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For the Barenaked Ladies song "War on Drugs", see Everything to Everyone. Barenaked Ladies (often abbreviated BNL or occasionally BnL) is a Juno -winning and Grammy -nominated Canadian Alternative Everything to Everyone (commonly abbreviated E2E is the eighth full-length album by Barenaked Ladies and their sixth studio album (not including Disc
A basic economic problem of unintended consequences: Large profits and markups associated with the very illegality of illicit drugs, helps fuel the business which the "war on drugs" was constructed to stop. In this way, the war on drugs assists illicit drug trade. UK Govt report
A basic economic problem of unintended consequences: Large profits and markups associated with the very illegality of illicit drugs, helps fuel the business which the "war on drugs" was constructed to stop. In this way, the war on drugs assists illicit drug trade. UK Govt report

The War on Drugs is a prohibition campaign undertaken by the United States government with the assistance of participating countries, intended to reduce the illegal drug trade—to curb supply and diminish demand for certain psychoactive substances deemed "harmful or undesirable" by the government. The prohibition of drugs through sumptuary Legislation or Religious law is a common means of attempting to control Drug use and the The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The illegal drug trade or drug trafficking is a global Black market consisting of the cultivation manufacture distribution and sale of illegal Drugs A psychoactive drug or psychotropic substance is a Chemical substance that acts primarily upon the Central nervous system where it alters Brain This initiative includes a set of laws and policies that are intended to discourage the production, distribution, and consumption of targeted substances. The term was first used by President Richard Nixon in 1972, and his choice of words was probably based on the War on Poverty, announced by President Lyndon Johnson in 1964. The War on Poverty is the name for legislation first introduced by United States President Lyndon B

Contents

History

In the broadest sense, modern War on Drugs could be considered to have started in 1880, when the U. S. and Qing China completed an agreement that prohibited the shipment of opium between the two countries; Qing China itself was still reeling from the effects of fighting the Opium War after a failed attempt to stem the British importing of opium into China proper (see Lin Zexu). Not to be confused with Qin Dynasty, the first dynasty of Imperial China Opium is a Narcotic formed from the Latex (ie sap released by lacerating (or "scoring" the immature seed pods of opium poppies ( The Opium Wars ( also known as the Anglo-Chinese Wars, lasted from 1839 to 1842 and 1856 to 1860 the climax of a trade dispute between China under the Qing China proper (also known as Inner China) refers to the historical lands of China where the Han Chinese are the majority Ethnic group, in contrast Lin Zexu ( Styled: Yuanfu (元抚 ( August 30, 1785 &ndash November 22, 1850) was a Chinese scholar and official during The United States alcohol prohibition from 1920–1933 is the most widely known historical period of drug prohibition. In the United States, the term Prohibition refers to the period from 1920 to 1933 during which the sale manufacture and transportation of alcohol for consumption The term itself, however, was coined in 1971 by Richard Nixon to describe a new set of initiatives designed to enhance drug prohibition.

Timeline

1911: United States first Opium Commissioner argues that of all the nations of the world, the United States consumes most habit-forming drugs per capita. Year 1911 ( MCMXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year [1]

1914: The first recorded instance of the United States enacting a ban on the domestic distribution of drugs is the Harrison Narcotic Act [1] of 1914. Year 1914 ( MCMXIV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year The Harrison Narcotics Tax Act (Ch 1) was a United States federal law that regulated and taxed the production importation and distribution of Opiates. This act was presented and passed as a method of regulating the production and distribution of opiate-containing substances under the commerce clause of the U. Article 1 Section 8 Clause 3 of the United States Constitution, known as the Commerce Clause, states that Congress has the power to regulate commerce with foreign S. Constitution, but a section of the act was later interpreted by law enforcement officials for the purpose of prosecuting doctors who prescribe opiates to addicts.

1919: Alcohol prohibition in the U. Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common In the United States, the term Prohibition refers to the period from 1920 to 1933 during which the sale manufacture and transportation of alcohol for consumption S. first appeared under numerous provincial bans and was eventually codified under a federal constitutional amendment in 1919, having been approved by 36 of the 48 U. Amendment XVIII (the Eighteenth Amendment) of the United States Constitution, along with the Volstead Act (which defined "intoxicating liquors" S. states.

1925: United States supported regulation of cannabis as a drug in the International Opium Convention. Year 1925 ( MCMXXV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The International Opium Convention, signed at The Hague on January 23, 1912, was the first international drug control treaty [2] and by the mid 1930s all member states had some regulation of cannabis.

1933: Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution is repealed. Year 1933 ( MCMXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Amendment XVIII (the Eighteenth Amendment) of the United States Constitution, along with the Volstead Act (which defined "intoxicating liquors" The amendment remains the only major act of prohibition to be repealed, having been repealed by the Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution. The Twenty-first Amendment ( Amendment XXI) to the United States Constitution repealed the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution,

1935 President Roosevelt hails the International Opium Convention and application of it in US. Year 1935 ( MCMXXXV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The International Opium Convention, signed at The Hague on January 23, 1912, was the first international drug control treaty law in a radio message to the nation. [3]

1937: Congress passed the Marijuana Tax Act. Year 1937 ( MCMXXXVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. In the United States, the 1937 Marihuana Tax Act, Pub 238 75th Congress 50 Stat Presented as a $1 nuisance tax on the distribution of marijuana, this act required anyone distributing the drug to maintain and submit a detailed account of his or her transactions, including inspections, affidavits, and private information regarding the parties involved. This law, however, was something of a "Catch-22", as obtaining a tax stamp required individuals to first present their goods, which was an action tantamount to confession. Catch-22 is a term coined by Joseph Heller in his novel Catch-22, describing a False dilemma in a rule regulation procedure or situation This act was passed by Congress on the basis of testimony and public perception that marijuana caused insanity, criminality, and death.

1951: The 1951 Boggs Act increased penalties fourfold

1956: The Daniel Act increased penalties by a factor of eight over those specified in the Boggs Act. Year 1951 ( MCMLI) was a Common year starting on Monday. Events of 1951 January Year 1956 ( MCMLVI) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Although by this time there was adequate testimony to refute the claim that marijuana caused insanity, criminality, or death, the rationalizations for these laws shifted in focus to the proposition that marijuana use led to the use of heroin, creating the gateway drug theory. The gateway drug theory (also called variously gateway theory, gateway hypothesis and gateway effect) is the hypothesis that the use of soft drugs leads

1960s: The Kennedy and Johnson Administrations adapted relatively liberal drug policies in the 1960s. The 1960s decade refers to the years from the beginning of 1960 to the end of 1969 The 1960s is remembered for its "Flower Power" culture and frequent and open use of marijuana and other drugs.

