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Voting Rights Act of 1965
89th United States Congress
Long title: —
Introduced by: —
Dates
Date passed: August 3, 1965 (House)
August 4, 1965 (Senate)

July 13, 2006 (House) Renewed
July 20, 2006 (Senate) Renewed
Date signed into law: August 6, 1965
Amendments: 1970, 1975, 1982, 2006
—

The National Voting Rights Act of 1965 (42 U.S.C. § 1973–1973aa-6)[1] outlawed discriminatory voting practices that had been responsible for the widespread disenfranchisement of African-Americans in the United States. The Eighty-ninth United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government composed of the United States Senate and the Events 8 - Roman Empire General Tiberius defeats Dalmatians on the river Bathinus. Year 1965 ( MCMLXV) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar of the 1965 Gregorian calendar. The United States House of Representatives is one of the two chambers of the United States Congress; the other is the Senate. Events 70 - The Destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem by the Romans. Year 1965 ( MCMLXV) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar of the 1965 Gregorian calendar. The United States Senate is the Upper house of the bicameral United States Congress, the Lower house being the House of Representatives Events 1174 - William I of Scotland, a key rebel in the Revolt of 1173-1174, is captured at Alnwick by forces loyal to Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. The United States House of Representatives is one of the two chambers of the United States Congress; the other is the Senate. Events 1304 - Wars of Scottish Independence: Fall of Stirling Castle - King Edward I of England takes the last rebel stronghold Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. The United States Senate is the Upper house of the bicameral United States Congress, the Lower house being the House of Representatives Events 1538 - Bogotá, Colombia, is founded by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada. Year 1965 ( MCMLXV) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar of the 1965 Gregorian calendar. Title 42 of the United States Code is the title of the United States Code dealing with Public health and Social welfare Disenfranchisement or disfranchisement is the revocation of the right of Suffrage (the right to vote to a person or group of people or rendering a person's vote The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Echoing the language of the Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, the Act prohibited states from imposing any "voting qualification or prerequisite to voting, or standard, practice, or procedure. The Fifteenth Amendment ( Amendment XV) of the United States Constitution prohibits each government in the United States to prevent a citizen from voting based on that . . to deny or abridge the right of any citizen of the United States to vote on account of race or color. "[2] Specifically, Congress intended the Act to outlaw the practice of requiring otherwise qualified voters to pass literacy tests in order to register to vote, a principal means by which southern states had prevented African-Americans from exercising the franchise. Literacy Test refers to the government practice of testing the literacy of potential citizens at the federal level and potential voters at the state level [3]

The Act established extensive federal oversight of elections administration, providing that states with a history of discriminatory voting practices (so-called "covered jurisdictions") could not implement any change affecting voting without first obtaining the approval of the United States Department of Justice, a process known as pre-clearance. For animal rights group see Justice Department (JD The United States Department of Justice ( DOJ) is a Cabinet department These enforcement provisions applied to states and political subdivisions (mostly in the South) that had used a "device" to limit voting and in which less than 50% of the population was registered to vote in 1964. The Southern United States &mdashcommonly referred to as the American South, Dixie, or simply the South &mdashconstitutes a large distinctive Congress has amended and extended the Act several times since its original passage, the most recent being the 25-year extension signed by President George W. Bush on July 27, 2006. George Walker Bush ( born July 6 1946 is the forty-third and current President of the United States. Events 1214 - Battle of Bouvines: In France, Philip II of France defeats John of England. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar.

