose, such as Schloebergs 'atonality' and there was a new type of architecture taught at 'Bauhaus' schools. Art reflected the new ideas of the time with artists such as Grosz being fined for defaming the military and blasphemy.
There was a lot of opposition to this Weimar culture shock, especially from conservatives. For instance, in 1930 Wilhelm Frick banned jazz performances and removed modern art from museums. As well as a new law being introduced to prevent teenagers from buying pulp fuictiom or pornography.
Despite the progress during these years, Stresemann was criticized by opponents for his policy of "fulfilment", or compliance with the terms of the Versailles Treaty, and by the German people after the invasion of the Ruhr, in which he agreed to pay the reparations set by the treaty in order for the French troops to evacuate. The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I.
In 1929, Stresemann's death marked the end of the "Golden Era" of the Weimar Republic. He died at the age of 51, four years after receiving the 1926 Nobel Peace Prize. The Nobel Peace Prize ( Swedish, Danish and Nobels fredspris is one of five Nobel Prizes Bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor
The Republic crumbles and Hitler's support rises (1930–1932)
Loss of credibility
The last years of the Weimar Republic were stamped by even more political instability than in the previous years and the administrations of Chancellors Brüning, Papen, Schleicher and Hitler (from 30 January to 23 March 1933) were all Presidentially appointed dictatorships. Dr Heinrich Brüning ( ( November 26, 1885 &ndash March 30, 1970) was a German Politician during the Weimar Republic (29 October 1879 2 May 1969 was a German nobleman Catholic monarchist Politician, General Staff officer and Diplomat Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently vandalized and vandalism is reverted immediately Events 1648 - Eighty Years' War: The Treaty of Münster is signed ending the conflict between the Netherlands and Spain Events 1174 - Jocelin, Abbot of Melrose, is elected Bishop of Glasgow. Year 1933 ( MCMXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. This meant they used the President's power to rule without consulting the Reichstag (German parliament). On March 29, 1930, the finance expert Heinrich Brüning had been appointed the successor of Chancellor Müller by Paul von Hindenburg after months of political lobbying by General Kurt von Schleicher on behalf of the military. Events 1461 - Wars of the Roses: Battle of Towton - Edward of York defeats Queen Margaret to become King Year 1930 ( MCMXXX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display 1930 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Dr Heinrich Brüning ( ( November 26, 1885 &ndash March 30, 1970) was a German Politician during the Weimar Republic Paul Ludwig Hans Anton von Beneckendorff und von Hindenburg ( known universally as Paul von Hindenburg ( ( October 2, 1847 &ndash August 2 The new government was expected to lead a political shift towards conservatism, based on the emergency powers granted to the Reichspräsident by the constitution, since it had no majority support in the Reichstag. The Reichstag ( German for "Imperial Diet " was the Parliament of the Holy Roman Empire, the North German Confederation,
After an unpopular bill to reform the Reich's finances was left unsupported by the Reichstag, Hindenburg established the bill as an emergency decree based on Article 48 of the constitution. Article 48 was an article in the constitution of the Weimar Republic of Germany ( 1919 &ndash 1933) that allowed the Chancellor to rule On July 18, 1930, the bill was again invalidated by a slim majority in the Reichstag with the support of the SPD, KPD, the (then small) NSDAP and DNVP. Events 390 BC - Roman - Gaulish Wars Battle of the Allia - a Roman army is defeated by raiding Gauls, Year 1930 ( MCMXXX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display 1930 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Communist Party of Germany ( German Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands &ndash KPD) was a major political party in Germany between 1918 The German National People's Party (Deutschnationale Volkspartei DNVP was a national-conservative party in Germany during the time of the Weimar Republic Immediately afterwards, Brüning submitted to the Reichstag the president's decree that it would be dissolved.
The Reichstag general elections on September 14, 1930 resulted in an enormous political shift: 18. Events 81 - Domitian becomes Emperor of the Roman Empire upon the death of his brother Titus. Year 1930 ( MCMXXX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display 1930 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. 3% of the vote went to the Nazis, five times the percentage compared to 1928. This increased legislative representation of the NSDAP had devastating consequences for the Republic. There was no longer a moderate majority in the Reichstag even for a Great Coalition of moderate parties, and this encouraged the supporters of the Nazis to force their claim to power with increasing violence and terror. After 1930, the Republic slid more and more into a state of potential civil war.
From 1930 to 1932, Brüning attempted to reform the devastated state without a majority in Parliament, governing with the help of the President's emergency decrees. During that time, the Great Depression reached its low point. In line with liberal economic theory that less public spending would spur economic growth, Brüning drastically cut state expenditures, including in the social sector. He expected and accepted that the economic crisis would, for a while, deteriorate before things would improve. Among others, the Reich completely halted all public grants to the obligatory unemployment insurance (which had been introduced only in 1927), which resulted in higher contributions by the workers and fewer benefits for the unemployed. This was understandably an unpopular move on his part.
The economic downturn lasted until the second half of 1932, when there were first indications of a rebound. By this time though, the Weimar Republic had lost all credibility with the majority of Germans. While scholars greatly disagree about how Brüning's policy should be evaluated, it can safely be said that it contributed to the decline of the Republic. Whether there were alternatives at the time remains the subject of much debate.
The bulk of German capitalists and land-owners originally gave support to the conservative experiment: not from any personal liking for Brüning, but believing the conservatives would best serve their interests. As, however, the mass of the working class and also of the middle classes turned against Brüning, more of the great capitalists and landowners declared themselves in favour of his opponents - Hitler and Hugenberg. By late 1931 conservatism as a movement was dead, and the time was coming when Hindenburg and the Reichswehr would drop Brüning and come to terms with Hugenberg and Hitler. The Reichswehr ( German for "National Defence" formed the military organisation of Germany from 1919 until 1935 when it was Hindenburg himself was no less a supporter of an anti-democratic counter-revolution represented by Hugenberg and Hitler. [3]
On May 30, 1932, Brüning resigned after no longer having Hindenburg's support. Events 1416 - The Council of Constance, called by the Emperor Sigismund a supporter of Antipope John XXIII burns Jerome of Prague following Five weeks earlier, Hindenburg had been re-elected Reichspräsident with Brüning's active support, running against Hitler (the president was directly elected by the people while the Reichskanzler was not).