1969: Psychiatrist Dr. Year 1969 ( MCMLXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Robert DuPont conducts urinalysis of everyone entering the D. C. jail system in August of 1969. He finds 44% test positive for heroin. [4]

1971: The Vietnam War is linked with concerns over drugs. Year 1971 ( MCMLXXI) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar of the 1971 Gregorian calendar.

1972, March 22nd: The National Commission on Marijuana and Drug Abuse recommends legalizing possession and sales of small amounts of marijuana. Year 1972 ( MCMLXXII) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 238 - Gordian I and his son Gordian II are proclaimed Roman emperor. Nixon and the Congress ignores the suggestion[5]

1974: A Senate Internal Security Subcommittee, chaired by Sen. Year 1974 ( MCMLXXIV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the 1974 Gregorian calendar. James O. Eastland on The Marihuana-hashish epidemic and its impact on United States security invited 21 scientists of the first rank from seven different countries to testify, including Gabriel G. Nahas and Nils Bejerot. James Oliver Eastland ( November 28, 1904 – February 19, 1986) was an American politician from Mississippi who served Gabriel G Nahas of Columbia University, born 1920 was an Anesthesiologist who conducted numerous studies on Illicit drugs His work was instrumental in Nils Bejerot ( Stockholm, September 21, 1921 &ndash November 29, 1988) was a Swedish psychiatrist and The testimony of these experts showed that the evidence accumulated by scientific researchers on marijuana had turned dramatically against this drug. [6][7]

1988: Near the end of the Reagan administration, the Office of National Drug Control Policy was created for central coordination of drug-related legislative, security, diplomatic, research and health policy throughout the government. Year 1988 ( MCMLXXXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link displays 1988 Gregorian calendar) The White House Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP, a Cabinet level component of the Executive Office of the President of the United States, was established in 1988 In recognition of his central role, the director of ONDCP is commonly known as the Drug Czar. The White House Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP, a Cabinet level component of the Executive Office of the President of the United States, was established in 1988 The position was raised to cabinet-level status by Bill Clinton in 1993. William Jefferson "Bill" Clinton (born William Jefferson Blythe III, August 19 1946 served as the forty-second President of the United States

1989 The first drug court in the U. Year 1989 ( MCMLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link displays 1989 Gregorian calendar) Drug courts are specialized courts designed to handle cases involving offenders who abuse addictive substances. S. took shape in Miami-Dade County, Florida

1993, December 7: Joycelyn Elders, the Surgeon General, said that the legalization of drugs "should be studied", causing a stir among opponents

1998: The National Research Council (NRC) commissions such a study, establishing a Committee on Data and Research for Policy on Illegal Drugs. Year 1993 ( MCMXCIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1993 Gregorian calendar) Events 43 BC - Marcus Tullius Cicero assassinated 1696 - Connecticut Route 108, one of the oldest highways Minnie Joycelyn Elders (born August 13, 1933) was the 15th Surgeon General of the United States and a former vice admiral in Overview The Surgeon General is nominated by the US President and confirmed via majority vote by the Senate. Year 1998 ( MCMXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1998 Gregorian calendar)

2001: The National Research Council Committee on Data and Research for Policy on Illegal Drugs publishes its findings. Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar. The NRC Committee finds that existing studies on efforts to address drug usage and smuggling, from U. S. military operations to eradicate coca fields in Colombia, to domestic drug treatment centers, have all been inconclusive, if the programs have been evaluated at all: “The existing drug-use monitoring systems are strikingly inadequate to support the full range of policy decisions that the nation must make. . . It is unconscionable for this country to continue to carry out a public policy of this magnitude and cost without any way of knowing whether and to what extent it is having the desired effect. ”[8] The study, though not ignored by the press, is almost entirely ignored by policymakers, leading Committee Chair Charles Manski to conclude, as one observer notes, that "the drug war has no interest in its own results. Charles Frederick Manski, Professor of Economics at Northwestern University, is an econometrician in the realm of Rational choice theory, an innovator in " [9]

Cost

The U. S. government estimates the cost of the War on Drugs by calculating the funds used in attempting to control the supply of illegal drugs, in paying government employees involved in waging the war on drugs, and to satisfy rehabilitation costs. This total was estimated by the federal U. S. government's cost report on drug control to be roughly $12 billion in 2005. Additionally, in a separate report, the U. S. government reports that the cost of incarcerating drug law offenders was $30. 1 billion—$9. 1 billion for police protection, $4. 5 billion for legal adjudication, and $11. 0 billion for state and federal corrections. In total, roughly $45. 5 billion was spent in 2005 for these factors. [10] The socioeconomic costs, as well as the individual costs (i. e. , the personal disadvantages in income and career), caused by the incarceration of millions of people are not included in this number. Nor are the many real wars fought in the name of the "War on Drugs" included.

In 1998 the total cost of drug abuse in America was estimated at $143. 4 billion. [11] This number, however, includes indirect costs and includes some costs of drug policy enforcement, and so is not directly comparable.

Effects

Drug use has increased in all categories since prohibition [12] except that opium use is at a fraction of its peak level, although this is not an effect of the War on Drugs. Opium is a Narcotic formed from the Latex (ie sap released by lacerating (or "scoring" the immature seed pods of opium poppies ( The big decline in use of opium started already after the Harrison Act of 1914. The Harrison Narcotics Tax Act (Ch 1) was a United States federal law that regulated and taxed the production importation and distribution of Opiates. [13]

By 1937, the use of marijuana, once an activity seemingly limited to Mexican immigrants and jazz musicians,[14] has become one undertaken by up to 50% of the youth of the United States. [12] The big growth in use of marijuana happened however in the 1960s, well before the start of the war on drugs in 1971. President Richard Nixon stated that the increased drug use and drug related crime in the decade before 1971 was the cause for the war on drugs.

Between 1972 and 1988 the use of cocaine increased more than fivefold. [15] The usage patterns of the current two most prevalent drugs, amphetamines and ecstasy, have shown similar gains. [12]

It was, however, successful in reducing the amount of marijuana being illegally imported into the United States. Unintended consequences of the War on Drugs include increased potency and growth of marijuana crops within the United States, and an increase in cocaine smuggling which is easier to move and yields a higher profit margin. Unintended consequences are outcomes that are not (or not limited to what the actor intended in a particular situation

A number of economically-depressed Colombian farmers in several remote areas of their country began to turn to what became a new, illicit cash crop for its high resale value and cheap manufacturing process. In Agriculture, a cash crop is a crop which is grown for Money. Local coca cultivation, however, remained comparatively rare in Colombia until the mid-1990s. Not to be confused with Cocoa. Coca is a Plant in the family Erythroxylaceae, native to north-western South America Drug traffickers originally imported most coca base from traditional producers in Peru and Bolivia for processing in Colombia, continuing to do so until eradication efforts in those countries resulted in a "balloon effect". Peru (Perú Piruw Piruw officially the Republic of Peru ( reˈpuβlika del peˈɾu is a country in western South America. The Republic of Bolivia (República de Bolivia) named after Simón Bolívar, is a Landlocked country in central South America. The balloon effect is an often cited criticism of United States drug policy.