The Act is widely considered a landmark in civil rights legislation, though some of its provisions have sparked political controversy. During the debate over the 2006 extension, some Republican members of Congress objected to renewing the pre-clearance requirement (the Act's primary enforcement provision), arguing that it represents an overreach of federal power and places unwarranted bureaucratic demands on Southern states that have long since abandoned the discriminatory practices the Act was meant to eradicate. [4] Conservative legislators also opposed requiring states with large Spanish-speaking populations to provide bilingual ballots. [5] Congress nonetheless voted to extend the Act for twenty-five years with its original enforcement provisions left intact. [6]

Contents

Background

Further information: Disfranchisement after the Civil War

The Thirteenth Amendment, ratified in 1865 after the United States Civil War, abolished and prohibited slavery and secured a minimal degree of citizenship to former slaves. The Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution officially abolished and continues to prohibit Slavery, and with limited exceptions such as those Causes of the war See also Origins of the American Civil War, Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War The coexistence of a slave-owning South The Fourteenth Amendment, ratified in 1868, granted citizenship to all people “born or naturalized in the United States,” and included the Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses. The Fourteenth Amendment ( Amendment XIV) to the United States Constitution is one of the post- Civil War Reconstruction Amendments, first Due process (more fully due process of law) is the principle that a person has a right to receive notice and be heard in an orderly proceeding in order to protect his or her The Equal Protection Clause, part of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, provides that "no state shall… deny to any person This amendment failed to explicitly prohibit vote discrimination on racial grounds.

The prohibition of voting rights discrimination on the basis of race, color, or previous condition of slavery was first codified by the Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1870. The Fifteenth Amendment ( Amendment XV) of the United States Constitution prohibits each government in the United States to prevent a citizen from voting based on that The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme Law of the United States. Soon after the end of Reconstruction, starting in the 1870s, Southern Democratic legislators found other means to deny the vote to blacks, through violence, intimidation, and Jim Crow laws. The Jim Crow laws were state and local laws enacted primarily but not exclusively in the Southern and border states of the United States between 1876 and 1965

From 1890 to 1908, ten Southern states wrote new constitutions with provisions that included literacy tests, poll taxes, and grandfather clauses that permitted otherwise disqualified voters whose grandfathers voted (thus allowing some white illiterates to vote), some with the aim and effect of re-imposing racially motivated restrictions on the voting process that disfranchised blacks. Literacy Test refers to the government practice of testing the literacy of potential citizens at the federal level and potential voters at the state level A poll tax, head tax, or capitation is a Tax of a uniform fixed amount per individual (as opposed to a percentage of income A grandfather clause is a term used in US English for an exception that allows an old rule to continue to apply to some existing situations when a new rule will apply to all future situations Although the Fifteenth Amendment established particular voting rights, and gave Congress the authority to enforce those rights and regulate the voting process, state provisions applied to all voters and were upheld by the Supreme Court in early litigation, from 1898 through 1904. The Fifteenth Amendment ( Amendment XV) of the United States Constitution prohibits each government in the United States to prevent a citizen from voting based on that The United States Congress is the bicameral Legislature of the federal government of the United States of America, consisting of two houses In practice, the provisions had dramatically adverse effects on voting by blacks. During the early 20th century, the Supreme Court began to find such provisions unconstitutional in litigation of cases brought by African Americans and poor whites. States reacted rapidly in devising new legislation to continue disfranchisement of most blacks and many poor whites. Although there were numerous court cases brought to the Supreme Court, through the 1960s, white Democrats in the South effectively disfranchised most blacks.

In 1909, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was created with the mission to promote blacks' civil rights, including to "secure for them impartial suffrage. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, usually abbreviated as NAACP, is one of the oldest and most influential Civil rights organizations " The NAACP's success was limited: although they did achieve important judicial rulings by the Supreme Court and some legislative successes, Southern legislators quickly devised alternate ways to keep many southern blacks disfranchised through the early 1960s.

Following the 1964 election, a variety of civil rights organizations banded together to push for the passage of legislation that would ensure black voting rights once and for all. The campaign to bring about federal intervention to prevent discrimination in voting culminated in the voting rights protests in Selma, Alabama, and the famous Selma to Montgomery marches. The Selma to Montgomery marches, which included Bloody Sunday, were three marches that marked the Political and emotional peak of the American civil rights Demonstrations also brought out white violence, and Jimmie Lee Jackson, James Reeb, and Viola Liuzzo were murdered. Viola Fauver Gregg Liuzzo ( April 11, 1925 &ndash March 25, 1965) was a Civil rights activist from the U President Lyndon Baines Johnson, in a dramatic joint-session address, called upon Congress to enact a strong voting rights bill. Johnson's administration drafted a bill intended to enforce the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, aiming to eliminate various previously legal strategies to prevent blacks and other minorities from voting.

