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Vedas Rigveda · Yajurveda · Samaveda · Atharvaveda Divisions Samhita · Brahmana · Aranyaka · Upanishad

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Vedanga Shiksha · Chandas · Vyakarana · Nirukta · Jyotisha · Kalpa

Mahakavya (epics) Mahabharata · Ramayana

Other scriptures Smriti · Śruti · Bhagavad Gita · Purana · Agama · Darshana · Pancharatra · Tantra · Sutra · Stotra · Dharmashastra · Divya Prabandha · Tevaram · Ramacharitamanas · Shikshapatri · Vachanamrut · Ananda Sutram

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"Veda" redirects here. Literature regarded as central to the Hindu literary tradition was predominantly composed in Sanskrit, Indeed much of the morphology and linguistic The Rigveda ( Sanskrit sa ऋग्वेद ṛgveda, a compound of ṛc "praise verse" and veda "knowledge" The Yajurveda ( Sanskrit यजुर्वेदः, a Tatpurusha compound of yajus "sacrificial formula' + veda The Samaveda ( Sanskrit: सामवेद sāmaveda, from sāman "melody" + veda "knowledge") is third (in the usual The Atharvaveda ( Sanskrit: अथर्ववेद atharvaveda, a Tatpurusha compound of {{IAST|atharvan}}, an ancient Rishi The oral tradition of the Vedas ( Śrauta) consists of several pathas, "recitations" or ways of chanting the Vedic Mantras Such traditions The Brāhmaṇa s ( Devanagari: sa ब्राह्मणं are part of the Hindu śruti literature The Aranyakas (Sanskrit आरण्यक āraṇyaka) are part of the Hindu śruti, the four Vedas these religious texts were composed in The Upanishads ( Devanagari: उपनिषद् IAST: upaniṣad also spelled "Upanisad" are Hindu scriptures that constitute the core teachings The Upanishads ( Devanagari: उपनिषद् IAST: upaniṣad also spelled "Upanisad" are Hindu scriptures that constitute the core teachings The Aitareya Upanishad is one of the older "primary" Upanishads commented upon by Shankara. The Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upanishad ( Sanskrit: बृहदारण्यक उपनिषद् is one of the older "primary" ( Mukhya The Isha Upanishad ( īśa upaniṣad, otherwise Ishopanishad īśopaniṣad or īśāvāsya upaniṣad) is one of the shortest of the Upanishads The Taittiriya Upanishad is one of the older " primary " Upanishads commented upon by Shankara. The Chandogya Upanishad is one of the "primary" ( Mukhya) Upanishads Together with the Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana and the Brihadaranyaka The Kena Upanishad (kenopaniṣad is one of the older "primary" Upanishads commented upon by Shankara. The Muṇḍaka Upanishad is one of the older "primary" ( Mukhya) Upanishads commented upon by Shankara. Māndūkya Upanishad is the shortest Upanishads - the scriptures of Hindu Vedanta. The Kaṭha Upanishad is one of the older Mukhya "primary" Upanishads commented upon by Shankara. Prashna Upanishad ( IAST praṣnopaniṣad is one of the older "primary" Upanishads commented upon by Shankara. The Shvetashvatara Upanishad (Sanskrit Śvetāśvatara) (400 - 200 BCE is one of the older "primary" Upanishads It is associated with the Black The Vedanga ( vedāṅga, "member of the Veda" are six auxiliary disciplines for the understanding and tradition of the Vedas. See Shiksha (NGO for the Indian non-governmental organization The main principle of Vedic meter is measurement by the number of syllables The Sanskrit grammatical tradition of vyākaraṇa is one of the six Vedanga disciplines Nirukta ("explanation etymological interpretation" is one of the six {{IAST|Vedānga}} disciplines of Hinduism, treating Etymology, particularly Jyotiṣa ( Sanskrit jyotiṣa, from jyótis- "light heavenly body" also spelled Jyotish and Jyotisha in English Kalpa is one of the six disciplines of Vedanga, treating Ritual. Indian epic poetry is the Epic poetry written in the Indian subcontinent. The Rāmāyaṇa ( Devanāgarī: sa रामायण is an ancient Sanskrit epic attributed to the Hindu sage ( Maharishi) Valmiki The following is a bibliography of Hindu scriptures and texts. Smriti (Sanskrit स्मृति " that which is remembered " refers to a specific body of Hindu religious Scripture If you are looking for the singer see Shruti Haasan. For other meanings see Śruti (disambiguation. For other meanings see Purana (disambiguation. The Puranas ( Sanskrit: sa पुराण purāṇa, "of ancient times" Darśana ( Darshan, दर्शन is a Sanskrit term meaning "sight" (in the sense of an instance of seeing or beholding from a root Pāñcarātra are Vaishnavite devotional texts dedicated to a single deity Sriman Narayana who manifests in different forms Tantras (" Looms " or " Weavings " refers to numerous and varied scriptures pertaining to any of several esoteric traditions In Hinduism a Stotra is a hymn of praise These hymns praise aspects of the divine such as Devi, Siva, or Vishnu. Dharmaśāstra is a genre of Sanskrit texts and refers to the śāstra, or Indic branch of learning pertaining to Hindu Dharma, religious The Nalayira Divya Prabandha (or Nalayira Divya Prabhandham) is a collection of 4000 verses (Naalayira in Tamil means 'four thousand' composed before 8th century The Tevaram ( Tamil: தேவாரம் Teva means "God" aram means "garland") denotes the first seven volumes of the Śrī Rāmacaritamānas ( Devanāgarī: hi श्री राम चरित मानस ( Hindi / Avadhi) is an Epic poem composed by the The Shikshapatri ( Devanagari: शिक्षापत्री is a text of two hundred and twelve verses written in Sanskrit by Bhagwan Swaminarayan The Vachanamrut of Bhagwan Swaminarayan is the most sacred and foundational scripture of the Swaminarayan faith. Ananda Sutram is the basic scripture of modern Yoga composed in Sanskrit by Shrii Shrii Anandamurti (1921-1990 in the year 1961 For other uses, see Veda (disambiguation).