Despite the Reagan administration's high-profile public pronouncements, secretly, many senior officials of the Reagan administration illegally trained and armed the Nicaraguan Contras, which they funded by the shipment of large quantities of cocaine into the United States using U. Nicaraguans ( Spanish: Nicaragüense; also Nica, Nicoya and Pinolero) are people inhabiting in originating or having significant heritage The Contras is a label given to the various rebel groups opposing Nicaragua 's FSLN (Frente Sandinista de Liberacion Nacional Sandinista Junta of National S. government aircraft and U. S. military facilities. [16][17] Funding for the Contras was also obtained through the illegal sale of weaponry to Iran. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. [18][19] When this practice was discovered and condemned in the media, it was referred to as the Iran-Contra affair. The Iran-Contra affair was a political scandal which was revealed in November 1986 as a result of earlier events during the Reagan administration.

In 1996, 56% of California voters voted for Proposition 215, legalizing the growing and use of marijuana for medical purposes. Year 1996 ( MCMXCVI) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display full 1996 Gregorian calendar) Proposition 215, also known as the Compassionate Use Act of 1996, was a Proposition in the state of California on the November 5, Cannabis, also known as marijuana or marihuana, or ganja (from Hindi / Sanskrit: गांजा gānjā hemp) is a Medical cannabis refers to the use of the Cannabis plant as a physician-recommended Herbal therapy as well as synthetic THC and Cannabinoids This created significant legal and policy tensions between the federal and state governments. Courts have since decided that state laws in conflict with a federal law about cannabis are not valid. Cannabis is restricted by federal law (see Gonzales v. Raich). Gonzales v Raich (previously Ashcroft v Raich) 545 US 1 (2005 was a case in which the United States Supreme Court ruled on

Regardless of public opinion, marijuana could be the single most targeted drug in the drug war. It constitutes almost half of all drug arrests, and between 1990–2002, out of the overall drug arrests, 82% of the increase was for marijuana. In this same time period, New York experienced an increase of 2,640% for marijuana possession arrests. Less than 1 % of all state prison inmates are serving time for just marijuana possession. [20]

As of 2006, marijuana has become the United States of America's biggest cash crop in terms of revenues. [21]

United States domestic policy

Main article: Drug policy of the United States
Operation Mallorca, U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration, 2005 (US Department of Justice press release)
Operation Mallorca, U. The drug policy of the United States is well represented by the declaration of a War on Drugs by President Richard Nixon in June 1971 S. Drug Enforcement Administration, 2005 (US Department of Justice press release)

For U. The Drug Enforcement Administration ( DEA) is a United States Department of Justice Law enforcement agency tasked with combating drug smuggling and S. public policy purposes, drug abuse is any personal use of a drug contrary to law. Drug abuse has a wide range of definitions related to taking a Psychoactive drug or Performance enhancing drug for a non-therapeutic or non-medical effect The definition includes otherwise-legal pharmaceuticals if they are obtained by illegal means or used for non-medicinal purposes. This differs from what mental health professionals classify as drug abuse per the DSM-IV, which is defined as more problematic drug misuse, both of which are different from drug use. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders' ( DSM) is published by the American Psychiatric Association Drugs can be used in many different ways as detailed below Medication See also Medication People can use drugs to relieve pain or discomfort or to cure

In 1994, it was reported that the War on Drugs results in the incarceration of one million Americans each year. [22] Of the related drug arrests, about 225,000 are for simple possession of marijuana, the fourth most common cause of arrest in the United States. Cannabis, also known as marijuana or marihuana, or ganja (from Hindi / Sanskrit: गांजा gānjā hemp) is a [23] In the 1980s, while the number of arrests for all crimes was rising 28%, the number of arrests for drug offenses rose 126%. [24] The United States has a higher proportion of its population incarcerated than any other country in the world for which reliable statistics are available, reaching a total of 2. 2 million inmates in the U. S. in 2005. The U. S. Dept. of Justice, reporting on the effects of state initiatives, has stated that, from 1990 through 2000, "the increasing number of drug offenses accounted for 27% of the total growth among black inmates, 7% of the total growth among Hispanic inmates, and 15% of the growth among white inmates. " In addition, the United States provides for the deportation of many non-citizens convicted of drug offenses. [25] Federal and state policies also impose collateral consequences on those convicted of drug offenses, such as denial of public benefits or licenses, that that are not applicable to those convicted of other types of crime. Collateral consequences of criminal charges, known as the " Four C's " in legal parlance, are the results of Arrest, Prosecution or conviction [26]

United States foreign policy

Main article: Foreign policy of the United States

Operation Just Cause involving 25,000 American troops. The foreign policy of the United States is highly influential on the world stage as it is a Superpower. The United States invasion of Panama, codenamed Operation Just Cause, was the Invasion of Panama by the United States in December 1989 The U. S. alleged that Gen. Manuel Noriega, head of government of Panama, was involved in drug trafficking in Panama. Manuel Antonio Noriega (born February 11, 1934) He was never officially the President of Panama, but held the post of "chief executive officer" Panama, officially the Republic of Panama (República de Panamá) is the southernmost country of Central America. As part of Plan Colombia, the U. The term Plan Colombia is most often used to refer to controversial U S. has funded coca eradication through private contractors such as DynCorp and helped train the Colombian armed forces to eradicate coca and fight left-wing guerrillas such as the FARC (Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia) and right-wing paramilitaries such as the AUC (United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia), both of which have been accused of participating in the illegal drug trade in their areas of influence. Coca eradication is a controversial strategy strongly promoted by the United States government as part of its " War on Drugs " to eliminate the DynCorp International is a United States -based Private military contractor (PMC and aircraft maintenance company The Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia – People’s Army (Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia – Ejército del Pueblo also known by the Acronym of Private U. S. enterprises have signed contracts to carry out anti-drug activities as part of Plan Colombia. DynCorp, the largest private company involved, was among those contracted by the State Department, while others signed contracts with the Defense Department. DynCorp International is a United States -based Private military contractor (PMC and aircraft maintenance company [27]

In 2000, the Clinton administration initially waived all but one of the human rights conditions attached to Plan Colombia, considering such aid as crucial to national security at the time. 2000 ( MM) was a Leap year that started on Saturday of the Common Era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. [28] Subsequently, the U. S. government certified that the Colombian government had taken steps to improve respect for human rights and to prosecute abusers among its security forces. [29] The U. S. has later denied aid to individual Colombian military units accused of such abuses, such as the Palanquero Air Force base and the Army's XVII Brigade. [30][31] Opponents of aid given to the Colombian military as part of the War on Drugs argue that the U. S. and Colombian governments primarily focus on fighting the guerrillas, devoting less attention to the paramilitaries although these have a greater degree of participation in the illicit drug industry. Critics argue that Human Rights Watch, congressional committees and other entities have documented the existence of connections between members of the Colombian military and the AUC, and that Colombian military personnel have committed human rights abuses which would make them ineligible for U. S. aid under current laws.