Franz von Papen calls for elections
Hindenburg then appointed Franz von Papen as new Reichskanzler. (29 October 1879 2 May 1969 was a German nobleman Catholic monarchist Politician, General Staff officer and Diplomat Von Papen lifted the ban on the SA, imposed after the street riots, in an unsuccessful attempt to secure the backing of Hitler. The, abbreviated SA, ( German for "Assault detachment" or "Assault section" usually translated as " stormtroop(ers
Von Papen was closely associated with the industrialist and land-owning classes and pursued an extreme Conservative policy along Hindenburg's lines. He appointed as Reichswehr Minister Kurt von Schleicher and all of the members of the new cabinet were of the same political opinion as Hindenburg. This government was to be expected to assure itself of the co-operation of Hitler. Since the Republicans and Socialists were not yet ready to take action and the Conservatives had shot their political bolt, Hitler and Hindenburg were certain to achieve power.
Elections of July 1932
Since most parties opposed the new government, von Papen had the Reichstag dissolved and called for new elections. The Reichstag ( German for "Imperial Diet " was the Parliament of the Holy Roman Empire, the North German Confederation, The general elections on July 31, 1932 yielded major gains for the KPD and the Nazis, who won 37. Events 30 BC - Battle of Alexandria: Mark Antony achieves a minor victory over Octavian 's forces but most of his army subsequently Year 1932 ( MCMXXXII) was a Leap year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar. The Communist Party of Germany ( German Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands &ndash KPD) was a major political party in Germany between 1918 2% of the vote, supplanting the Social Democrats as the largest party in the Reichstag.
July 1932 resulted in the question as to what part the now immense Nazi Party would play in the Government of the country. The Nazi party owed its huge increase to an influx of workers, unemployed, despairing peasants, and middle-class people. The millions of radical adherents at first forced the Party towards the Left. They wanted a renewed Germany and a new organisation of German society. The left of the Nazi party strove desperately against any drift into the train of such capitalist and feudal reactionaries. Therefore Hitler refused ministry under Papen, and demanded the chancellorship for himself, but was rejected by Hindenburg on August 13, 1932. Events 3114 BC - According to the Lounsbury correlation the start of the Maya calendar. Year 1932 ( MCMXXXII) was a Leap year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar. There was still no majority in the Reichstag for any government; as a result, the Reichstag was dissolved and elections took place once more in the hope that a stable majority would result.
November and 'Socialist General' Schleicher
The November 6, 1932 elections yielded 33. Events 355 - Roman Emperor Constantius II promotes his cousin Julian to the rank of Caesar, entrusting him with Year 1932 ( MCMXXXII) was a Leap year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar. 1% for the Nazis[4]: it dropped 2 million voters. Franz von Papen stepped down, and was succeeded by General Kurt von Schleicher as Reichskanzler on December 3. Events 1800 - War of the Second Coalition: Battle of Hohenlinden, French Schleicher, a political army officer, had developed in an atmosphere of semi-obscurity and intrigue that encompassed the Republican military policy. He had for years been in the camp of those supporting the Conservative counter-revolution. Schleicher's bold and unsuccessful plan was to build a majority in the Reichstag by uniting the Trade Unionist left wings in the various parties, including that of the Nazis led by Gregor Strasser. A trade union or labour union is an organization of workers who have banded together to achieve common goals in key areas such as wages hours and working conditions forming This did not prove successful either.
In this brief Presidential Dictatatorship entr'acte, Schleicher took the role of 'Socialist General', and entered into relations with the Christian Trade Unions, the Left Nazis, and even with the Social Democrats. Schleicher's plan was for a sort of Labour Government under his Generalship. It was an utterly un-workable idea as the Reichswehr officers were hardly prepared to follow Schleicher on this path, and the working class had a natural distrust of their future allies. Equally, Schleicher aroused hatred amongst the great capitalists and landowners by these plans. The SPD and KPD could have achieved success building on a Berlin transport strike.
Hitler learned from von Papen that the general had no authority to abolish the Reichstag parliament, whereas any majority of seats did. The cabinet (under a previous interpretation of Article 48) ruled without a sitting Reichstag, which could vote only for its own dissolution. Hitler also learned that all past crippling Nazi debts were to be relieved by German big business.
On January 22, Hitler's efforts to persuade Oskar von Hindenburg (the President's son) included threats to bring criminal charges over estate taxation irregularities at the President's Neudeck estate (although 5000 extra acres were soon allotted to Hindenburg's property). Events 565 - Eutychius is deposed as Patriarch of Constantinople by John Scholasticus. Neudeck was the ancestral country estate of the Hindenburg family near Rosenberg, East Prussia. Out maneuvered by von Papen and Hitler on plans for the new cabinet, and having lost Hindenburg's confidence, Schleicher asked for new elections. On January 28 von Papen described Hitler to Paul von Hindenburg as only a minority part of an alternative, von Papen-arranged government. Events 1077 - Walk to Canossa: The Excommunication of Henry IV Holy Roman Emperor is lifted Paul Ludwig Hans Anton von Beneckendorff und von Hindenburg ( known universally as Paul von Hindenburg ( ( October 2, 1847 &ndash August 2 The four great political movements, the SPD, KPD, Centre, and the Nazis were in opposition. The German Centre Party ( Deutsche Zentrumspartei or merely Zentrum) was a Catholic political party in Germany during the Kaiserreich
On January 29 Hitler and von Papen thwarted a last-minute threat of an officially-sanctioned Reichswehr takeover, and on January 30, 1933 Hindenburg accepted the new Papen-Nationalist-Hitler coalition with the Nazis holding only three of eleven Cabinet seats. Events 904 - Sergius III comes out of retirement to take over the papacy from the deposed Antipope Christopher. Events 1648 - Eighty Years' War: The Treaty of Münster is signed ending the conflict between the Netherlands and Spain Year 1933 ( MCMXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Later that day, the first cabinet meeting was attended by only two political parties, representing a minority in the Reichstag: The Nazis and the DNVP led by Alfred Hugenberg (196 + 52 seats). The German National People's Party (Deutschnationale Volkspartei DNVP was a national-conservative party in Germany during the time of the Weimar Republic Alfred Hugenberg (19 June 1865 - 12 March 1951 was an influential German Businessman and Politician. Eyeing the Catholic Centre Party's 70 (+ 20 BVP) seats, Hitler refused their leader's demands for constitutional "concessions" (amounting to protection) and planned for dissolution of the Reichstag. The German Centre Party ( Deutsche Zentrumspartei or merely Zentrum) was a Catholic political party in Germany during the Kaiserreich The Bavarian People's Party (Bayerische Volkspartei was the Bavarian branch of the Centre Party, which broke off from the rest of the party in 1919 to pursue
Hindenburg, despite his misgivings about the Nazis' goals and about Hitler as a person, reluctantly agreed to Papen's theory that, with Nazi popular support on the wane, Hitler could now be controlled as chancellor. The date dubbed Machtergreifung (seizure of power) by the Nazi propaganda is commonly seen as the beginning of Nazi Germany. Machtergreifung ( is a German word meaning "seizure of power" Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers
Hitler's chancellorship and the death of the Weimar Republic (1933)
Hitler was sworn in as Chancellor on the morning of January 30, 1933 in what some observers later described as a brief and indifferent ceremony. Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently vandalized and vandalism is reverted immediately Chancellor or chancellour (archaic ( Latin: cancellarius) is an official Title used in countries whose civilization has arisen Events 1648 - Eighty Years' War: The Treaty of Münster is signed ending the conflict between the Netherlands and Spain Year 1933 ( MCMXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. By early February, a mere week after Hitler's assumption of the chancellorship, the government had begun to clamp down on the opposition. Meetings of the left-wing parties were banned, and even some of the moderate parties found their members threatened and assaulted. Measures with an appearance of legality suppressed the Communist Party in mid-February and included the plainly illegal arrests of Reichstag deputies.