Legislative history

Final page of the Voting Rights Act, signed by President Johnson, the President of the Senate, and the Speaker of the House
Final page of the Voting Rights Act, signed by President Johnson, the President of the Senate, and the Speaker of the House

The Act was sent to Congress by President Lyndon Johnson on March 17, 1965. Events 45 BC - In his last victory Julius Caesar defeats the Pompeian forces of Titus Labienus and Pompey the Younger Year 1965 ( MCMLXV) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar of the 1965 Gregorian calendar. The Senate passed the bill on May 11 (after a successful cloture vote on March 23); the House passed it on July 10. Events 330 - Byzantium is renamed ''Nova Roma'' during a dedication ceremony but is more popularly referred to as Constantinople In Parliamentary procedure, cloture (ˈkloʊtʃɝ KLO-cher (also called closure, and sometimes a guillotine) is a motion or process aimed at Events 1174 - Jocelin, Abbot of Melrose, is elected Bishop of Glasgow. Events 48 BC - Battle of Dyrrhachium, Julius Caesar barely avoids a catastrophic defeat to Pompey in Macedonia. After differences between the two bills were resolved in conference, the House passed the Conference Report on August 3, the Senate on August 4. Events 8 - Roman Empire General Tiberius defeats Dalmatians on the river Bathinus. Events 70 - The Destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem by the Romans. President Johnson signed the Act on August 6, 1965. Events 1538 - Bogotá, Colombia, is founded by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada. Year 1965 ( MCMLXV) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar of the 1965 Gregorian calendar.

President George W. Bush signs the reauthorization of the Voting Rights Act as lawmakers look on.
President George W. Bush signs the reauthorization of the Voting Rights Act as lawmakers look on. George Walker Bush ( born July 6 1946 is the forty-third and current President of the United States.

Vote count

The two numbers in each line of this list refer to the number of representatives voting in favor and against the act, respectively.

Senate: 77–19

House: 333–85

Conference Report:

Senate: 79–18

House: 328–74

Periodic renewal

Some temporary amendments of the Voting Rights Act (none involving the outlawing of poll taxes or literacy tests, on which the ban is permanent)[7] have been renewed four times and remain in force. They were renewed in 1970, 1975, 1982, and 2006. Year 1970 ( MCMLXX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link shows full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1975 ( MCMLXXV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1982 ( MCMLXXXII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link displays the 1982 Gregorian calendar) Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. In the 1982 action, Congress amended the Act to make some sections (perhaps most importantly section 2) permanent while renewing the remainder (perhaps most importantly section 5) for 25 years, until (July 1, 2007). Year 1982 ( MCMLXXXII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link displays the 1982 Gregorian calendar) The United States Congress is the bicameral Legislature of the federal government of the United States of America, consisting of two houses "July 1st" redirects here For the Ayumi Hamasaki song see H (song. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.

In July 2006, 41 years after the Voting Rights Act passed, renewal of the temporary provisions enjoyed bi-partisan support. However, a number of Republican lawmakers acted to amend, delay or defeat renewal of the Act for various reasons. One group of lawmakers led by Georgia congressman Lynn Westmoreland came from some pre-clearance states, and claimed that it was no longer fair to target their states, given the passage of time since 1965 and the changes their states had made to provide fair elections and voting. The State of Georgia ( is a state in the United States and was one of the original Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule Lynn Westmoreland (b April 2 1950, Atlanta Georgia) a politician from the U Another group of 80 legislators supported an amendment offered by Steve King of Iowa, seeking to strip provisions from the Act that required that translators or multilingual ballots be provided for U. For other people named Steve King see Stephen King (disambiguation. The State of Iowa ( is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States of America. S. citizens who do not speak English. [5] The "King letter" said that providing ballots or interpreters in multiple languages is a costly, unfunded mandate.