In January 2007, U.S. Attorney General Alberto Gonzales met in Mexico with his counterpart Eduardo Medina-Mora Icaza to discuss ways to stem growing drug-related violence in Mexican border towns associated with the illegal drug trade to America. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. The United States Attorney General is the head of the United States Department of Justice (see) concerned with legal affairs and is the chief law enforcement Alberto R Gonzales (born August 4 1955) was the 80th Attorney General of the United States. The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. Eduardo Medina-Mora Icaza is a Mexican lawyer who currently serves as Attorney-General in the cabinet of President Felipe Calderón See also Bordertown. A border town is a town close to the boundary between two countries states or regions The illegal drug trade or drug trafficking is a global Black market consisting of the cultivation manufacture distribution and sale of illegal Drugs More than 2,000 Mexicans died in gangland-style killings in 2006, prompting a petition by the U. Gangsters redirects here For the computer game see Gangsters (video game. S. Drug Enforcement Administration to open new offices in Nuevo Laredo, Matamoros, and Nogales. The Drug Enforcement Administration ( DEA) is a United States Department of Justice Law enforcement agency tasked with combating drug smuggling and Nuevo Laredo is a city located in the Municipality of Nuevo Laredo in the Mexican state of Tamaulipas. Heroica Nogales more commonly known as Nogales is a city and its surrounding municipality on the northern border of the Mexican State of Sonora. The requested expansion would bring the total number of Mexican offices to 11 and increase the number of DEA agents from 81 to nearly 100. [32]

U. S. government alleged involvement in cocaine trafficking

A lawsuit filed in 1986 by two journalists represented by the Christic Institute, alleged that the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and other parties were engaged in criminal acts, including financing the purchase of arms with the proceeds of cocaine sales. A journalist (also called a newspaperman) is a person who practices Journalism, the gathering and dissemination of information about current events trends The Christic Institute was a public interest Law firm founded in 1980 by Daniel Sheehan, his wife Sara Nelson and their partner William near as long as it used to be several months ago It has been actively summarized and split into sub-articles and there is a dynamic talk page discussion of all [33]

Senator John Kerry's 1988 U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations report on Contra drug links, which was released on April 20, 1989, concluded that members of the U. The United States Senate is the Upper house of the bicameral United States Congress, the Lower house being the House of Representatives } John Forbes Kerry (born December 11 1943 is an American Politician who is currently serving his fourth term as the junior United States Senator Year 1988 ( MCMLXXXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link displays 1988 Gregorian calendar) US Senate Committee on Foreign Relations is a standing committee of the United States Senate. Events 1303 - The University of Rome La Sapienza is instituted by Pope Boniface VIII. Year 1989 ( MCMLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link displays 1989 Gregorian calendar) S. State Department "who provided support for the Contras were involved in drug trafficking. . . and elements of the Contras themselves knowingly received financial and material assistance from drug traffickers. "[17] The report went on to say that "the Contra drug links included. . . payments to drug traffickers by the U. S. State Department of funds authorized by the Congress for humanitarian assistance to the Contras, in some cases after the traffickers had been indicted by federal law enforcement agencies on drug charges, in others while traffickers were under active investigation by these same agencies. "

In 1996, journalist Gary Webb published reports in the San Jose Mercury News,[34] and later in his book Dark Alliance,[35] detailing how Contras had distributed crack cocaine into Los Angeles to fund weapons purchases. Gary Webb ( August 31, 1955 &ndash December 10, 2004) was a prize-winning American Investigative journalist. The San Jose Mercury News is the major daily Newspaper in San Jose California and Silicon Valley. Gary Webb ( August 31, 1955 &ndash December 10, 2004) was a prize-winning American Investigative journalist. Crack cocaine or crack is a solid smokable form of Cocaine. It is a freebase form of cocaine that can be made using baking soda ( Sodium bicarbonate Los Angeles (lɑˈsændʒələs los ˈaŋxeles in Spanish) is the largest City in the state of California and the American West These reports were initially attacked by various other newspapers, which attempted to debunk the link, citing official reports that apparently cleared the CIA.

In 1998, CIA Inspector General Frederick Hitz published a two-volume report[36] that substantiated many of Webb's claims, and described how 50 contras and contra-related entities involved in the drug trade had been protected from law enforcement activity by the Reagan-Bush administration, and documented a cover-up of evidence relating to these activities. In a civilian or military administration an Inspector General is a high ranking official charged with the mission to inspect and report on some bodies in their field of competency Frederick Hitz served as Inspector General of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA from 1990 until May 1998 The United States Presidency of Ronald Reagan, also known as the Reagan Administration, was a Republican administration headed by The report also showed that the National Security Council was aware of these activities. A report later that same year by the Justice Department Inspector General also came to similar conclusions. For animal rights group see Justice Department (JD The United States Department of Justice ( DOJ) is a Cabinet department

U. S. -sponsored heroin production and smuggling

In the 1980s, top U. S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) officials believed that they would never be able to justify a multibillion-dollar budget from the U. S. government to fund the Afghan Muslim radicals, the mujahideen, in their fight against the Soviet army, which had occupied Afghanistan. As a result, the Mujahideen decided to generate funds through the poppy-rich Afghan soil and heroin production and smuggling to finance the Afghan war creating the notorious Pashtun Mafia. Ayub Afridi, a radical Pashtun Muslim leader and drug baron, was the kingpin of this plan. Pashtuns ( Pashto: پښتون Paṣtūn, Paxtūn, also rendered as Pushtuns, Pakhtuns, Pukhtuns) also called [37]

Criticism

Negative

Legitimacy

“ We're playing with half a deck as long as we tolerate that the cardinals of government and science should dictate where human curiousity can legitimately send its attention and where it can not. It's an essentially preposterous situation. It is essentially a civil rights issue, because what we're talking about here is the repression of a religious sensibility. In fact, not a religious sensibility, the religious sensibility. ”