Reichstag Fire
The Reichstag Fire on February 27 was blamed by Hitler's government on the Communists, and Hitler used the ensuing state of emergency to obtain the assent of President von Hindenburg to issue the Reichstag Fire Decree the following day. On 27 February 1933, the Reichstag building was subject to an arson attack and as a result seen as the pivotal event in the establishment of Nazi Germany Events 1560 - The Treaty of Berwick, which would expel the French from Scotland, is signed by England and the Congregation The Reichstag Fire Decree (Reichstagsbrandverordnung is the common name of the Order of the Reich President for the Protection of People and State issued by German president The decree invoked Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution and suspended a number of constitutional protections of civil liberties, allowing the Nazi government to take swift action against political meetings, arresting and killing the Communists. Article 48 was an article in the constitution of the Weimar Republic of Germany ( 1919 &ndash 1933) that allowed the Chancellor to rule For a detailed discussion of the English translation of Reich, see Reich.
Reichstag election of March 5
Hitler and the Nazis exploited the German state's broadcasting and aviation facilities in a massive attempt to sway the electorate, but this election — the last democratic election to take place until the end of the Third Reich twelve years later — yielded a scant majority of 16 seats for the coalition. Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers At the Reichstag elections, which took place on 5 March, the NSDAP obtained seventeen million votes. Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian moves from Antioch with an army of 90000 to attack the Sassanid Empire, in a The Communist, Socialist and Catholic Centre votes stood firm.
Hitler addressed disparate interest groups, stressing the necessity for a definitive solution to the perpetual instability of the Weimar Republic. He now blamed Germany's problems on the Communists, even threatening their lives on March 3. Events 1284 - Statute of Rhuddlan incorporated the Principality of Wales into England 1575 - Indian Former Chancellor Heinrich Brüning proclaimed that his Centre Party would resist any constitutional change and appealed to the President for an investigation of the Reichstag fire. Dr Heinrich Brüning ( ( November 26, 1885 &ndash March 30, 1970) was a German Politician during the Weimar Republic Hitler's successful plan was to induce what remained of the now Communist-depleted Reichstag to grant him, and the Government, the authority to issue decrees with the force of law. The hitherto Presidential Dictatorship hereby was to give itself a new legal form.
On 15 March the first cabinet meeting was attended by the two coalition parties, representing a minority in the Reichstag: The Nazis and the DNVP led by Alfred Hugenberg (196 + 52 seats). Events 44 BC - Julius Caesar, Dictator of the Roman Republic, is stabbed to death by Marcus Junius Brutus, The German National People's Party (Deutschnationale Volkspartei DNVP was a national-conservative party in Germany during the time of the Weimar Republic Alfred Hugenberg (19 June 1865 - 12 March 1951 was an influential German Businessman and Politician. According to the Nuremberg Trials this cabinet meeting's first order of business was how at last to achieve the complete counter-revolution by means of the constitutionally-allowed Enabling Act, requiring two-thirds parliamentary majority. The Nuremberg Trials were a series of trials most notable for the prosecution of prominent members of the political military and economic leadership of Nazi Germany after The Enabling Act ( in German) was passed by the Reichstag ( Germany 's parliament on March 23, 1933 and signed This Act would, and did, bring Hitler and the NSDAP unfettered dictatorial powers. The, officially National Socialist German Workers' Party, ( abbreviated NSDAP) was a Political party in Germany between 1919 and 1945
Hitler cabinet meeting in mid-March
At the meeting of the new cabinet on March 15, Hitler introduced the Enabling Act, which would have authorised the cabinet to enact legislation without the approval of the Reichstag. Events 44 BC - Julius Caesar, Dictator of the Roman Republic, is stabbed to death by Marcus Junius Brutus, The Enabling Act ( in German) was passed by the Reichstag ( Germany 's parliament on March 23, 1933 and signed Meanwhile, the only remaining question for the Nazis was whether the Catholic Centre Party (Zentrum) would support the Enabling Act in the Reichstag, thereby providing the two-thirds majority required to ratify a law that amended the constitution. The German Centre Party ( Deutsche Zentrumspartei or merely Zentrum) was a Catholic political party in Germany during the Kaiserreich Hitler expressed his confidence to win over the Centre's votes. Hitler is recorded at the Nuremberg Trials as being sure of eventual Centre Party Germany capitulation and thus rejecting of the DNVP's suggestions to "balance" the majority through further arrests, this time of socialists. The German Centre Party ( Deutsche Zentrumspartei or merely Zentrum) was a Catholic political party in Germany during the Kaiserreich Hitler however assured his coalition partners that arrests would resume after the elections, and in fact some 26 SPD Socialists were physically removed. After meeting with Centre leader Monsignor Ludwig Kaas and other Centre Trade Union leaders daily, and denying them a substantial participation in the government, negotiation succeeded in respect of guarantees towards Catholic civil-servants and education issues. Prelate Ludwig Kaas ( 23 May 1881 &ndash 15 April 1952) was a Roman Catholic priest, and a prominent German
At the last internal Centre meeting prior to the debate on the Enabling Act, Kaas expressed no preference or suggestion on the vote, but as a way of mollifying opposition by Centre members to the granting of further powers to Hitler, Kaas somehow arranged for a letter of constitutional guarantee from Hitler himself prior to his voting with the centre en bloc in favor of the Enabling Act. The Enabling Act ( in German) was passed by the Reichstag ( Germany 's parliament on March 23, 1933 and signed This guarantee was not ultimately given. Kaas, the party's chairman since 1928, had strong connections to the Vatican Secretary of State, later Pope Pius XII. Vatican City, officially the State of the Vatican City (Stato della Città del Vaticano is a Landlocked sovereign City-state whose territory Pope In return for pledging his support for the act, Kaas would use his connections with the Vatican to set in train and draft the Holy See's long desired Reichskonkordat with Germany (only possible with the co-operation of the Nazis). The Holy See is the episcopal jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome, commonly known as the Pope, and is the preeminent Episcopal see of the Roman Catholic The Reichskonkordat is the Concordat between the Holy See and Nazi Germany.
