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For other uses, see Virtue (disambiguation).
Personification of virtue (Greek ἀρετή) in Celsus Library in Ephesos, Turkey
Personification of virtue (Greek ἀρετή) in Celsus Library in Ephesos, Turkey

Virtue (Latin virtus; Greek ἀρετή) is moral excellence of a person. Personification is an ontological metaphor in which a thing or abstraction is represented as a person Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Ephesus ( Hittite Apasa; Ancient Greek; Turkish Efes) was a city of ancient Anatolia. Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Arete (Greek; ˈærəteɪ in English in its basic sense means " Goodness " " Excellence " or " Virtue " of Morality (from the Latin la moralitas "manner character proper behavior" has three principal meanings Excellence is the state or quality of excelling Particularly in the field of business and organizations excellence is considered to be an important value, and a A virtue is a trait valued as being good. A personal and cultural value is a Relative ethic value, an assumption upon which implementation can be extrapolated Value theory encompasses a range of approaches to understanding how why and to what degree humans should or do value things whether the thing is a person idea object or anything else The conceptual opposite of virtue is vice. The software program VICE (all caps standing for V ersat' I' le C ommodore E mulator, is an Emulator for Commodore

According to its etymology the word virtue (Latin virtus) signifies manliness or courage. Taken in its widest sense virtue refers to excellence, just as vice, its contrary, denotes the absence of such. In its strictest meaning, however, as used by moral philosophers and theologians, virtue is an operative habit essentially good, as distinguished from vice, an operative habit essentially evil. Habits are habituated routines of behavior that are repeated regularly tend to occur Subconsciously and tend to occur without directly thinking consciously The four cardinal (hinge) virtues are Justice, Courage, Wisdom, and Moderation. These were enumerated by the Greek philosophers. The three supernatural virtues of Faith, Hope and (unselfish) Love are part of the tradition of Pauline Christianity, Judaism and Islam.

Virtue can also be meant in another way. Virtue can either have normative or moral value; i. Normative has specialized meanings in several academic disciplines Value theory encompasses a range of approaches to understanding how why and to what degree humans should or do value things whether the thing is a person idea object or anything else e. the virtue of a judge is to justly convict criminals, the virtue of an excellent judge is to specialise in justly convicting criminals (this is its normative value) vs. the virtues of reason, prudence, chastity, etc. (which have moral value).

In the Greek it is more properly called ἠθικὴ ἀρετή (ēthikē aretē). It is "habitual excellence". It is something practiced at all times. The virtue of perseverance is needed for all and any virtue since it is a habit of character and must be used continuously in order for any person to maintain oneself in virtue. However, Friedrich Nietzsche stated that 'when virtue has slept, it will arise all the more vigorous'. Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (October 15 1844 August 25 1900 ( was a nineteenth-century German philosopher and classical philologist

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Virtues and values

Virtues can be placed into a broader context of values. Each individual has a core of underlying values that contribute to our system of beliefs, ideas and/or opinions (see value in semiotics). As commonly used, individual refers to a Person or to any specific object in a collection In Semiotics, the value of a sign depends on its position and relations in the system of signification and upon the particular codes being used Semiotics, semiotic studies, or semiology is the study of sign processes (semiosis or signification and communication signs and Symbols both Integrity in the application of a value ensures its continuity and this continuity separates a value from beliefs, opinion and ideas. In this context a value (e. g. , Truth or Equality or Greed) is the core from which we operate or react. Societies have values that are shared among many of the participants in that culture. An individual's values typically are largely, but not entirely, in agreement with their culture's values.

Individual virtues can be grouped into one of four categories of values:

A value system is the ordered and prioritized set of values (usually of the ethical and doctrinal categories described above) that an individual or society holds. Ethics is a major branch of Philosophy, encompassing right conduct and good life The software program VICE (all caps standing for V ersat' I' le C ommodore E mulator, is an Emulator for Commodore Value theory encompasses a range of approaches to understanding how why and to what degree humans should or do value things whether the thing is a person idea object or anything else Morality (from the Latin la moralitas "manner character proper behavior" has three principal meanings Amorality is the quality of existence in which the concept of Morality (or Right and wrong) is invalid Aesthetics or esthetics ( also spelled æsthetics) is commonly known as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values sometimes called NOTICE TO WOULD-BE-ROMEOS*************** NOTICE TO WOULD-BE-ROMEOS*************** Doctrine (Latin doctrina) is a codification of beliefs or "a body of teachings quot or "instructions" taught principles or positions as the Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions An ideology is a set of beliefs aims and Ideas especially in politics A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos Definition In the absence of agreement about its meaning the term "social" is used in many different senses referring among other things to attitudes Belief is the psychological state in which an individual holds a Proposition or Premise to be true The term intrinsic denotes a characteristic or property of some thing or action which is essential and specific to that thing or action and which is wholly independent Reproduction is the Biological process by which new individual Organisms are produced Survival skills are techniques a person may utilize for an indefinite duration in order to survive a dangerous situation (also see Bushcraft) A value system is a set of Consistent Ethic values (more specifically the Personal and cultural values) and measures used for the purpose of Ethical

Some virtues (a virtue is a character trait valued as being good) recognized in various Western cultures of the world include:

Four classic Western virtues

Main article: Cardinal virtues

The four classic Western cardinal virtues are:

This enumeration is traced to Greek philosophy, and was listed at least by Plato, if not also by Socrates, from whom no attributable written works exist. Moral character or character is an evaluation of a particular individual's moral qualities Value theory encompasses a range of approaches to understanding how why and to what degree humans should or do value things whether the thing is a person idea object or anything else Western culture (sometimes equated with Western Civilization) are terms which are used to refer to Cultures of European origin Acceptance, in Spirituality, Mindfulness, and Human Psychology, usually refers to the experience of a situation without an intention to change Altruism is selfless concern for the welfare of others It is a traditional Virtue in many cultures and central to many religious traditions Appreciation is a term used in Accounting relating to the increase in value of an Asset. Assertiveness is a Trait taught by many Personal development experts and psychotherapists and the subject of many popular Self-help books Attention is the Cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one aspect of the environment while ignoring other things In Biological psychology, awareness comprises a human's or an animal's perception and Cognitive reaction to a condition or event In the metaphysical or conceptual sense balance is used to mean a point between two opposite forces that is desirable over purely one state or the other such as a balance " Being beautiful in spirit " according to some is and was considered the highest of " Knightly Virtues " and is said to be most akin to Love In Christian Theology charity, or love ( Agapē) means an unlimited loving-kindness toward all others Chastity is Sexual behavior of a man or woman acceptable to the ethical norms and guidelines of a culture civilization or Religion. Cleanliness is the absence of dirt including Dust, Stains bad smells and Garbage. Personal commitment is the act or quality of voluntarily taking on or fulfilling Obligations What makes personal commitment "personal" is the voluntary aspect Compassion is a profound human Emotion prompted by the pain of others Confidence is generally described as a state of being certain either that a hypothesis or prediction is correct or that a chosen course of action is the best or most effective given the Consciousness has been defined loosely as a constellation of attributes of Mind such as Subjectivity, Self-awareness, Sentience, and the Consideration is a central concept in the Common law of Contracts and Contract theory: it is value paid for a promise Sexual continence is a lifestyle in which one refrains from all sexual contact even while married Distinguish from Corporation. Cooperation, co-operation, or coöperation is the process of working or acting together Gallantry redirects here Or see Gallant for other meanings Courage, also known as bravery, will, intrepidity Etiquette is a code that governs the expectations of Social behavior, according to the contemporary conventional norm within a Society, Creativity is a mental process involving the generation of new Ideas or Concepts, or new associations of the creative mind between existing ideas or concepts Critical thinking consists of mental processes of discernment, Analysis and Evaluation. Dependability is a value showing the reliability of a person to others because of his/her integrity truthfulness and trustfulness traits that can encourage someone to depend on him/her Detachment is a state in which a person overcomes his or her attachment to desire for things people or concepts of the world and thus attains a heightened perspective Diligence is a zealous and careful nature in one's actions and work In its most general sense discipline refers to systematic instruction given to a Disciple. Empathy is the capacity to recognize or understand another's state of mind or Emotion. Endurance (also called sufferance) is the ability for humans to exert themselves through aerobic or Anaerobic exercise for relatively long periods of time Enthusiasm (ἐνθουσιασμός enthousiasmos) originally meant Inspiration or possession by a divine Afflatus or by the presence of a Excellence is the state or quality of excelling Particularly in the field of business and organizations excellence is considered to be an important value, and a Faith is a Belief in the trustworthiness of an Idea. Formal usage of the word "faith" is usually reserved for concepts of Religion, as in Fidelity is a notion that at its most abstract level implies a truthful connection to a source or sources Physical fitness is used in two close meanings general fitness (a state of Health and well-being and specific fitness (a task-oriented definition based on the ability Flexibility is the absolute range of movement in a joint or series of joints and muscles that is attainable in a momentary effort with the help of a partner or a piece of equipment Forgiveness doesn't mean that you deny the other person's responsibility for hurting you and it doesn't minimize or justify the wrong Gallantry redirects here Or see Gallant for other meanings Courage, also known as bravery, will, intrepidity The question of free will Freedom, or the idea of being free is a broad concept that Friendship is a term used to denote co-operative and supportive behavior between two or more beings Generosity is the habit of giving without coercion. Often equated with charity as a Virtue, generosity is widely accepted in society Happiness is an Emotion associated with feelings ranging from contentment and satisfaction to Bliss and intense Joy. Health is a state of complete physical mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity In Social psychology, the everyday concept of helpfulness is technically defined as (1 the property of providing useful assistance and (2 friendliness evidenced by a kindly Honesty is the human quality of communicating and acting Truthfully related to Truth as a value Honor or Honour (see spelling differences) (the latter directly from the Latin word honos honoris) is the evaluation of a person's Hope is a Belief in a positive outcome related to events and Circumstances in one's life Hospitality refers to the relationship process between a Guest and a host and it also refers to the act or practice of being hospitable that is the reception and entertainment Humility, or being humble, is the defining characteristic of an unpretentious and modest person someone who does not think that he or she is better or more important Humour or humor (see spelling differences) is the