Terence McKenna in: Non-Ordinary States Through Vision Plants, Sound Photosynthesis, Mill Valley CA. Terence Kemp McKenna ( November 16 1946 – April 3 2000) was a Writer, Philosopher, and Ethnobotanist. , 1988, ISBN 1-569-64709-7

“ The government has been actively destroying crop fields in which marijuana is suspected to have been growing—however, punitive measures such as long prison sentences for drug offenders does not actually decrease the demand for the drug. If anything, its banned status gives it a certain “appeal” that actually makes it more attractive to people. With artificially low supply and high demand, the cartels profit dramatically, and with dealers competing for the “turf,” which is often the nation’s inner cities, to sell these highly valuable products, violence often erupts. ”

Petition from http://www.legalreefer.com"

Legality

In his essay The Drug War and the Constitution,[38] Libertarian philosopher Paul Hager makes the case that the War on Drugs in the United States is an illegal form of prohibition, which violates the principles of a limited government embodied in the Constitution. The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme Law of the United States. Alcohol prohibition required amending the Constitution, because this was not a power granted to the federal government. In the United States, the term Prohibition refers to the period from 1920 to 1933 during which the sale manufacture and transportation of alcohol for consumption Amendment XVIII (the Eighteenth Amendment) of the United States Constitution, along with the Volstead Act (which defined "intoxicating liquors" Hager asserts if this is true, then marijuana prohibition should likewise require a Constitutional amendment. The prohibition of drugs through sumptuary Legislation or Religious law is a common means of attempting to control Drug use and the

Legislation of desire

The US War on Drugs is widely criticised as an infringement of the inalienable right of the pursuit of happiness as described in the Declaration of independence. This article is about declarations of independence in general

Federalist argument

In her dissent in Gonzales v. Raich, Justice Sandra Day O'Connor argued that drug prohibition is an improper usurpation of the power to regulate interstate commerce, and the power to prohibit should be reserved by the states. Gonzales v Raich (previously Ashcroft v Raich) 545 US 1 (2005 was a case in which the United States Supreme Court ruled on Sandra Day O'Connor (born March 26, 1930) is an American Jurist. Article 1 Section 8 Clause 3 of the United States Constitution, known as the Commerce Clause, states that Congress has the power to regulate commerce with foreign States' rights refers to the idea in US politics and constitutional law, that U In the same case, Justice Clarence Thomas wrote a stronger dissent expressing the similar idea. Clarence Thomas (born June 23, 1948) is an American Jurist. He has been serving as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United

Substantive due process

There is the argument that the War on Drugs in United States violates the implicit rights within the substantive due process doctrine, that the drug laws achieve no reasonable state interest while arbitrarily restrict a person's liberty under the Fifth and the Fourteenth Amendment. Due process (more fully due process of law) is the principle that a person has a right to receive notice and be heard in an orderly proceeding in order to protect his or her One proponent of this notion is attorney Warren Redlich. [39]

The substantive due process is sometimes used in medical marijuana cases. Medical cannabis refers to the use of the Cannabis plant as a physician-recommended Herbal therapy as well as synthetic THC and Cannabinoids NORML once wrote in an amicus brief on United States v. Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Cooperative that the right to use medical marijuana to save one's life is within the rights established by the substantive due process. The National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws ( NORML, ˈnɔrməl is a Washington D Amicus curiae or amicus curiæ (plural amici curiae) is a Legal Latin phrase literally translated as "friend of the court" In United States v Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Cooperative, 532 U Medical cannabis refers to the use of the Cannabis plant as a physician-recommended Herbal therapy as well as synthetic THC and Cannabinoids [40] However, the Supreme Court, in an opinion by Justice Clarence Thomas did not accept the argument and ruled against the medical marijuana dispensaries.

Some opponents of the substantive due process doctrine who support the War on Drugs have also noted that the doctrine can potentially lead to the invalidation of drug laws. [41]

Efficacy

USS Rentz (FFG-46) combats a fire set by drug smugglers trying to escape and destroy evidence.
USS Rentz (FFG-46) combats a fire set by drug smugglers trying to escape and destroy evidence. History USS Rentz (FFG-46 was the 40th ship to be constructed in the ''Oliver Hazard Perry''-class of Guided missile Frigates

Richard Davenport-Hines, in his book The Pursuit of Oblivion (W. Richard Davenport-Hines (born 1953) is a British writer best known for his biography of the poet W W. Norton & Company, 2001), criticized the efficacy of the War on Drugs by pointing out:

“

10–15% of illicit heroin and 30% of illicit cocaine is intercepted. Drug traffickers have gross profit margins of up to 300%. At least 75% of illicit drug shipments would have to be intercepted before the traffickers' profits were hurt. ”

Alberto Fujimori, president of Peru from 1990–2000, described U. Alberto Ken'ya Fujimori (Japanese name) (born in Lima, Peru on July 28 1938 is a Peruvian and Japanese ref> Fujimori secures Japanese haven Peru (Perú Piruw Piruw officially the Republic of Peru ( reˈpuβlika del peˈɾu is a country in western South America. S. foreign drug policy as "failed" on grounds that "for 10 years, there has been a considerable sum invested by the Peruvian government and another sum on the part of the American government, and this has not led to a reduction in the supply of coca leaf offered for sale. Rather, in the 10 years from 1980 to 1990, it grew 10-fold. "[42]

Critics often note that during alcohol prohibition, alcohol use initially fell but began to increase as early as 1922. In the United States, the term Prohibition refers to the period from 1920 to 1933 during which the sale manufacture and transportation of alcohol for consumption It has been extrapolated that even if prohibition hadn't been repealed in 1933, alcohol consumption would have quickly surpassed pre-prohibition levels [43]. They argue that the War on Drugs uses similar measures and is no more effective. In the six years from 2000–2006, the USA spent $4. 7 billion on Plan Colombia, an effort to eradicate coca production in Colombia. The term Plan Colombia is most often used to refer to controversial U The main result of this effort was to shift coca production into more remote areas and force other forms of adaptation. The overall acreage cultivated for coca in Colombia at the end of the six years was found to be the same, after the U. S. Drug Czar's office announced a change in measuring methodology in 2005 and included new areas in its surveys. [44] Cultivation in the neighboring countries of Peru and Bolivia actually increased. [45]

Similar lack of efficacy is observed in other countries pursuing similar policies. In 1994, 28. 5% of Canadians reported having consumed illicit drugs in their life; by 2004, that figure had risen to 45%. 73% of the $368 million spent by the Canadian government on targeting illicit drugs in 2004–2005 went toward law enforcement rather than treatment, prevention or harm reduction. [46]