Ludwig Kaas is considered along with von Papen as being one of the two most important political figures in the creation of a National Socialist dictatorship. Prelate Ludwig Kaas ( 23 May 1881 &ndash 15 April 1952) was a Roman Catholic priest, and a prominent German [5]
Enabling Act negotiations
On March 20 negotiation began between Hitler and Frick on one side and the Catholic Centre Party (Zentrum) leaders — Kaas, Stegerwald and Hackelsburger — on the other. Events 1600 - The Linköping Bloodbath takes place on Maundy Thursday in Linköping, Sweden. The German Centre Party ( Deutsche Zentrumspartei or merely Zentrum) was a Catholic political party in Germany during the Kaiserreich The aim was to settle on conditions under which Center would vote in favor of the Enabling Act. Because of the Nazis' narrow majority in the Reichstag, Center's support was necessary to receive the required two-thirds majority vote. On March 22, the negotiations concluded; Hitler promised to continue the existence of the German states, agreed not to use the new grant of power to change the constitution, and promised to retain Zentrum members in the civil service. Events 238 - Gordian I and his son Gordian II are proclaimed Roman emperor. Hitler also pledged to protect the Catholic confessional schools and to respect the concordats signed between the Holy See and Bavaria (1924), Prussia (1929) and Baden (1931). Hitler also agreed to mention these promises in his speech to the Reichstag before the vote on the Enabling Act.
Ceremonial opening of the Reichstag in Potsdam on March 21
The ceremonial opening of the Reichstag on March 21 was held at the Garrison Church in Potsdam, a shrine of Prussianism, in the presence of many Junker landowners and representatives of the imperial military caste. Events 630 - Byzantine emperor Heraclius restores the True Cross to Jerusalem. Also see Potsdam New York (in the USA For the Potsdam Conference see Potsdam Conference. Junkers (English pronunciation ə German pronunciation kɐ were the Landed nobility of Prussia and eastern Germany. This impressive and often emotional spectacle — orchestrated by Joseph Goebbels — aimed to link Hitler's government with Germany's imperial past and portray National Socialism as a guarantor of the nation's future. Paul Joseph Goebbels (German pronunciation ˈɡœbəls English generally ˈɡɝbəlz (29 October 1897 1 May 1945 was a German politician and Reich Minister of Public The ceremony helped convince the "old guard" Prussian military elite of Hitler's homage to their long tradition and, in turn, produced the relatively convincing view that Hitler's government had the support of Germany's traditional protector — the Army. Such support would publicly signal a return to conservatism to curb the problems affecting the Weimar Republic, and that stability might be at hand. In a cynical and politically adroit move, Hitler bowed in respectful humility before President and Field Marshal von Hindenburg. Paul Ludwig Hans Anton von Beneckendorff und von Hindenburg ( known universally as Paul von Hindenburg ( ( October 2, 1847 &ndash August 2
Passage of the Enabling Act by the Reichstag on March 23
The Reichstag Government convened on March 23, 1933, and in the midday opening, Hitler made a historic speech, appearing outwardly calm and conciliatory. Events 1174 - Jocelin, Abbot of Melrose, is elected Bishop of Glasgow. Year 1933 ( MCMXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. It is most noticeable for its abrupt reversal of the Nazi Party's hardline stance against Christianity and particularly Catholicism. Hitler presented an appealing prospect of respect towards Christianity by paying tribute to the Christian faiths as "essential elements for safeguarding the soul of the German people". He promised to respect their rights and declared his government's "ambition is a peaceful accord between Church and State" and that he hoped "to improve our friendly relations with the Holy See. The Holy See is the episcopal jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome, commonly known as the Pope, and is the preeminent Episcopal see of the Roman Catholic " This speech aimed especially at the future recognition by the named Holy See and therefore to the votes of the Centre Party addressing many concerns Kaas had voiced during the previous talks. The Holy See is the episcopal jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome, commonly known as the Pope, and is the preeminent Episcopal see of the Roman Catholic Kaas is considered to have had a hand therefore in the drafting of the speech. [5] Kaas is also reported as voicing the Holy see's desire for Hitler as bulwark against atheistic Russian nihilism previously as early as May 1932. Atheism Nihilism (from the Latin nihil, nothing is a philosophical position that argues that Existence is without objective meaning Purpose [6]
In the debate prior to the vote on the Enabling Act, Hitler orchestrated the full political menace of his paramilitary forces like the storm troopers in the streets to intimidate reluctant Reichstag deputies into approving the Enabling Act. A paramilitary is a force whose function and organization are similar to those of a professional military force but which are not regarded as having the same status The, abbreviated SA, ( German for "Assault detachment" or "Assault section" usually translated as " stormtroop(ers The Communists' 81 seats had been empty since the Reichstag Fire Decree and other lesser known procedural measures, thus excluding their anticipated "No" votes from the balloting. Otto Wels, the leader of the Social Democrats, whose seats were similarly depleted from 120 to below 100, was the only speaker to defend democracy and in a futile but brave effort to deny Hitler the two-thirds majority, he made a speech critical of the abandonment of democracy to dictatorship. Otto Wels ( September 15 1873 &ndash September 16 1939) was the chairman of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD from 1919 At this Hitler could no longer restrain his wrath. [7]
In his retort to Wels, Hitler abandoned earlier pretence at calm statesmanship and delivered a characteristic screaming diatribe, promising to exterminate all Communists in Germany and threatening Wels' Social Democrats as well. Otto Wels ( September 15 1873 &ndash September 16 1939) was the chairman of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD from 1919 Meanwhile Hitler's promised written guarantee to Monsignor Kaas was being typed up, it was asserted to Kaas, and thereby Kaas was persuaded to silently deliver the Centre bloc's votes for the Enabling Act anyway.