The bill to renew the Act was passed by the U.S. House of Representatives, 390-33, with support from Republican House leadership, led by Judiciary Committee Chairman F. James Sensenbrenner, Jr.. The United States House of Representatives is one of the two chambers of the United States Congress; the other is the Senate. United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary US House Committee on the Judiciary, or (more commonly the House Judiciary Committee, is a Standing committee of Frank James (Jim Sensenbrenner Jr (born June 14, 1943) is an American politician who has been a member of the Republican Party in the The U.S. Senate passed the bill 98–0. The United States Senate is the Upper house of the bicameral United States Congress, the Lower house being the House of Representatives [8]

President George W. Bush signed the bill in a morning ceremony on the South Lawn of the White House on July 27, 2006, one year in advance of the 2007 expiration date. George Walker Bush ( born July 6 1946 is the forty-third and current President of the United States. Events 1214 - Battle of Bouvines: In France, Philip II of France defeats John of England. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. The audience included members of the families of slain civil rights leader Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and Rosa Parks. Martin Luther King Jr ( January 15, 1929 April 4, 1968) was an American clergyman, Activist and prominent leader Rosa Louise McCauley Parks (February 4 1913 – October 24 2005 was an African American Civil rights activist whom the U Also in attendance were the Revs. Al Sharpton and Jesse Jackson, NAACP Chairman Julian Bond and other prominent African Americans. Alfred Charles "Al" Sharpton Jr (born October 3 1954 is an American Baptist minister political and civil rights / Social justice Jesse Louis Jackson Sr (born October 8 1941 is an American Civil rights activist and Baptist minister. Horace Julian Bonds (born January 14 1940) is an American leader of the American Civil Rights Movement. African Americans or Black Americans are citizens or residents of the United States who have origins in any of the black populations of Africa [8]

Criticisms

Pre-clearance

Some municipalities singled out in the Act for their practices in the 1960s, are still required by law to receive federal permission for certain changes to election law or changes in venue. [9] These nine Southern states and mostly Southern counties have complained that the practices banned by the Act disappeared long ago and further compliance with the mandates of the Act are a costly nuisance and an "unfair stigma" to their towns. [5] As an example of the federal bureaucracy involved, Georgia Rep. Jack Kingston said, "If you move a polling place from the Baptist church to the Methodist church, you've got to go through the Justice Department. John Heddens Kingston (born April 24, 1955) Republican politician has been a member of the United States House of Representatives since Baptist is a term describing individuals belonging to a Baptist church or a Baptist denomination. Methodism is a movement within Protestant Christianity represented by a number of denominations and organizations "[5]

Rep. Lynn Westmoreland, R-Ga. Lynn Westmoreland (b April 2 1950, Atlanta Georgia) a politician from the U , said:

“ Congress is declaring from on high that states with voting problems 40 years ago can simply never be forgiven, that Georgians must eternally wear the scarlet letter because of the actions of their grandparents and great-grandparents. The Scarlet Letter is the Magnum opus of Nathaniel Hawthorne. . . . We have repented and we have reformed. "[10] ”

Some who think that this federal oversight is discriminatory to these particular states have proposed that the oversight be extended to all 50 states or eliminated entirely. [11]

Multilingual balloting

The Act requires municipalities that receive requests for ballots in other languages to comply with the request. Rep. Dana Rohrabacher of California said of the Act, "What unites us? It's our language, the English language," and that the Act is "hurting America by making it easier not to learn English. Dana Tyron Rohrabacher (born June 21 1947 in Coronado California) is a Californian politician who has been a Republican member of the United California ( is a US state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. "[10]

Gerrymandering

Some judges and proponents of racially drawn congressional districts have interpreted Section 5 of the Act as requiring racial gerrymandering in order to ensure minority representation. Gerrymandering is a form of redistribution in which electoral district or Constituency boundaries are manipulated for electoral advantage [12][13]

Section 2

Section 2 contains a general prohibition on voting discrimination, enforced through federal district court litigation. Congress amended this section in 1982, prohibiting any voting practice or procedure that has a discriminatory result. The 1982 amendment provided that proof of intentional discrimination is not required. The provision focused instead on whether the electoral processes are equally accessible to minority voters. [14] This section is permanent and does not require renewal.