Terminology

War as a propaganda term

The phrase "War on Drugs" has been condemned as being propaganda to justify military or paramilitary operations under the guise of a noble cause. Propaganda is a concerted set of messages aimed at influencing the opinions or behaviors of large numbers of people [47] Noam Chomsky points out that the term is an example of synecdoche referring to operations against suspected producers, traders and/or users of certain substances. Avram Noam Chomsky (noʊm ˈtʃɑmski born December 7 1928 is an American linguist, Philosopher, cognitive scientist, Political Synecdoche is taken from Greek sinekdohi (συνεκδοχή meaning "simultaneous understanding" (si-nek-duh-kee (pronounced /sɪˈnɛkdoˌki/ The presumption of innocence being innocent until proven guilty is a legal Right that the Accused in Criminal trials has

This form of language was previously used in Lyndon B. Johnson's "war on poverty", and later by George W. The War on Poverty is the name for legislation first introduced by United States President Lyndon B Bush's "War on Terrorism". The War on Terrorism (also known as the War on Terror) is the common term for the military political and legal, and ideological conflict and specifically for U The word "war" is used to invoke a state of emergency, although the target and methods of the campaign is largely unlike that of a regular war. War is an international relations Dispute, characterized by organized Violence between National Military units

War as an accurate description of the government's war against the people

In their book Multitude, Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri oppose the view that the use of the term "war" is only metaphorical: they analyse the War on Drugs as part of a global war of a biopolitical nature. Multitude War and Democracy in the Age of Empire is a book written by Antonio Negri and Michael Hardt published in 2004 Michael Hardt (born 1960 is an American literary theorist and political philosopher based at Duke University. Antonio ("Toni" Negri (born August 1, 1933) is an Italian Marxist political philosopher. Biopower was a term originally coined by French Philosopher Michel Foucault to refer to the practice of modern states and their regulation of their subjects Like the War on Terrorism, the War on Drugs is a true war, waged by the US government against its own people. [48]

Richard Lawrence Miller's Drug Warriors and Their Prey draws detailed comparisons of the War on Drugs in the United States today with events in 1930s Germany that led to Hitler's Third Reich and the attempted destruction of the Jewish people. Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently vandalized and vandalism is reverted immediately Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers The Holocaust (from the Greek el ''ὁλόκαυστον'' (el-Latn holókauston holos, "completely" and kaustos, "burnt" also known as Miller writes that "authoritarians are manufacturing and manipulating public fears about drug use in order to create a police state where a much broader agenda of social control can be implemented, using government power to determine what movies we may watch, determine who we may love and how we may love them, determine whether we may or must pray to a deity. I believe the war on drug users masks a war on democracy. "[49]

Children involved in the illegal drug trade

The U. S. government's most recent 2005 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) reported that nationwide over 800,000 adolescents ages 12–17 sold illegal drugs during the 12 months preceding the survey. [2] The 2005 Youth Risk Behavior Survey by the U. S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported that nationwide 25. 4% of students had been offered, sold, or given an illegal drug by someone on school property. The prevalence of having been offered, sold, or given an illegal drug on school property ranged from 15. 5% to 38. 7% across state CDC surveys (median: 26. 1%) and from 20. 3% to 40. 0% across local surveys (median: 29. 4%). [50]

Despite over $7 billion spent annually towards arresting[51] and prosecuting nearly 800,000 people across the country for marijuana offenses in 2005(FBI Uniform Crime Reports), the federally-funded Monitoring the Future Survey reports about 85% of high school seniors find marijuana “easy to obtain. ” That figure has remained virtually unchanged since 1975, never dropping below 82. 7% in three decades of national surveys. [52]

Hindrance to legitimate research

The scientific community has criticized U. S. drug policy as being "outdated,"[53] and a hindrance to legitimate medical and scientific research efforts. For example, the U. S. government's classification of marijuana as a Schedule 1 drug (having no medicinal value) is contradicted by the journal Nature Medicine:[54]

“

the endocannabinoid system has an important role in nearly every important paradigm of pain, in memory, in neurodegeneration and in inflammation;" although this quote refers to endogenous cannabinoids (cannabinoids made from the body itself and not taken in from the outside of the body), research on cannabinoids from secondary sources such as the cannabis plant has shown them to have legitimate medical uses. Cannabis, also known as marijuana or marihuana, or ganja (from Hindi / Sanskrit: गांजा gānjā hemp) is a Nature Medicine is an Academic journal publishing research articles reviews news and commentaries in the biomedical area including both basic research and Cannabinoids ( are a group of terpeno[[phenol]]ic compounds present in Cannabis ( Cannabis sativa L ”

Also Marijuana is known to be particularly effective in treating the symptoms of glaucoma. Many people suffering from glaucoma are considered to be legally blind and cannot drive due to the blind spots caused by the internal pressure on the optical nerve. Marijuana, when smoked, helps to relieve this pressure significantly.

Racial inequities in prosecution

The social consequences of the drug war have been widely criticized by such organizations as the American Civil Liberties Union as being racially biased against minorities and disproportionately responsible for the exploding United States prison population. The American Civil Liberties Union ( ACLU) consists of two separate Non-profit organizations the ACLU Foundation a 501(c(3 organization which focuses Prisons in the United States are operated under strict authority of both the federal and state governments as Incarceration is a Concurrent power According to a report commissioned by the Drug Policy Alliance, and released in March 2006 by the Justice Policy Institute, America's "Drug-Free Zones" are ineffective at keeping youths away from drugs, and instead create strong racial disparities in the judicial system. The Drug Policy Alliance (DPA is a New York City -based Non-profit organization with the principal goal of ending the American " War on Drugs Drug-free school zone is a term used in the United States to denote an area within a certain distance most commonly 1000 feet, of the nearest school park [55]

Environmental consequences

Environmental consequences of the drug war, resulting from US-backed aerial fumigation of drug-growing operations in third world countries, have been criticized as detrimental to some of the world's most fragile ecosystems;[56] the same aerial fumigation practices are further credited with causing health problems in local populations. [57]

Impact on growers

The US's coca eradication policy has been criticised for its negative impact on the livelihood of coca growers in South America. South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a In many areas of South America the coca leaf has traditionally been chewed and used in tea and for religious, medicinal and nutritional purposes by locals. For this reason many insist that the illegality of traditional coca cultivation is unjust. In many areas the US government and military has forced the eradication of coca without providing for any meaningful alternate crop for farmers. The status of coca and coca growers has become an intense political issue in several countries, particularly in Bolivia, where the president, Evo Morales, a former coca growers' union leader, has promised to legalise the traditional cultivation and use of coca. The Republic of Bolivia (República de Bolivia) named after Simón Bolívar, is a Landlocked country in central South America. Juan Evo Morales Ayma (born October 26 1959 in Orinoca, Oruro) popularly known as Evo (ˈeβo is the President of Bolivia since