Aftermath
The passing of the Enabling Act gave Hitler and his government sweeping powers to legislate without the Reichstag's approval, and to make foreign policy decisions and deviate from the constitution where they saw fit. Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers Hitler would use these powers to remove all opposition to the dictatorship he wished to create. The decrees issued by Hitler's cabinet within succeeding weeks rapidly stripped Germans of their rights, removed all non-Nazi members of the Civil Service, and banned all other political parties and unions, ushering in the Third Reich.
The NSDAP movement had rapidly passed the power of the majority Nationalist Ministers to control. Unchecked by the police, the S. A indulged in acts of terrorism throughout Germany. Communists, Social Democrats, and the Centre were ousted from public life everywhere. The violent persecution of Jews began, and by the summer 1933 the NSDAP felt itself so invincible that it did away with all the other parties, as well as trades unions. The, officially National Socialist German Workers' Party, ( abbreviated NSDAP) was a Political party in Germany between 1919 and 1945 The Nationalist Party was among those suppressed. The NSDAP ruled alone in Germany. The, officially National Socialist German Workers' Party, ( abbreviated NSDAP) was a Political party in Germany between 1919 and 1945 The Reichswehr had, however, remained completely un-touched by all these occurrences. It was still the same State within a State that it had been in the Weimar Republic. Similarly, the private property of wealthy industrialists and landowners was untouched, whilst the administrative and judicial machinery was only very slightly tampered with. [3]
Reasons for the Weimar Republic's failure
The reasons for the Weimar Republic's collapse are the subject of continuing debate. It may have been doomed from the beginning since even moderates disliked it and extremists on both the left and right loathed it. Germany had no democratic traditions and Weimar democracy was widely seen as chaotic. And since Weimar politicians had been blamed for the "stab in the back" myth that was then widely believed in Germany as the real cause of the surrender of the German army in World War I, the popular legitimacy of the government was on shaky ground. The stab-in-the-back legend ( German:, literally "Dagger stab legend" refers to a social Myth theory popular in Germany in the period after
No single reason can explain the failure of the Weimar Republic. The most commonly asserted causes can be grouped into three categories: economic problems, institutional problems and the roles of specific individuals.
Economic problems
The Weimar Republic had some of the most serious economic problems ever experienced by any Western democracy in history. The effects of the Great Depression were profound throughout Europe, though the greatest impact was on Germany, Austria and Poland, where one Rampant hyperinflation, massive unemployment and a large drop in living standards were primary factors. Certain figures in this article use Scientific notation for readability In 1923-29 there was a short period of economic recovery, but the Great Depression of the 1930s led to a worldwide recession. Germany was particularly affected because it depended heavily on American loans. In 1932, about 5 million Germans were unemployed. Many blamed the Weimar Republic. This was made apparent when political parties on both right and left wanting to disband the Republic altogether made any democratic majority in Parliament impossible.
The Weimar Republic was severely affected by the Great Depression triggered by the Wall Street Crash of 1929. The Wall Street Crash of 1929, also known as the ’29 Crash, the Crash of 1929, the Great Crash of 1929, the Great Crash of October 1929 The crash and subsequent economic stagnation led to increased demands on Germany to repay the debts owed to the United States. As the Weimar Republic was very fragile in all of its existence, the depression proved to be devastating, and played a major role in the NSDAP's takeover. The, officially National Socialist German Workers' Party, ( abbreviated NSDAP) was a Political party in Germany between 1919 and 1945
The Treaty of Versailles was considered by most Germans to be a punishing and degrading document because it forced them to surrender resource-rich areas and pay massive amounts of compensation. The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. These punitive reparations caused consternation and resentment, although the actual economic damage resulting from the Treaty of Versailles is difficult to determine. While the official reparations were considerable Germany ended up paying only a fraction of them. However, the reparations did damage Germany's economy by discouraging market loans, which forced the Weimar government to finance its deficit by printing more money, causing rampant hyperinflation. In addition, the rapid disintegration of Germany in 1919, due to the return of a disillusioned army, the rapid change from possible victory in 1918 to defeat in 1919, and the political chaos may have caused a psychological imprint on Germans that could lead to extreme nationalism, shown by Hitler. The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation
Most historians agree that many industrial leaders identified the Weimar Republic with labour unions and with the Social Democrats, who had established the Versailles concessions of 1918/1919. Although some did see Hitler as a means to abolish the latter, the Republic was already unstable before any industry leaders were supporting Hitler. Even those who supported Hitler's appointment often did not want Nazism in its entirety and considered Hitler a temporary solution in their efforts to abolish the Republic. Industry support alone cannot explain Hitler's enthusiastic support by large segments of the population, including many workers who had turned away from the left.
Institutional problems
It is widely agreed that the 1919 constitution had several weaknesses, making the eventual establishment of a dictatorship likely but it is unknown whether a different constitution could have prevented the Third Reich. However, the 1949 West German constitution (the Grundgesetz) is generally viewed as a strong response to these flaws. The Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany (Grundgesetz für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland is the Constitution of Germany.