Preclearance

Section 5 of the Act requires that the United States Department of Justice, through an administrative procedure, or a three-judge panel of the United States District Court for the District of Columbia, through a declaratory judgment action "preclear" any attempt to change “any voting qualification or prerequisite to voting, or standard, practice, or procedure with respect to voting. For animal rights group see Justice Department (JD The United States Department of Justice ( DOJ) is a Cabinet department A declaratory judgment is a Judgment of a Court in a Civil case which declares the rights duties or obligations of each party in a Dispute. . . " in any "covered jurisdiction. " The Supreme Court gave a broad interpretation to the words "any voting qualification or prerequisite to voting" in Allen v. State Board of Election, 393 U. S. 544 (1969). A covered jurisdictions that seeks to obtain Section 5 preclearance, either from the United States Attorney General or the United States District Court for the District of Columbia, must demonstrate that a proposed voting change does not have the purpose and will not have the effect of discriminating based on race or color. The United States Attorney General is the head of the United States Department of Justice (see) concerned with legal affairs and is the chief law enforcement In some cases, they must also show that the proposed change does not have the purpose or effect of discriminating against a "language minority group. " Membership in a language minority group includes "persons who are American Indian, Asian American, Alaskan Natives or of Spanish heritage. Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples from the regions of North America now encompassed by the continental United States Asian Americans are Americans of Asian ancestry. They include sub-ethnic groups such as Chinese Americans Filipino Americans Indian Alaska Natives are Indigenous peoples of the Americas native to the state of Alaska within the United States. " The burden of proof under current Section 5 jurisprudence is on the covered jurisdiction to establish that the proposed change does not have a retrogressive purpose. [15]

Covered jurisdictions may not implement voting changes without federal preclearance. The Justice Department has 60 days to respond to a request for a voting change. If the Justice Department or federal court rejects a request for preclearance, the jurisdiction may continue the prior voting practice or may adopt a substitute and seek preclearance for it. If the jurisdiction implements a voting change before the Justice Department denies preclearance in contravention of the Act, the jurisdiction must return to the pre-existing practice or enact a different change.

Those states which had less than 50% of the voting age population voting in 1960 and/or 1964 were covered in the original act. (The average percentage of the voting age population participating in a presidential election then was in the mid-60s, instead of about 50%, as has occurred in 1996, 2000, and 2004. ) In addition, some counties and towns that have been found in violation of section 2 have been added. Some counties in Virginia (see below) have since been found no longer to need preclearance.

The United States Commission on Civil Rights recently reviewed the Justice Department preclearance record and found that the percentage of DOJ objections to submitted changes has declined markedly over the 40-year period of the Act:

The Commission's two Democratic members dissented from the report, charging that the Commission had "abandon[ed] the field of battle. " [17]

The jurisdictions listed below must be precleared:

States

Counties

Towns

Bail out

The term "bail out" refers to the process by which covered jurisdictions may seek exemption from Section 5 coverage. Michigan ( is a Midwestern state of the United States of America. Clyde Township is a Civil township of Allegan County in the U Buena Vista Charter Township is a Charter township of Saginaw County in the U New Hampshire ( is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. Rindge is a town in Cheshire County, New Hampshire, United States. Millsfield is a township in Coos County, New Hampshire, United States. Pinkham's Grant is a township located in Coos County, New Hampshire, United States. Stewartstown is a town in Coos County, New Hampshire, United States. Stratford is a town located on the Connecticut River in Coos County, New Hampshire, United States. Grafton County is a County located in the US state of New Hampshire. Benton is a town in Grafton County, New Hampshire, United States. Antrim is a town in Hillsborough County, New Hampshire, United States. Boscawen is a town in Merrimack County, New Hampshire, United States. Newington is a town in Rockingham County, New Hampshire, United States. Unity is a town in Sullivan County, New Hampshire, United States. In order to bail out, a covered jurisdiction needs to obtain a declaratory judgment from the District Court for the District of Columbia. The 11 Virginia jurisdictions not covered by Section 5 preclearance requirements have all successfully "bailed out. "