tendency of particular cognitive experiences to provoke Laughter and provide Amusement In Western civilization, Idealism is the philosophy which maintains that the Ultimate nature of reality is ideal or based upon ideas values essences The so-called Imagination is the ability to form Mental images/sounds/feelings or the ability to Spontaneously Generate images/sounds/feelings within one's own Mind Impartiality is a principle of Justice holding that decisions should be based on objective criteria, rather than on the basis of Bias, Prejudice Independence is the Self-government of a Nation, Country, or State by its residents and population or some portion thereof generally exercising Innocence is a term used to indicate a state of moral purity or general lack of Guilt, with respect to any kind of Crime, Sin, or wrongdoing Integrity is Consistency of actions values methods measures and principles Intuition is apparent ability to acquire knowledge without a clear inference or the use of reason The inventive step and non-obviousness reflect a same general Patentability requirement present in most Patent Laws according to which an JUSTICE is a Human rights and law reform organisation based in the United Kingdom. Kindness is the act or the state of charitable behavior to other people Love is any of a number of Emotions and experiences related to a sense of strong Affection. This page is about loyalty as faithfulness to a cause For its use in business see Loyalty business model or Loyalty Marketing. In Sociology, manners are the unenforced standards of conduct which show the actor to be Cultured Polite, and refined Mercy ( Middle English, from Anglo-French merci, from Medieval Latin merced-, merces, from Latin, "price Moderation is the process of eliminating or lessening extremes Standards of modesty (also called demureness or reticence) are aspects of the Culture of a Country or people at a given point in time Morality (from the Latin la moralitas "manner character proper behavior" has three principal meanings Nonviolence is a philosophy and strategy for social change that rejects the use of physical Violence. The nature versus nurture debates concern the relative importance of an individual's innate qualities ("nature" i Openness is a Philosophy that is being used as the basis of how various groups and organizations operate Patience (ˈpā-shənz is the state of endurance under difficult circumstances Peace, in the modern usage is a concept defined by the ideal state of relationship as absence of hostility at the international level that of a War. Perfection is broadly a state of completeness and flawlessness Philanthropy is the act of donating money goods services time and/or effort to support a socially beneficial cause with a defined objective and with no financial or material Philomath (fɨˈloʊməθ is a city in the US state of Oregon—see Philomath Oregon. In spiritual terminology piety is a Virtue. While different people may understand its meaning differently it is generally used to refer either to religious devotion The Mathematical study of potentials is known as Potential theory; it is the study of Harmonic functions on Manifolds This mathematical Prudence (latprudentia is classically considered to be a Virtue, and indeed one of the Cardinal Virtues. Purpose is the Cognitive Awareness in Cause and effect linking for achieving a Goal in a given System, whether Respect is esteem for or a sense of the worth or excellence of a person a personal quality or ability or something considered as a manifestation of a personal quality or ability Moral responsibility can refer to two different but related things Social responsibility is an ethical or ideological theory that an Entity whether it is a Government, Corporation, Organization Self-awareness is the concept that one exists as an individual separate from other people with private Thoughts. In its most general sense discipline refers to systematic instruction given to a Disciple. In Psychology, self-esteem reflects a Person 's overall evaluation or appraisal of her or his own worth "Self-reliance" redirects here For the related concept of economic self-reliance see Self-sufficiency. In Psychology, self-esteem reflects a Person 's overall evaluation or appraisal of her or his own worth The sensitivity or insensitivity of a Human, often considered with regard to a particular kind of stimulus, is the strength of the Feeling it Sharing is the joint use of a resource or space In its narrow sense it refers to joint or alternating use of an inherently finite good such as a common pasture or a Timeshared Sincerity is the Virtue of one who speaks truly about his or her own feelings thoughts desires Spirituality, in a narrow sense concerns itself with matters of the Spirit, a concept closely tied to religious belief and Faith, a transcendent reality Physical strength is the ability of a person or animal to exert Force on physical objects using muscles. Sympathy is a social affinity in which one person stands with another person closely understanding his or her feelings Temperance ( Sophrosyne in Greek) is the practice of Moderation. Gratitude, appreciation, or thankfulness is a positive Emotion or attitude in acknowledgment of a benefit that one has received or will receive Trustworthiness is a moral value considered to be a Virtue. A trustworthy person is someone in whom we can place our trust and rest assured that the trust The meaning of the word truth extends from Honesty, Good faith, and Sincerity in general to agreement with Fact or Reality Understanding (also called intellection) is a psychological Process related to an abstract or physical object such as Person, situation or Wisdom is a concept of personal gaining of Knowledge, Understanding, Experience, discretion and intuitive understanding, along with a capacity In some Christian traditions there are four cardinal virtues: Prudence - to judge between actions with regard to appropriate actions at a given time In some Christian traditions there are four cardinal virtues: Prudence - to judge between actions with regard to appropriate actions at a given time Temperance ( Sophrosyne in Greek) is the practice of Moderation. Prudence (latprudentia is classically considered to be a Virtue, and indeed one of the Cardinal Virtues. Gallantry redirects here Or see Gallant for other meanings Courage, also known as bravery, will, intrepidity See also Justice Justice is one of the four Cardinal virtues in classical European philosophy and Roman Catholicism Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece SOCRATES is the European Community action programme in the field of Education. Plato also mentions "Holiness".