- The institution of the Reichspräsident was frequently considered as an Ersatzkaiser ("substitute emperor"), an attempt to replace the Kaiser (who resigned and fled in 1918) with a similarly strong institution meant to diminish party politics. Article 48 of the constitution gave the President power to "take all necessary steps" if "public order and security are seriously disturbed or endangered". Although this was intended as an emergency clause, it was often used before 1933 to issue decrees without the support of Parliament (see above) and also made Gleichschaltung easier. Gleichschaltung, meaning "coordination" "making the same" "bringing into line" is a Nazi term for the process by which the For example, the Reichstag Fire Decree was issued on the basis of Article 48. The Reichstag Fire Decree (Reichstagsbrandverordnung is the common name of the Order of the Reich President for the Protection of People and State issued by German president
- The use of almost pure proportional representation meant any party with a small amount of support could gain entry into the Reichstag. Proportional representation (sometimes referred to as full representation or PR is a category of electoral formula aiming at a close match between the percentage of votes The Reichstag ( German for "Imperial Diet " was the Parliament of the Holy Roman Empire, the North German Confederation, This led to many small parties, some extremist, building political bases within the system (In 1949, four years after the Second World War the electoral law was changed and only parties with 5% or more of the total vote would be allowed to enter the Bundestag). World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The Bundestag ("Federal Diet " or "Lower House of German Parliament" is the Parliament of Germany. Yet, it has to be noted that the Reichstag of the monarchy was fractioned to a similar degree although being elected by majority vote under a first-past-the-post system. Majoritarianism is a traditional Political philosophy or agenda which asserts that a Majority (sometimes categorized by Religion, Language, or The plurality voting system is a Single-winner voting system often used to elect executive officers or to elect members of a legislative assembly which is based on single-member
- The Reichstag could remove the Reichskanzler from office even if it was unable to agree on a successor. This "Motion of No Confidence" led to many chancellors in quick succession, adding to the Republic's instability (see Chancellor of Germany for a list). A motion of no confidence (also vote of no confidence, censure motion, no-confidence motion, or confidence motion) is a Parliamentary motion The Head of government of Germany is called Chancellor (Kanzler As a result, the 1949 Grundgesetz stipulates that a chancellor may only be voted down by Parliament if a successor is elected at the same time (see Constructive Vote of No Confidence). The constructive vote of no confidence (in German: konstruktives Misstrauensvotum) is a specialty of the 1949 German Constitution, the Grundgesetz
- The constitution provided that in the event of the president's death or resignation, the Reichskanzler would assume that office (and crucially possess its powers) pending election of a new president. The Head of government of Germany is called Chancellor (Kanzler This allowed Hitler to easily unite the offices of Reichskanzler and Reichspräsident after Hindenburg's death in 1934. However, by this time the dictatorship was already firmly installed and this clause alone cannot be blamed for Nazism.
Role of individuals
Some historians prefer to consider individuals and the decisions they made. This brings up the problematic question of what alternatives were available at the time and leads to speculation and hypothesis.
Brüning's economic policy from 1930-1932 has been the subject of much debate. It caused many Germans to identify the Republic with cuts in social spending and extremely liberal economics. Whether there were alternatives to this policy during Great Depression is an open question.
Paul von Hindenburg became Reichspräsident in 1925. Paul Ludwig Hans Anton von Beneckendorff und von Hindenburg ( known universally as Paul von Hindenburg ( ( October 2, 1847 &ndash August 2 He represented the older authoritarian 1871 Empire, and it is hard to label him as a democrat in support of the 1919 Republic, but he was never a Nazi. During his later years (at well over 80 years old), he was also senile. A president with solid democratic beliefs may not have allowed the Reichstag to be circumvented with the use of Article 48 decrees and might have avoided signing the Reichstag Fire Decree. The Reichstag Fire Decree (Reichstagsbrandverordnung is the common name of the Order of the Reich President for the Protection of People and State issued by German president Hindenburg waited one and a half days before he appointed Hitler as Reichskanzler on January 30, 1933, which indicates some hesitance. Events 1648 - Eighty Years' War: The Treaty of Münster is signed ending the conflict between the Netherlands and Spain Year 1933 ( MCMXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Some claim Nazism would have lost much public support if Hitler had not been named chancellor.
Constituent states of Germany during the Weimar period
Prior to World War I, the German Empire consisted of 22 smaller monarchies, three city-states and the Imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine. The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification Alsace-Lorraine (Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen generally Elsass - Lothringen) was a territorial entity created by the German Empire in 1871 After the territorial losses of the Treaty of Versailles and the revolution of 1918, the remaining states continued as republics. The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. The former Ernestine duchies continued briefly as republics before merging to form the state of Thuringia in 1920, except for Saxe-Coburg, which became part of Bavaria. The Ernestine duchies, also called the Saxon duchies (although also the Albertine Appanage duchies of Weissenfels, Merseburg and Zeitz The Free State of Thuringia (Freistaat Thüringen is located in central Germany. Saxe-Coburg (Sachsen-Coburg is a historical state in today's Bavaria, Germany. Bavaria ( German:, with an area of 70553 Km² (27241 square miles and almost 12
| State | Capital | |
|---|---|---|
 |
Anhalt | Dessau |
.svg/25px-Flagge_Großherzogtum_Baden_(1891-1918).svg.png){kind=small} |
Baden | Karlsruhe |
.svg/25px-Flag_of_Bavaria_(lozengy).svg.png){kind=small} |
Bavaria (Bayern) | Munich |
 |
Brunswick (Braunschweig) | Braunschweig |
 |
Hesse (Hessen / Hessen-Darmstadt) | Darmstadt |
 |
Lippe | Detmold |
 |
Mecklenburg-Schwerin | Schwerin |
|
Mecklenburg-Strelitz | Neustrelitz |
 |
Oldenburg | Oldenburg |
 |
Prussia (Preußen) | Berlin |
.svg/25px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_(1911-1920).svg.png){kind=small} |
Saxe-Coburg (Sachsen-Coburg) - to Bavaria in 1920 | Coburg |
 |
Saxony (Sachsen) | Dresden |
 |
Schaumburg-Lippe | Bückeburg |
 |
Thuringia (Thüringen) - from 1920 | Weimar |
.svg/25px-Flag_of_Germany_(2-3).svg.png){kind=small} |
Waldeck-Pyrmont - to Prussia in 1921/1929 | Arolsen |
 |
Württemberg | Stuttgart |
| City-states | ||
 |
Bremen | |
 |
Hamburg | |
 |
Lübeck | |
| States merged to form Thuringia in 1920 | ||
 |
Reuss | Gera |
.svg/25px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_(1826-1911).svg.png){kind=small} |
Saxe-Altenburg (Sachsen-Altenburg) | Altenburg |
|
Saxe-Gotha (Sachsen-Gotha) | Gotha |
|
Saxe-Meiningen (Sachsen-Meiningen) | Meiningen |
.svg/25px-Flagge_Großherzogtum_Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach_(1813-1897).svg.png){kind=small} |
Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach) | Weimar |