Before August 1984, this process required covered jurisdictions to demonstrate that the voting test that they used immediately before coverage was not used in a discriminatory fashion. The 1982 amendment included two significant changes. First, Congress provided that where a state is covered in its entirety, individual counties in that state may separately bail out. Second, Congress completely redesigned the bailout standard. The post-1984 bailout standard requires that a covered jurisdiction demonstrate nondiscriminatory behavior during the 10 years prior to filing and while the action is pending and that it has taken affirmative steps to improve minority voting opportunities. [18]

No affirmative right to vote

While the title of the Voting Rights Act might imply that it established an explicit right to vote for President for U. S. citizens, there is no such federal right. However, the Voting Rights Act and three constitutional amendments that prevent discrimination in granting the franchise have established in United States Supreme Court jurisprudence that there is a "fundamental right" in the franchise, even though voting remains a state-granted privilege. However, states are given considerable leeway when it comes to this "fundamental right".

In Bush v. Gore (2000), the Supreme Court ruled that, "The individual citizen has no federal constitutional right to vote for electors for the President of the United States," a logical conclusion given the history of the Electoral College. Bush v Gore,, was a United States Supreme Court case decided on December 12, 2000. The Electoral College consists of 538 popularly elected representatives who formally select the President and Vice President of the United States. States do not have to extend suffrage to ex-felons, nor do they have to allow citizens to register and vote on Election Day. [19] In 2008, the Supreme Court upheld voter ID laws, claiming that the states had an interest in deterring voter fraud. A supreme court, also called a court of last resort or high court, is in some Jurisdictions the highest judicial body within that jurisdiction's [20]. While the Supreme Court has stated that the right to vote and the right to be a candidate are connected, they have often upheld state laws that make it difficult for independent and minor party candidates to be included on the election ballot. [21]

Washington, D.C., not being a state, has been granted only limited voting rights by Congress, which controls the District "in all cases whatsoever", according to the District Clause of the Constitution. Washington DC ( formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D [22] U. S. Representative Jesse Jackson, Jr. re-introduced House Joint Resolution 28 in March, 2005, to amend the U. Jesse Louis "Jesse Jr" Jackson Jr (born March 11 1965 is a Democratic member of the United States House of Representatives representing, which S. Constitution and create a federal right to vote. [23] The resolution had 60 co-sponsors as of October, 2006. [24]