It is likely that Plato believed that virtue was, in fact, a single thing, and that this enumeration was created by others in order to better define virtue. In Protagoras and Meno, he states that the separate virtues cannot exist independently, and offers as evidence the contradictions of acting with wisdom (prudence), yet in an unjust way, or acting with bravery (fortitude), yet without wisdom (prudence). Protagoras is a Dialogue of Plato. The main Argument is between the elderly Protagoras, a celebrated Sophist, and Meno is a Socratic dialogue written by Plato. Written in the Socratic dialectic style, it attempts to determine the definition of Virtue

Aristotle's golden mean

In his Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle describes every virtue as a balance point between a deficiency and an excess of a trait. Nicomachean Ethics (sometimes spelled "Nichomachean" or Ta Ethika, is a work by Aristotle on Virtue and Moral character which The point of greatest virtue lies not in the exact middle, but at a "golden mean" closer to one of the extremes than the other. E. g. :

Prudence and virtue

Seneca, the Roman Stoic, said that perfect prudence is indistinguishable from perfect virtue. Lucius Annaeus Seneca (often known simply as Seneca, or Seneca the Younger; Σένεκας in Ancient Greek literature (c Stoicism, a school of Hellenistic philosophy, was founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early third century BC Prudence (latprudentia is classically considered to be a Virtue, and indeed one of the Cardinal Virtues. Thus, in considering all consequences, a prudent person would act in the same way as a virtuous person.

The same rationale was followed by Plato in Meno, when he wrote that people only act for what they perceive will maximize the good. It is the lack of wisdom which results in the making of a bad choice, rather than a good one. In this way, wisdom is the central part of virtue. However, he realized that if virtue was synonymous with wisdom, then it could be taught, a possibility he had earlier discounted. He then added "correct belief" as an alternative to knowledge, proposing that knowledge is merely correct belief that has been thought through and "tethered".

Roman virtues

Christian virtues

See also: Seven virtues

In Christianity, the theological virtues are faith, hope and charity or love/agape, a list which comes from 1 Corinthians 13:13 (νυνι δε μενει πιστις ελπις αγαπη τα τρια ταυτα μειζων δε τουτων η αγαπη pistis, elpis, agape). The seven virtues are a set of seven cardinal virtues recognized in Christian Philosophy, especially Virtue ethics, and Theology. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings The three Theological Virtues listed in the Bible are Faith ( - steadfastness in belief Hope ( - expectation of and desire Faith is a Belief in the trustworthiness of an Idea. Formal usage of the word "faith" is usually reserved for concepts of Religion, as in Hope is a Belief in a positive outcome related to events and Circumstances in one's life In Christian Theology charity, or love ( Agapē) means an unlimited loving-kindness toward all others Love is any of a number of Emotions and experiences related to a sense of strong Affection. Agapē (ˈægəpiː ( Gk αγάπη) is one of several Greek words translated into English as love. These are said to perfect one's love of God and Man and therefore (since God is super-rational) to harmonize and partake of prudence. Prudence (latprudentia is classically considered to be a Virtue, and indeed one of the Cardinal Virtues.


There are many listings of virtue additional to the traditional Christian virtues (faith, hope and love) in the Christian Bible. One is the so-called "Fruit of the Spirit," found in Galatians 5:22-23:

love,compassion,peace making,hospitality,charity, courage, faithfulness,gentleness,patience, justice,prudence,fortitude, and temperance

The Holy Bible : New Revised Standard Version (Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1989).

22 Ὁ δὲ καρπὸς τοῦ πνεύματός ἐστιν ἀγάπη χαρὰ εἰρήνη, μακροθυμία χρηστότης ἀγαθωσύνη, πίστις 23 πραΰτης ἐγκράτεια· κατὰ τῶν τοιούτων οὐκ ἔστιν νόμος. Barbara Aland, Kurt Aland, Matthew Black, Carlo M. Martini, Bruce M. Metzger and Allen Wikgren, The Greek New Testament, 4th ed. (Federal Republic of Germany: United Bible Societies, 1993, c1979).

Virtues in Islam

In Islam, there are many virtues, such as honesty, mercy, patience, sincerity . . etc scholars may have different ways while putting them in different categories. The Quran, God's Word in Islam, and Prophet Mohammad speak about each virtues in its own content and contexts while linking the virtues together when appropriate, without listing them all in one place.

Hindu Virtues

Hinduism, or Sanatana Dharma (Dharma means moral duty), has pivotal virtues that everyone keeping their Dharma is asked to follow. Hinduism is a religious tradition that originated in the Indian subcontinent. For they are distinct qualities of manusya (mankind), that allow one to be in the mode of goodness. There are three modes of material nature (guna), as described in the Vedas and other Indian Scriptures: Sattva (goodness, creation, stillness, intelligence), Rajas (passion, maintenance, energy, activity) , and Tamas (ignorance, restraint, inertia, destruction). Every person harbours a mixture of these modes in varying degrees. A person in the mode of Sattva has that mode in prominence in his nature, which he obtains by following the virtues of the Dharma .

The modes of Sattva are as following.