 |
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt | Rudolstadt |
|
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen | Sondershausen |
These states were gradually de facto abolished under the Nazi regime via the Gleichschaltung process, as the states were largely re-organised into Gaue. The Free State of Anhalt (Freistaat Anhalt was formed after Joachim Ernst Duke of Anhalt abdicated on 12 November 1918, ending the Duchy of Anhalt Dessau is a town in Germany on the junction of the rivers Mulde and Elbe, in the Bundesland (Federal State of Saxony-Anhalt The Republic of Baden (Republik Baden was a state of Germany during the time of the Weimar Republic, formed after the abolition of the Grand Duchy of Baden Karlsruhe (ˈkaɐ̯lsʁuːə population 285812 in 2006 is a city in the south west of Germany, in the Bundesland Baden-Württemberg, located near Bavaria ( German:, with an area of 70553 Km² (27241 square miles and almost 12 Munich (München; Minga is the capital city of Bavaria, Germany. The Free State of Brunswick (Freistaat Braunschweig was a republic formed after the abolition of the Duchy of Brunswick at the end of World War I Braunschweig, known as Brunswiek in Low German, is a city of 245810 people (as of 31 December 2007 located in Lower Saxony, Germany. The People's State of Hesse (Volksstaat Hessen was the name of the German state of Hesse-Darmstadt from 1918 until 1945 Darmstadt is a city in the Bundesland The Free State of Lippe (Freistaat Lippe was a German state formed after the Principality of Lippe was abolished following the German Revolution of 1918 Detmold (ˈdɛtmɔlt is a City in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, with a population of about 74000 The Free State of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (Freistaat Mecklenburg-Schwerin was a state in the Weimar Republic that was established in 1918 following the abdication of the Grand Schwerin (ʃveˈʁiːn is a City in northern Germany and the capital of the state The Free State of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (Freistaat Mecklenburg-Strelitz was a state of the Weimar Republic established in 1918 following the German Revolution Neustrelitz (nɔʏˈʃtʁeːlɪts is a town in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany and is the capital of the district of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. The Free State of Oldenburg was a state of the Weimar Republic. ||-||-||-||} Oldenburg ( Low German: Ollnborg) is an Independent City in Lower Saxony, Germany. Berlin is the capital city and one of sixteen states of Germany. Saxe-Coburg (Sachsen-Coburg is a historical state in today's Bavaria, Germany. Coburg is a town located on the Itz River in Bavaria, Germany The Free State of Saxony (Freistaat Sachsen ˈzaksən Swobodny Stat Sakska is the easternmost federal state of Germany. Dresden (etymologically from Old Sorbian Drežďany, meaning people of the riverside forest, Drježdźany is the Capital city of the German The Free State of Schaumburg-Lippe (Freistaat Schaumburg-Lippe was created following the abdication of Prince Adolf II of Schaumburg-Lippe on the 15 November Bückeburg is a small town in Lower Saxony, Germany. It was once the capital of the tiny principality of Schaumburg-Lippe and is today located The Free State of Thuringia (Freistaat Thüringen is located in central Germany. Weimar (ˈvaɪmaʁ is a City in Germany. It is located in the Bundesland of Thuringia (Thüringen north of the Thüringer Wald, The Free State of Waldeck-Pyrmont and later the Free State of Waldeck was a constituent state of the Weimar Republic. Bad Arolsen (until 1997 Arolsen, Bad being the German name for Spa) is a small town in northern Hesse, Germany, in Waldeck-Frankenberg The Free People's State of Württemberg (Freier Volksstaat Württemberg was the official name of the state of Württemberg during the Weimar Republic. Stuttgart (ˈʃtʊtgaɐ̯t is the capital of the state of Baden-Württemberg in southern Germany. The Free Hanseatic City of Bremen (German Freie Hansestadt Bremen) is the smallest of Germany's 16 Federal States ( Bundesländer) Hamburg (English, German: ˈhambʊɐk local pronunciation Low German / Low Saxon: Hamborg) is the second-largest city in Germany The Free and Hanseatic City of Lübeck was a city-state that existed from 1226 to 1937 in the present-day German states of Schleswig-Holstein and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern The People's Republic of Reuss was a short lived country in what is now Thuringia. Gera is the third largest city in the German state of Thuringia after Erfurt, the Thuringian capital Saxe-Altenburg (Sachsen-Altenburg was one of the Saxon duchies held by the Ernestine branch of the Wettin dynasty This article is about the city in Thuringia, Germany. For other uses see Altenburg (disambiguation. Saxe-Gotha (Sachsen-Gotha was a historical state in today's Thuringia, Germany. Gotha is a town in Thuringia, within the central core of Germany. The Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen was one of the Saxon Duchies held by the Ernestine line of the Wettin Dynasty Meiningen is a town in Germany - located in the Southern part of the state of Thuringia and the district seat of Schmalkalden-Meiningen. The Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (Herzogtum Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach was created in 1809 by the merger of the Ernestine duchies of Saxe-Weimar and Saxe-Eisenach Weimar (ˈvaɪmaʁ is a City in Germany. It is located in the Bundesland of Thuringia (Thüringen north of the Thüringer Wald, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt was a small state in Germany, in the present-day state of Thuringia formed in a resettlement of Schwarzburg dynasty family lands Rudolstadt is a Town in the German Bundesland of Thuringia, close to the Thuringian Forest to the southwest and to Jena Schwarzburg-Sondershausen was a small Principality in Germany in the present day state of Thuringia, with capital at Sondershausen. Sondershausen is a town in Thuringia, Germany, capital of the Kyffhäuserkreis district situated about 50 km north of Erfurt. Gleichschaltung, meaning "coordination" "making the same" "bringing into line" is a Nazi term for the process by which the However, the city-state of Lübeck was formally incorporated into Prussia in 1937 following the Greater Hamburg Act - apparently motivated by Hitler's personal dislike for the city. The Free and Hanseatic City of Lübeck was a city-state that existed from 1226 to 1937 in the present-day German states of Schleswig-Holstein and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern The Greater Hamburg Act (Groß-Hamburg-Gesetz was passed by the government of the German Reich on January 26 1937, and mandated the exchange of territories Most of the remaining states were formally dissolved by the Allies at the end of World War II and ultimately re-organised into the modern states of Germany. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Germany (Deutschland is a Federal Republic consisting of sixteen States, known in German as Länder (singular
Citations
- ^ Das Deutsche Reich im Überblick. Wahlen in der Weimarer Republik. Retrieved on 2007-04-26. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1467 - The miraculous image in Our Lady of Good Counsel appear in Genazzano, Italy.
- ^ Kellogg-Briand Pact 1928: Use of "German Reich" (in place of an accurate translation) as an appellation for Germany in an official document.
- ^ a b Rosenberg, Arthur (1936). Arthur Rosenberg (* December 19, 1889 - + February 7, 1943) was a German Marxist historian and writer A History of The German Republic. London: Methuen.
- ^ Evans, Richard J. (2004). Professor Richard Evans (born 1947 is a British Historian of Germany. The Coming of the Third Reich. New York: The Penguin Press, 446. ISBN 1594200041.