In Afghanistan, the implementation of costly poppy eradication policies by the international community, and in particular the United States since their military intervention in 2001, have led to poverty and discontent on the part of the rural community, especially in the south of the country where alternative development policies have not been put in place to replace livelihoods lost through eradication. Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Furthermore, poppy cultivation has dramatically increased since 2003 as has support for anti-government elements. Although alternative policies such as controlled opium licensing have been suggested and are supported by many in Afghanistan and abroad, government leaders have still to move away from harmful eradication schemes. Opium licensing is a policy instrument used to counter illegal drug cultivation and production Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت,

Innocent Victims

Peter Guthier in his Drug War Victims blog posted at Salon lists dozens of people who have been killed by law enforcement and the DEA, without having been convicted of any crime. Many of them were not even suspects, nor had been using drugs at all. These include a 35-year-old Christian missionary and her seven-month-old infant daughter, both killed (and her husband and son seriously injured) in April of 2001 when the Cessna airplane carrying them and other missionaries was shot out of the sky over Peru due to faulty information from the DEA. A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth A missionary is a member of a Religion who works to convert those who do not share the missionary's faith someone who proselytizes. April holidays and events National Poetry Month - in United States National Sexual Assault Awareness Month - in United Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar. The Cessna Aircraft Company is an airplane manufacturing corporation headquartered in Wichita, Kansas. Peru (Perú Piruw Piruw officially the Republic of Peru ( reˈpuβlika del peˈɾu is a country in western South America. Others include an eleven-year-old boy who was shot in the back by a SWAT team after following their instructions and lying on the ground, and an elderly woman frightened into a fatal heart attack when law enforcement officers burst into her home unannounced in the middle of the night, setting off flash grenades — they had the wrong address. Several were cases of people defending themselves and families against what they thought were burglars or rapists, but which were actually law enforcement, with the police killing them in retaliation.

War on drugs as cyclic creation of a permanent underclass

Since illegal drug use has been blamed for feeding the growth of the underclass, this has caused prohibitionists to call for further increases in certain drug-crime penalties, even though some of these disrupt opportunities for drug users to advance in society in socially acceptable ways. It has been argued by Blumenson and Nilsen that this causes a vicious cycle: since penalties for drug crimes among youth almost always involve semi-permanent removal from opportunities for education, and later involve creation of criminal records which make employment far more difficult, that the "war on drugs" has in fact resulted in the creation of a permanent underclass of people who have few education or job opportunities, often as a result of being punished for drug offenses which in turn have resulted from attempts to earn a living in spite of having no education or job opportunities. [58]

Positive

U. S. comparison to other countries

Official agencies and departments tasked with implementing drug policies, such as the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, argue that other countries with restrictive drug policies have for decades produced significantly better results than U. S. drug policies. [59][60]

Pharmaceuticals

In another regard, the war on drugs affects the US in the manner of its impact upon how health care providers employ psychoactive medications already extant in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia (many of which have the potential for abuse, or for use as chemical precursors to substances proscribed by the Controlled Substances Act). The Controlled Substances Act ( CSA) was enacted into law by the Congress of the United States as Title II of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control

To take as one example, patients with ADHD are commonly prescribed various stimulant medications in maintenance regimens to control the symptoms of the condition. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD is a neurobehavioral developmental disorder affecting about 3-5% of the world's population Frequently used drugs are Ritalin (Methylphenidate), Dexedrine (Dextroamphetamine), Adderall (Amphetamine), and Desoxyn (Methamphetamine). Dextroamphetamine is a Psychostimulant which produces increased wakefulness energy and self-confidence in association with decreased fatigue and appetite Dextroamphetamine is a Psychostimulant which produces increased wakefulness energy and self-confidence in association with decreased fatigue and appetite Adderall is a brand-name pharmaceutical Psychostimulant composed of mixed Amphetamine salts, the actions of which are Sympathomimetic Amphetamine, and related drugs such as Methamphetamine are a group of drugs that act by increasing levels of Norepinephrine, Serotonin, and Dopamine Desoxyn is a brand of Methamphetamine hydrochloride (also known as desoxyephedrine hence the name "Desoxyn" indicated for treatment of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity All three of these products (and their congeners) are rated as Schedule II drugs which - per CDS-imposed regulations - can only be dispensed in amounts suitable for a month's medication at most, with the requirement that each month's supply can be renewed only with the auhorization of yet another written prescription. Licensed prescribers are not even permitted to telephone or fax an authorization for refill to the patient's pharmacy.

This obliges patients on stable regimens of therapy to physically visit their health care providers for reasons of regulatory compliance rather than medical necessity, adding substantially to the aggregate burden in financial cost accruing nationally due to the incidence of ADHD in the population, and providing no substantive benefit to either the patient or the community.

Another example is found in the 2005 Combat Methamphetamine Act, which seeks to control the volume of retail purchase of pseudoephedrine, a safe and effective over-the-counter systemic decongestant, simply because the methods by which these pseudoephedrine products can be used to extract a chemical base for the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine has become widespread knowledge in the flourishing black market for drugs of abuse. The Combat Methamphetamine Epidemic Act of 2005 ( CMEA) was signed into United States law on March 9, 2006 to regulate among other things retail over-the-counter Pseudoephedrine (commonly abbreviated as PSE is a sympathomimetic Amine commonly used as a Decongestant. Over-the-counter (OTC drugs are medicines that may be sold without a prescription, in contrast to Prescription drugs The name "over-the-counter"

This latter government grope in the War on (Some) Drugs serves to impose a major financial burden on the pharmaceuticals industry (forcing the reformulation of well-established products with the substitution of the demonstrably less effective decongestant phenylephrine) as well as substantially increased costs upon pharmacies and inconveniences upon patients on the dubious grounds that it poses a minor inconvenience to the hardened criminals running meth labs. Phenylephrine or Neo-Synephrine is an α1-adrenergic receptor Agonist used primarily as a Decongestant, as an agent to dilate the Clandestine chemistry generally refers to Chemistry carried out in illegal drug Laboratories (known colloquially as labs) but can include any