It is important to note that the Vedas are the world's oldest recorded and preserved scriptures have given birth to many belief systems and followings in the Indian Sub-Continent. The Indian Scriptures include the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Puranas, The Agamas, and the Tantras to name a few. There is no one set book or one set doctrine like that of other religions. Also they believe in the wisdom, truth, and importance of individualized belief systems and thus respect all religious doctrines and followings similar to that of Unitarian Universalists.

Buddhist virtues

Buddhist practice as outlined in the Noble Eightfold Path can be regarded as a progressive list of virtues.

  1. Right Viewpoint - Realizing the Four Noble Truths (samyag-dṛṣṭi, sammā-diṭṭhi)
  2. Right Values - Commitment to mental and ethical growth in moderation (samyak-saṃkalpa, sammā-saṅkappa)
  3. Right Speech - One speaks in a non hurtful, not exaggerated, truthful way (samyag-vāc, sammā-vācā)
  4. Right Actions - Wholesome action, avoiding action that would do harm (samyak-karmānta, sammā-kammanta)
  5. Right Livelihood - One's job does not harm in any way oneself or others; directly or indirectly (samyag-ājīva, sammā-ājīva}
  6. Right Effort - One makes an effort to improve (samyag-vyāyāma, sammā-vāyāma)
  7. Right Mindfulness - Mental ability to see things for what they are with clear consciousness (samyak-smṛti, sammā-sati)
  8. Right Meditation - State where one reaches enlightenment and the ego has disappeared (samyak-samādhi, sammā-samādhi)

Buddhism's four brahmavihara ("Divine States") can be more properly regarded as virtues in the European sense. Background Why the Buddha is said to have taught in this way is illuminated by the social context of the time in which he lived The four Brahmavihāras are a series of virtues and Buddhist meditation practices designed to cultivate those virtues The are:

  1. Metta/Maitri: loving-kindness towards all; the hope that a person will be well; loving kindness is "the wish that all sentient beings, without any exception, be happy. Mettā meditation the practice of loving-kindness Mettā signifies Friendship and Non-violence as well as "a strong wish for the happiness of others" "[1]
  2. Karuna: compassion; the hope that a person's sufferings will diminish; compassion is the "wish for all sentient beings to be free from suffering. Karuṇā ( Sanskrit; Pāli) is generally translated as " Compassion " or "pity "[2]
  3. Mudita: altruistic joy in the accomplishments of a person, oneself or other; sympathetic joy, "is the wholesome attitude of rejoicing in the happiness and virtues of all sentient beings. Mudita is a Buddhist ( Pali and Sanskrit) word meaning rejoicing in others' good fortune "[3]
  4. Upekkha/Upeksha: equanimity, or learning to accept both loss and gain, praise and blame, success and failure with detachment, equally, for oneself and for others; equanimity means "not to distinguish between friend, enemy or stranger, but regard every sentient being as equal. Upekṣā ( Sanskrit / Devanāgarī script: उपेक्षा Pali: Upekkhā) is the Buddhist concept of Equanimity. It is a clear-minded tranquil state of mind - not being overpowered by delusions, mental dullness or agitation. "[4]

There are also the Paramitas ("perfections"). Theravada Buddhism Theravada Buddhism 's teachings on the paramitas can be found in late canonical books and post-canonical commentaries

In Theravada Buddhism's canonical Buddhavamsa[5] the Ten Perfections (dasa pāramiyo) are (original terms in Pali):

  1. Dāna parami : generosity, giving of oneself
  2. Sīla parami : virtue, morality, proper conduct
  3. Nekkhamma parami : renunciation
  4. Paññā parami : transcendental wisdom, insight
  5. Viriya (also spelt vīriya) parami : energy, diligence, vigour, effort
  6. Khanti parami : patience, tolerance, forbearance, acceptance, endurance
  7. Sacca parami : truthfulness, honesty
  8. Adhiṭṭhāna (adhitthana) parami : determination, resolution
  9. Mettā parami : loving-kindness
  10. Upekkhā (also spelt upekhā) parami : equanimity, serenity

In Mahayana Buddhism, the Lotus Sutra (Saddharmapundarika), lists the Six Perfections as (original terms in Sanskrit):

  1. Dāna paramita: generosity, giving of oneself (in Chinese, 布施波羅蜜)
  2. Śīla paramita : virtue, morality, discipline, proper conduct (持戒波羅蜜)
  3. Kṣānti (kshanti) paramita : patience, tolerance, forbearance, acceptance, endurance (忍辱波羅蜜)
  4. Vīrya paramita : energy, diligence, vigour, effort (精進波羅蜜)
  5. Dhyāna paramita : one-pointed concentration, contemplation (禪定波羅蜜)
  6. Prajñā paramita : wisdom, insight (智慧波羅蜜)

In the Ten Stages (Dasabhumika) Sutra, four more Paramitas are listed:

7. History Origin of the school The Theravāda school is ultimately derived from the Vibhajjavāda (or 'doctrine of analysis' grouping which was a continuation Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices The Buddhavamsa (-vaṃsa abbrev Bv is a Buddhist scripture part of the Pali Canon of Theravada Buddhism. Bodhisattva and the Art of Giving The quality of giving is one of the virtues perfected over numerous lifetimes by Shakyamuni Buddha in his Bodhisattva Nekkhamma is a Pali word generally translated as "renunciation" while also conveying more specifically "giving up the world and leading a holy life" In the Pali Canon In the Pali Canon, paññā is defined in a variety of overlapping ways frequently centering on concentrated insight See also Bodhipakkhiya dhamma (Qualities conducive to Enlightenment Four Right Exertions Five Faculties Kshanti or kṣanti ( Skt) or khanti ( Pali) has been translated as patience forbearance and forgiveness Sacca is a Pāli word meaning "real" or "true" In early Buddhist literature sacca is often found in the context of the " Pali Canon texts While adhiṭṭhāna appears sporadically in the early Pali Canon, various late-canonical and post-canonical accounts of the Buddha Mettā meditation the practice of loving-kindness Mettā signifies Friendship and Non-violence as well as "a strong wish for the happiness of others" Upekṣā ( Sanskrit / Devanāgarī script: उपेक्षा Pali: Upekkhā) is the Buddhist concept of Equanimity. Mahayana ( Sanskrit: mahāyāna, Devanagari: महायान 'Great Vehicle' is one of the two main existing schools of Buddhism and a term for The Lotus Sutra or Sutra on the White Lotus of the Sublime Dharma (Sanskrit sa सद्धर्मपुण्डरीकसूत्र Saddharma Bodhisattva and the Art of Giving The quality of giving is one of the virtues perfected over numerous lifetimes by Shakyamuni Buddha in his Bodhisattva Kshanti or kṣanti ( Skt) or khanti ( Pali) has been translated as patience forbearance and forgiveness See also Bodhipakkhiya dhamma (Qualities conducive to Enlightenment Four Right Exertions Five Faculties Dhyāna in Hinduism See also Dhyana in Hinduism In Hinduism dhyana is considered to be an instrument to gain self knowledge separating maya from In the Pali Canon In the Pali Canon, paññā is defined in a variety of overlapping ways frequently centering on concentrated insight Upāya paramita: skillful means
8. Upaya ( Sanskrit: उपाय "Expedient Means" is a term in Mahayana Buddhism which comes from the word upa√i and refers to something Praṇidhāna (pranidhana) paramita: vow, resolution, aspiration, determination
9. Bala paramita: spiritual power
10. Translation Pañca (Sanskrit Pali means "five" Bala (Sanskrit Pali means "power" "strength" "force Jñāna paramita: knowledge

Virtue in Chinese philosophy

"Virtue", translated from Chinese de (德), is also an important concept in Chinese philosophy, particularly Daoism. Jñāna (also spelled Gñāna; Devanagari ज्ञान is the Sanskrit term for Knowledge or Philosophy. De ( is a key concept in Chinese philosophy, usually translated "inherent character inner power integrity" in Taoism, "moral character virtue morality" Chinese philosophy is Philosophy written in the Chinese tradition of thought Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions De (Chinese: 德; pinyin: dé; Wade-Giles: te) originally meant normative "virtue" in the sense of "personal character; inner strength; integrity", but semantically changed to moral "virtue; kindness; morality". Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use Wade-Giles (ˌweɪdˈʤaɪlz) sometimes abbreviated Wade, is a Romanization system (phonetic notation and Transcription) for the Mandarin Note the semantic parallel for English virtue, with an archaic meaning of "inner potency; divine power" (as in "by virtue of") and a modern one of "moral excellence; goodness".

Confucian moral manifestations of "virtue" include ren ("humanity"), xiao ("filial piety"), and zhong ("loyalty") In Confucianism the notion of ren according to Simon Leys means "humanity" and "goodness". Confucianism ( is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of the fifth century B Human nature is the concept that there are a set of logical characteristics including ways of thinking feeling and acting that all 'normal' human beings have in common In Confucian thought filial piety ( is one of the Virtues to be cultivated a love and respect for one's parents and ancestors This page is about loyalty as faithfulness to a cause For its use in business see Loyalty business model or Loyalty Marketing. Confucianism ( is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of the fifth century B Confucianism ( is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of the fifth century B Originally ren had the archaic meaning in the Confucian Book of Poems of "virility", then progressively took on shades of ethical meaning. Confucianism ( is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of the fifth century B (On the origins and transformations of this concept see Lin Yu-sheng: "The evolution of the pre-Confucian meaning of jen and the Confucian concept of moral autonomy," Monumenta Serica, vol31, 1974-75. )

The Daoist concept of De, however, is more subtle, pertaining to the "virtue" or ability that an individual realizes by following the Dao ("the Way"). Tao ( 道, Pinyin Dào) is a metaphysical concept found in Taoism, Confucianism, and more generally in ancient Chinese philosophy One important normative value in much of Chinese thinking is that one's social status should result from the amount of virtue that one demonstrates rather than from one's birth. In the Analects, Confucius explains de: "He who exercises government by means of his virtue may be compared to the north polar star, which keeps its place and all the stars turn towards it. The Analects ( also known as the Analects of Confucius, are a record of the words and acts of the central Chinese thinker and philosopher Confucius ( lit " Master Kung " September 28, 551 BC - 479 BC) was a Chinese thinker and social philosopher " (2/1, tr. James Legge)[1]