References

  1. ^ US Department of Justice - Voting Rights Act of 1965. U. S. Department of Justice (2006-03-20). Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1600 - The Linköping Bloodbath takes place on Maundy Thursday in Linköping, Sweden. Retrieved on 2006-07-12. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1191 - Saladin 's garrison surrenders ending the two-year Siege of Acre.
  2. ^ The Voting Rights Act of 1965. U. S. National Archives. Retrieved on 2008-04-22. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1500 - Portuguese Navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral becomes the first European to sight Brazil.
  3. ^ The Voting Rights Act of 1965. U. S. Department of Justice. Retrieved on 2008-04-22. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1500 - Portuguese Navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral becomes the first European to sight Brazil.
  4. ^ "Rebellion Stalls Extension of Voting Rights Act", The New York Times, 2006-06-22. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 217 BC - Battle of Raphia: Ptolemy IV of Egypt defeats Antiochus III the Great of the Seleucid kingdom. Retrieved on 2008-04-26. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1467 - The miraculous image in Our Lady of Good Counsel appear in Genazzano, Italy.  
  5. ^ a b c d "GOP Rebellion Stops Voting Rights Act", Washington Post, 2006-06-22. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 217 BC - Battle of Raphia: Ptolemy IV of Egypt defeats Antiochus III the Great of the Seleucid kingdom. Retrieved on 2007-08-14. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1183 - Taira no Munemori and the Taira clan take the young Emperor Antoku and the three sacred treasures  
  6. ^ "By a Vote of 98-0, Senate Approves 25-year Extension of Voting Rights Act", The New York Times, 2006-07-21. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 356 BC - Herostratus sets fire to the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World Retrieved on 2008-04-26. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1467 - The miraculous image in Our Lady of Good Counsel appear in Genazzano, Italy.  
  7. ^ "House Renews Voting Rights Act Provisions", San Francisco Chronicle, 2006-07-14. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1223 - Louis VIII becomes King of France upon the death of his father Philip II of France. Retrieved on 2007-08-14. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1183 - Taira no Munemori and the Taira clan take the young Emperor Antoku and the three sacred treasures  
  8. ^ a b "Bush signs Voting Rights Act extension: Historic 1965 law renewed for 25 years", Associated Press, 2006-07-21. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 356 BC - Herostratus sets fire to the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World Retrieved on 2006-09-17. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1176 - The Battle of Myriokephalon is fought 1462 - The Battle of Świecino (or Battle of Żarnowiec  
  9. ^ "Renewal of Voting Rights Act postponed", Boston Globe. Retrieved on 2007-08-14. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1183 - Taira no Munemori and the Taira clan take the young Emperor Antoku and the three sacred treasures  
  10. ^ a b "House Renews Voting Rights Act Unchanged", CBS News. Retrieved on 2007-08-14. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1183 - Taira no Munemori and the Taira clan take the young Emperor Antoku and the three sacred treasures  
  11. ^ Voting Rights Act. Court TV. Retrieved on 2007-08-14. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1183 - Taira no Munemori and the Taira clan take the young Emperor Antoku and the three sacred treasures
  12. ^ "Faith, race and Barack Obama", The Economist, July 6, 2006. The Economist is an English-language weekly news and International affairs publication owned by The Economist Newspaper Ltd and edited in London  
  13. ^ Article | Birth of a Gerrymander
  14. ^ "U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Voting Rights Enforcement and Reauthorization: An Examination of the Act's Section 5 Preclearance Provision", April 2006.   at 3.
  15. ^ "U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Voting Rights Enforcement and Reauthorization: An Examination of the Act's Section 5 Preclearance Provision", April 2006.   at 6
  16. ^ "Voting Rights Enforcement and Reauthorization: An Examination of the Act's Section 5 Preclearance Provision", April 2006.   at 62
  17. ^ "Id.", April 2006.   at 62 (Commissioners Michael Yaki and Arlan Melendez, dissenting).
  18. ^ "U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Voting Rights Enorcement and Reauthorization: An Examination of the Act's Section 5 Preclearance Provision", April 2006.  at 44.
  19. ^ Felon Voting ProCon.org - Should felons be allowed to vote?
  20. ^ "Voter ID Law Upheld - Los Angeles Times", Los Angeles Times. Retrieved on 2008-05-02. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1194 - King Richard I of England gives Portsmouth its first Royal Charter.  
  21. ^ Ballot Access News
  22. ^ Reynolds v. Sims 377 U. Reynolds v Sims, 377 US 533 ( 1964) was a United States Supreme Court case that ruled that state legislature districts had to be S. 533, 561–562 (1964): "Undoubtedly, the right of suffrage is a fundamental matter in a free and democratic society. Especially since the right to exercise the franchise in a free and unimpaired manner is preservative of other basic civil and political rights, any alleged infringement of the right of citizens to vote must be carefully and meticulously scrutinized. Almost a century ago, in Yick Wo v. Hopkins, 118 U. Yick Wo v Hopkins 118 US 356 (1886 was the first case where the United States Supreme Court ruled that a law that was Race-neutral on its S. 356, the Court referred to "the political franchise of voting" as "a fundamental political right, because preservative of all rights. " 118 U. S. at 370.
  23. ^ A Proposed Amendment to Establish a Constitutional Right to Vote in America (March 2005). Retrieved on 2006-06-23. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1180 - First Battle of Uji, starting the Genpei War in Japan 1305 - The Flemish
  24. ^ H.J.RES.28. Library of Congress. Retrieved on 2006-06-23. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1180 - First Battle of Uji, starting the Genpei War in Japan 1305 - The Flemish

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