See also

References

  1. ^ Edward Marshall: UNCLE SAM IS THE WORST DRUG FIEND IN THE WORLD, New York Times 1911
  2. ^ W.W. Willoughby: Opium as an international problem, Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins Press, 1925
  3. ^ ROOSEVELT ASKS NARCOTIC WAR AID, 1935
  4. ^ a b c d e Thirty years of america's drug war: a chronology
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  6. ^ Reed Irvine: THE MEDIA AS DRUG PROMOTERS, AIM Report January 1986
  7. ^ Marihuana-hashish epidemic and its impact on United States security : hearings before the Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws of the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, Ninety-third Congress, second session [-Ninety-fourth Congress, first session . Above the Influence is an Advertising campaign in the United States by the National Youth Anti-Drug Media Campaign that advocates against Recreational American Drug War The Last White Hope is a 2007 documentary by Writer / director Kevin Booth about the War on Drugs in the The '''prohibition of drugs''' is a subject of considerable controversy Cognitive liberty is the freedom to be the absolute Sovereignty of the individual ’s own Consciousness. Cocaine Cowboys is a Documentary film directed by Billy Corben and produced by Alfred Spellman and Billy Corben through their Miami-based media studio rakontur The term Plan Colombia is most often used to refer to controversial U Decriminalization is the reduction or abolition of criminal penalties in relation to certain acts but regulated permits or fines might still apply (for contrast Demand reduction refers to efforts aimed at reducing public desire illegal and illicit drugs Drug policy usually refers to a government's attempt to combat Drug addiction in society and to mitigate its negative effects The Drug Policy Alliance (DPA is a New York City -based Non-profit organization with the principal goal of ending the American " War on Drugs Harm reduction is a Philosophy of Public health, intended to be a progressive alternative to the prohibition of certain potentially dangerous Gangsters redirects here For the computer game see Gangsters (video game. Gary Webb ( August 31, 1955 &ndash December 10, 2004) was a prize-winning American Investigative journalist. The Golden Crescent is the name given to Asia 's principal area of illicit Opium production located at the crossroads of Central, South, and The Golden Triangle is one of Asia 's two main illicit Opium -producing areas The illegal drug trade or drug trafficking is a global Black market consisting of the cultivation manufacture distribution and sale of illegal Drugs " Just Say No " was a Television Advertising campaign part of the US " War on Drugs " and prevalent during the 1980s and Law Enforcement Against Prohibition (LEAP is a non-profit, international educational organization comprised of former and current police officers government agents and other The legal history of marijuana in the United States mainly involves the 20th and 21st centuries Since the 20th century most countries have enacted laws affecting the legality of cannabis regarding the cultivation use possession or transfer of cannabis for recreational Lin Zexu ( Styled: Yuanfu (元抚 ( August 30, 1785 &ndash November 22, 1850) was a Chinese scholar and official during Wars on concepts are high-resource efforts to eradicate a perceived problem that use a war metaphor to rally support The Marijuana Policy Project, or MPP, is an organization in the United States whose stated aim is to minimize the harm associated with cannabis MPP advocates The Mexican Drug War is an Armed conflict taking place between rival Drug cartels and government forces in Mexico. Nancy Davis Reagan (born Anne Frances Robbins on July 6 1921 is the widow of former United States President Ronald Reagan and served as an influential Narco News is an online newspaper dedicated to covering the United States ' “ War on drugs ” and movements opposing that country's operations in Latin America Illegal drug trade in Colombia (Narcotráfico en Colombia refers to the practice of producing and distributing Illegal drugs with psychoactive effects in the Neurolaw is an emerging field of study that seeks to explore the effects of discoveries in Neuroscience on law and legal standards The National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws ( NORML, ˈnɔrməl is a Washington D The White House Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP, a Cabinet level component of the Executive Office of the President of the United States, was established in 1988 The Opium Wars ( also known as the Anglo-Chinese Wars, lasted from 1839 to 1842 and 1856 to 1860 the climax of a trade dispute between China under the Qing "Crime syndicate" redirects here For the DC Comics group of villains see Crime Syndicate. The prison-industrial complex refers to Interest groups that represent organizations that do business in correctional facilities such as prison guard unions, The prohibition of drugs through sumptuary Legislation or Religious law is a common means of attempting to control Drug use and the Ricky Donnell Ross, also known as "Freeway" Ricky Ross, is known for the " drug empire that he presided over in Los Angeles in the early and mid-1980s Students for Sensible Drug Policy ( SSDP) is a Washington DC -based Non-profit advocacy organization founded in 1998 by a small group of students at The United Nations International Drug Control Programme (UNDCP and the United Nations Centre for International Crime Prevention (CICP are part of the United Nations Office Zero tolerance is the concept of compelling persons in positions of authority who might otherwise exercise their discretion in making subjective judgments regarding the severity of a given . (1974)]
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  48. ^ Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri (2005). Multitude: War and Democracy in the Age of Empire. Hamish Hamilton.
  49. ^ Miller, Richard Lawrence (1996). Drug Warriors and Their Prey: From Police Power to Police State (Greenwood Publishing Group). ISBN 0275950425
  50. ^ Eaton, Danice K. ; Laura Kann, Steve Kinchen, James Ross, Joseph Hawkins, William A. Harris, Richard Lowry, Tim McManus, David Chyen, Shari Shanklin, Connie Lim, Jo Anne Grunbaum, Howell Wechsler (2006-06-09). Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 53 - Roman Emperor Nero marries Claudia Octavia 62 - Claudia Octavia commits Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance—United States, 2005. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
  51. ^ Miron, Jeffrey A. (2007-09-17). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1176 - The Battle of Myriokephalon is fought 1462 - The Battle of Świecino (or Battle of Żarnowiec Costs of Marijuana Prohibition: Economic Analysis. Marijuana Policy Project. Retrieved on 2007-12-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the
  52. ^ Johnston, L. D. ; O'Malley, P. M. , Bachman, J. G. & Schulenberg, J. E. (2005-11-30). Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1700 - Battle of Narva — A Swedish army of 8500 men under Charles XII defeats Table 13: Trends in Availability of Drugs as Perceived by Twelfth Graders (PDF). Teen drug use down but progress halts among youngest teens. Monitoring the Future.
  53. ^ "Perspectives", Scientific American, December 2004
  54. ^ Nature Medicine, October 2003
  55. ^ How drug-free zone laws impact racial disparity–and fail to protect youth. Scientific American is a Popular science magazine, published (first weekly and later monthly since August 28, 1845, making it Justice Policy Institute. Retrieved on July 27, 2006.
  56. ^ Rebecca Bowe, "The drug war on the Amazon," E: The Environmental Magazine, Nov–Dec, 2004
  57. ^ Larry Rohter, "To Colombians, Drug War is a Toxic Foe," New York Times; May 1, 2000
  58. ^ Blumenson, Eric; Eva S. Nilsen (2002-05-16). See also 2002 (disambiguation Year 2002 ( MMII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1204 - Baldwin IX Count of Flanders is crowned as the first Emperor of the Latin Empire. How to construct an underclass, or how the War on Drugs became a war on education (PDF). Drug Policy Forum of Massachusetts.
  59. ^ UNODC World drug report 2007
  60. ^ UNODC: Sweden's successful drug policy, 2007

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