Chinese Martial Morality

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Samurai values

In Hagakure, the quintessential book of the samurai, Yamamoto Tsunetomo encapsulates his views on 'virtue' in the four vows he makes daily:

  1. Never to be outdone in the way of the samurai or Bushidō
  2. To be of good use to the master. Life James Legge was born at Huntly, Aberdeenshire, and educated at Aberdeen Grammar School and then Kings College Aberdeen. Humility, or being humble, is the defining characteristic of an unpretentious and modest person someone who does not think that he or she is better or more important This page is about loyalty as faithfulness to a cause For its use in business see Loyalty business model or Loyalty Marketing. Respect is esteem for or a sense of the worth or excellence of a person a personal quality or ability or something considered as a manifestation of a personal quality or ability Righteousness in this article refers to the important theological concept in Christianity, Islam, and Judaism. Gallantry redirects here Or see Gallant for other meanings Courage, also known as bravery, will, intrepidity Endurance (also called sufferance) is the ability for humans to exert themselves through aerobic or Anaerobic exercise for relatively long periods of time Patience (ˈpā-shənz is the state of endurance under difficult circumstances This article is about the radio and television stations For other uses see Will. Hagakure ( Kyūjitai:; Shinjitai:; meaning In the Shadow of Leaves) or is a practical and spiritual guide for a warrior drawn from a collection is the term for the military nobility of Pre-industrial Japan.
  3. To be filial to my parents.
  4. To manifest great compassion, and act for the sake of Man.

Tsunetomo goes on to say:

If one dedicates these four vows to the gods and Buddhas every morning, he will have the strength of two men and never slip backward. One must edge forward like the inchworm, bit by bit. The gods and Buddhas, too, first started with a vow.

Nietzsche on Virtue

Philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche often took a more cynical view on virtue. Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (October 15 1844 August 25 1900 ( was a nineteenth-century German philosopher and classical philologist A few of his key thoughts:

Virtue and vice

The opposite of a virtue is a vice. Beyond Good and Evil (German Jenseits von Gut und Böse) subtitled "Prelude to a Philosophy of the Future" ( Vorspiel einer Philosophie der Zukunft The software program VICE (all caps standing for V ersat' I' le C ommodore E mulator, is an Emulator for Commodore One way of organizing the vices is as the corruption of the virtues. Thus the cardinal vices would be folly, venality, cowardice and lust. In Architecture, a folly is a Building constructed strictly as a decoration having none of the usual purposes of housing or sheltering associated with a conventional Venality is a Vice associated with being for sale especially when one should act justly instead Coward redirects here For other meanings including as a surname see Coward (disambiguation. Literature In Dante's Inferno, the first Canticle of the Divine Comedy, the lustful are punished by being continuously The Christian theological vices would be blasphemy, despair, and hatred. Blasphemy is the disrespectful use of the name of one or more gods.

However, as Aristotle noted, the virtues can have several opposites. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Virtues can be considered the mean between two extremes, as the Latin maxim dictates in medio stat virtus - in the centre lies virtue. For instance, both cowardice and rashness are opposites of courage; contrary to prudence are both over-caution and insufficient caution. A more "modern" virtue, tolerance, can be considered the mean between the two extremes of narrow-mindedness on the one hand and soft-headedness on the other. Vices can therefore be identified as the opposites of virtues, but with the caveat that each virtue could have many different opposites, all distinct from each other.

Capital vices

The seven capital vices or seven deadly sins suggest a classification of vices and were enumerated by Thomas Aquinas in the 13th century. The seven deadly sins, also known as the capital vices or cardinal sins, are a classification of Vices that were originally used in early Christian The Catechism of the Catholic Church mentions them as "capital sins which Christian experience has distinguished, following St. John Cassian and St. Gregory the Great. "[1] "Capital" here means that these sins stand at the head (Latin caput) of the other sins which proceed from them, e. g. , theft proceeding from avarice and adultery from lust.

These vices are pride, envy, avarice, anger, lust, gluttony, and sloth. Pride is a lofty view of one's self or one's own Pride often manifests itself as a high opinion of one's Nation (national pride Ethnicity (ethnic pride or appearance Envy (also called invidiousness) may be defined as an Emotion that "occurs when a person lacks another’s superior quality achievement or possession and Greed is the Selfish desire for or pursuit of Money, Wealth, power, Food, or other Possessions, especially when this denies Anger is an emotional state that may range from minor irritation to intense rage Literature In Dante's Inferno, the first Canticle of the Divine Comedy, the lustful are punished by being continuously Derived from the Latin gluttire, meaning to gulp down or swallow gluttony is the over-indulgence and Over-consumption of food drink or intoxicants The living sloths comprise six Species of medium-sized Mammals that live in Central and South America belonging to the families The opposite of these vices are the following virtues: meekness, humility, generosity, tolerance, chastity, moderation, and zeal (meaning enthusiastic devotion to a good cause or an ideal). The seven virtues are a set of seven cardinal virtues recognized in Christian Philosophy, especially Virtue ethics, and Theology. Humility, or being humble, is the defining characteristic of an unpretentious and modest person someone who does not think that he or she is better or more important Generosity is the habit of giving without coercion. Often equated with charity as a Virtue, generosity is widely accepted in society Chastity is Sexual behavior of a man or woman acceptable to the ethical norms and guidelines of a culture civilization or Religion. Moderation is the process of eliminating or lessening extremes These virtues are not exactly equivalent to the Seven Cardinal or Theological Virtues mentioned above. Instead these capital vices and virtues can be considered the "building blocks" that rule human behaviour. Both are acquired and reinforced by practice and the exercise of one induces or facilitates the others.