- ^ a b von Klemperer, Klemens (1992). German Resistance Against Hitler:The Search for Allies Abroad 1938-1945. Oxford: OUP / Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-821940-7.
- ^ Mowrer, Edgar Ansel (1970). Edgar Ansel Mowrer ( March 8, 1892 — March 2, 1977) was a Pulitzer Prize -winning journalist and author best known for his writings Triumph and Turmoil. London: Allen & Unwin, 209. ISBN 0049200267.
- ^ Shirer, William L. (1960). William Lawrence Shirer ( February 23, 1904 – December 28, 1993) was an American journalist and historian The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich by Journalist William L Shirer was the first definitive history of Nazi Germany in English. New York: Simon & Schuster. Simon & Schuster Inc, a division of CBS Corporation, is a Publisher founded in New York in 1924 by Richard L ISBN 0-671-72868-7.
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- Allen, William Sheridan (1984). William Sheridan Allen was born in Evanston Illinois, and studied at the universities of Michigan, Connecticut, and Minnesota, and in Germany The Nazi seizure of Power: the experience of a single German town, 1922-1945. New York, Toronto: F. Watts. ISBN 0-531-09935-0.
- Berghahn, V. R. (1982). Modern Germany. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-34748-3.
- Bookbinder, Paul (1996). Weimar Germany: the Republic of the Reasonable. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-4286-0.
- Bracher, Karl Dietrich (1971). Karl Dietrich Bracher (born 13 March 1922) is a German political scientist and historian of the Weimar Republic and Nazi Germany Die Auflösung der Weimarer Republik; eine Studie zum Problem des Machtverfalls in der Demokratie (in German). Villingen, Schwarzwald: Ring-Verlag.
- Broszat, Martin (1987). Martin Broszat ( August 14, 1926 – October 14, 1989) was a West German Historian. Hitler and the Collapse of Weimar Germany. Leamington Spa, New York: Berg. ISBN 0-85496-509-2.
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- Craig, Gordon A. (1980). Gordon Alexander Craig ( November 13, 1913 &ndash October 30, 2005) was a Scottish-American historian of German, Swiss Germany 1866-1945 (Oxford History of Modern Europe). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-502724-8.
- Dorpalen, Andreas (1964). Hindenburg and the Weimar Republic. Princeton, N. J. : Princeton University Press.
- Eschenburg, Theodor (1972) "The Role of the Personality in the Crisis of the Weimar Republic: Hindenburg, Brüning, Groener, Schleicher" pages 3-50 from Republic to Reich The Making Of The Nazi Revolution edited by Hajo Holborn, New York: Pantheon Books. Hajo Holborn (b Berlin, May 18, 1902, d Bonn, June 20, 1969) was a German-American historian and specialist in modern
- Feuchtwanger, Edgar (1993). From Weimar to Hitler: Germany, 1918-33. London: Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-27466-0.
- Gay, Peter (1968). Peter Gay (born June 20, 1923) is a Jewish American historian of the Social history of ideas born as Peter Joachim Fröhlich Weimar Culture: The Outsider as Insider. New York: Harper & Row.
- Gordon, Mel (2000). Volutpuous Panic: The Erotic World of Weimar Berlin. New York: Feral House.
- Hamilton, Richard F. (1982). Who Voted for Hitler?. Princeton, N. J. : Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-09395-4.
- James, Harold (1986). The German Slump: Politics and Economics, 1924-1936. Oxford, Oxfordshire: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-821972-5.
- Kaes, Anton; Jay, Martin; Dimendberg, Edward (eds. ) (1994). The Weimar Republic Sourcebook. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-06774-6.
- Kolb, Eberhard (1988). The Weimar Republic, P. S. Falla (translator), London: Unwin Hyman. ISBN 0-04-943049-1.
- Mommsen, Hans (1991). Hans Mommsen (born November 5, 1930) is a Left-wing German historian and twin brother of Wolfgang Mommsen. From Weimar to Auschwitz, Philip O'Connor (translator), Princeton, N. J. : Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-03198-3.
- Mowrer, Edgar Angel (1933). Edgar Ansel Mowrer ( March 8, 1892 — March 2, 1977) was a Pulitzer Prize -winning journalist and author best known for his writings Germany Puts The Clock Back. London.
- Mowrer, Edgar Angel (1970). Edgar Ansel Mowrer ( March 8, 1892 — March 2, 1977) was a Pulitzer Prize -winning journalist and author best known for his writings Triumph and Turmoil. George Allen & Unwin. ISBN 0049200267.
- Nicholls, Anthony James (2000). Weimar And The Rise Of Hitler. New York: St. Martin's Press,. ISBN 0-312-23350-7.
- Peukert, Detlev (1992). Detlev Peukert (1950-May 17 1990 was a Left-wing German Historian, noted for his studies of the relationship between what he called the "spirit of science" The Weimar Republic: the Crisis of Classical Modernity. New York: Hill and Wang. ISBN 0-8090-9674-9.
- Rosenberg, Arthur (1936). A History of The German Republic. London: Methuen.
- Turner, Henry Ashby (1996). Henry Ashby Turner Jr (born 1932 is an American Historian of Germany. Hitler's Thirty Days To Power: January 1933. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-40714-0.
- Turner, Henry Ashby (1985). Henry Ashby Turner Jr (born 1932 is an American Historian of Germany. German Big Business and the Rise of Hitler. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-503492-9.
- Wheeler-Bennett, John (2005). Sir John Wheeler Wheeler-Bennett, GCVO, CMG, OBE, FBA, FRSL was a conservative English Historian The Nemesis of Power: German Army in Politics, 1918-1945. New York: Palgrave Macmillan Publishing Company. ISBN 1-4039-1812-0.
External links
- The Constitution of the German Reich (Weimar constitution) of 11th August 1919, in full text
- Data Bank
- documents (German)
See also
Weimar Republic refers to the years (1919-1933 in the German history Gleichschaltung, meaning "coordination" "making the same" "bringing into line" is a Nazi term for the process by which the The German Centre Party ( Deutsche Zentrumspartei or merely Zentrum) was a Catholic political party in Germany during the Kaiserreich (29 October 1879 2 May 1969 was a German nobleman Catholic monarchist Politician, General Staff officer and Diplomat For a detailed discussion of the English translation of Reich, see Reich.
Dictionary
Weimar Republic
-proper noun
- The democratic government of Germany between the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1919 and the assumption of power by Adolf Hitler in 1933.
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