Ranked in order of severity as per Dante's Divine Comedy (in the Purgatorio), the seven deadly vices are:

  1. Pride or Vanity — an excessive love of self (holding self out of proper position toward God or fellows; Dante's definition was "love of self perverted to hatred and contempt for one's neighbor"). The Divine Comedy Pride is a lofty view of one's self or one's own Pride often manifests itself as a high opinion of one's Nation (national pride Ethnicity (ethnic pride or appearance In the Latin lists of the Seven Deadly Sins, pride is referred to as superbia. The seven deadly sins, also known as the capital vices or cardinal sins, are a classification of Vices that were originally used in early Christian
  2. Avarice (covetousness, Greed) — a desire to possess more than one has need or use for (or, according to Dante, "excessive love of money and power"). Greed is the Selfish desire for or pursuit of Money, Wealth, power, Food, or other Possessions, especially when this denies Greed is the Selfish desire for or pursuit of Money, Wealth, power, Food, or other Possessions, especially when this denies In the Latin lists of the Seven Deadly Sins, avarice is referred to as avaritia.
  3. Lust — excessive sexual desire. Literature In Dante's Inferno, the first Canticle of the Divine Comedy, the lustful are punished by being continuously Dante's criterion was "lust detracts from true love". In the Latin lists of the Seven Deadly Sins, lust is referred to as luxuria.
  4. Wrath or Anger — feelings of hatred, revenge or even denial, as well as punitive desires outside of justice (Dante's description was "love of justice perverted to revenge and spite"). Anger is an emotional state that may range from minor irritation to intense rage Anger is an emotional state that may range from minor irritation to intense rage In the Latin lists of the Seven Deadly Sins, wrath is referred to as ira.
  5. Gluttony — overindulgence in food, drink or intoxicants, or misplaced desire of food as a pleasure for its sensuality ("excessive love of pleasure" was Dante's rendering). Derived from the Latin gluttire, meaning to gulp down or swallow gluttony is the over-indulgence and Over-consumption of food drink or intoxicants In the Latin lists of the Seven Deadly Sins, gluttony is referred to as gula.
  6. Envy or jealousy; resentment of others for their possessions (Dante: "Love of one's own good perverted to a desire to deprive other men of theirs"). Envy (also called invidiousness) may be defined as an Emotion that "occurs when a person lacks another’s superior quality achievement or possession and In the Latin lists of the Seven Deadly Sins, envy is referred to as invidia.
  7. Sloth or Laziness; idleness and wastefulness of time allotted. The living sloths comprise six Species of medium-sized Mammals that live in Central and South America belonging to the families Laziness (also called indolence) is the lack of desire to perform work or expend effort Laziness is condemned because others have to work harder and useful work can not get done. (also accidie, acedia)

Several of these vices interlink, and various attempts at causal hierarchy have been made. For example, pride (love of self out of proportion) is implied in gluttony (the over-consumption or waste of food), as well as sloth, envy, and most of the others. Each sin is a particular way of failing to love God with all one's resources and to love fellows as much as self. The Scholastic theologians developed schema of attribute and substance of will to explain these sins.

The 4th century Egyptian monk Evagrius Ponticus defined the sins as deadly "passions," and in Eastern Orthodoxy, still these impulses are characterized as being "Deadly Passions" rather than sins. Instead, the sins are considered to invite or entertain these passions. In the official Catechism of the Catholic Church published in 1992 by Pope John Paul II, these seven vices are considered moral transgression for Christians and the virtues should complement the Ten Commandments and the Beatitudes as the basis for any true Morality. The Catechism of the Catholic Church, or CCC, is an official exposition of the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church and the twenty-two Pope

Virtue in modern psychology

Martin Seligman, Christopher Peterson, and other researchers involved in the positive psychology movement, recognizing the deficiency inherent in psychology's tendency to focus on dysfunction rather than on what makes a healthy and stable personality, set out to develop a list of "Character Strengths and Virtues"[6]

Martin EP Seligman ( Albany New York, 12 August 1942) is an American Psychologist and Writer. Christopher Peterson, is a Psychology professor at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, Michigan and is the chair of clinical psychology Positive psychology is a recent branch of Psychology that "studies the strengths and Virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and The Character Strengths and Virtues (CSV handbook of human strengths and virtues, by the Values in Action Institute, represents the first attempt on the part of the

Dictionary

virtue

-noun

  1. (uncountable) excellence in morals
  2. (countable) A good habit
  3. (countable) a good model quality
  4. (uncountable) chastity and faithfulness
  5. (countable) an exemplary quality
  6. (Christian angelology, biblical tradition) the second level of angels, ranked above angels and below archangels
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