The Vedas (Sanskrit वेद, véda, "knowledge") are a large corpus of texts originating in Ancient India. Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical This article is about the history of South Asia prior to the Partition of British India in 1947 They form the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature^[1] and the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism. Literature in Sanskrit begins with the Vedas, and continues with the Sanskrit Epics of Iron Age India; the golden age of Classical Literature regarded as central to the Hindu literary tradition was predominantly composed in Sanskrit, Indeed much of the morphology and linguistic Hinduism is a religious tradition that originated in the Indian subcontinent. ^[2]

According to Hindu tradition, the Vedas are apauruṣeya "not of human agency"^[3], being supposed to have been directly revealed, and thus are called śruti ("what is heard"). If you are looking for the singer see Shruti Haasan. For other meanings see Śruti (disambiguation. ^[4][5]. Vedic mantras are recited at Hindu prayers, religious functions and other auspicious occasions. A mantra ( Devanāgarī मन्त्र (or mantram is a religious or mystical syllable or poem typically from the Sanskrit language

The class of "Vedic texts" is aggregated around the four (turīya) canonical Saṃhitās or Vedas proper, of which three (traya) are related to the performance of yajna (sacrifice) in historical (Iron Age) Vedic religion:

1. the Rigveda, containing hymns to be recited by the hotṛ or chief priest;
2. the Yajurveda, containing formulas to be recited by the adhvaryu or officiating priest;
3. the Samaveda, containing formulas to be sung by the udgātṛ or chanting priest. In Hinduism, Yajna ( Devanagari यज्ञ IAST yajña; also anglicized as Yagna, Yagya or Yadnya Sacrifice (from a Middle English verb meaning "to make sacred" from Old French, from Latin sacrificium: sacr, "sacred" The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent succeeds the Late Harappan (Cemetery H culture also known as the last phase of the Indus Valley Tradition This article discusses the historical religious practices in the Vedic time period see Hinduism and Indian religions for details The Rigveda ( Sanskrit sa ऋग्वेद ṛgveda, a compound of ṛc "praise verse" and veda "knowledge" Priests of the Vedic religion were officiants of the ''yajna'' service The Yajurveda ( Sanskrit यजुर्वेदः, a Tatpurusha compound of yajus "sacrificial formula' + veda Priests of the Vedic religion were officiants of the ''yajna'' service The Samaveda ( Sanskrit: सामवेद sāmaveda, from sāman "melody" + veda "knowledge") is third (in the usual Priests of the Vedic religion were officiants of the ''yajna'' service

The fourth is the Atharvaveda, a collection of magical spells and healing or apotropaic charms and some speculative hymns. The Atharvaveda ( Sanskrit: अथर्ववेद atharvaveda, a Tatpurusha compound of {{IAST|atharvan}}, an ancient Rishi In Anthropology, Psychology, and Cognitive science, magical thinking is nonscientific causal reasoning that often includes such ideas as the ability of Healing, assessed physically is the process by which the cells in the Body regenerate and repair to reduce the size of a damaged or necrotic area .

Philosophies and sects that developed in the Indian subcontinent have taken differing positions on the Vedas. Hindu philosophy is divided into six Sanskrit ''{{IAST|āstika}}'') schools of thought or darshanas (literally "views" Sankhya Hinduism comprises numerous Sects or denominations The main divisions in current Hinduism are Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism Schools of Indian philosophy which cite the Vedas as their scriptural authority are classified as "orthodox" (āstika). Other traditions, notably Buddhism and Jainism, though they are (like the vedanta) similarly concerned with liberation did not regard the Vedas as divine ordinances but rather human expositions of the sphere of higher spiritual knowledge, hence not sacrosanct. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma / Shraman Dharma (जैन धर्म is an ancient religion of India. Vedanta ( Devanagari: sa वेदान्त Vedānta) is a spiritual tradition explained in the Upanishads that is concerned with the Self-realisation In Indian religions, Moksha ( Sanskrit: sa मोक्ष mokṣa) or Mukti ( Sanskrit: sa मुक्ति literally "release" These groups are referred to as "heterodox" or "non-orthodox" (nāstika) schools. ^[6] In addition to Buddhism and Jainism, Sikhism also does not accept the authority of the Vedas. Sikhism ( IPA: or; ਸਿੱਖੀ sikkhī, IPA:) founded on the teachings of Nanak and nine successive gurus in fifteenth century ^{[7] [8]}

Contents 1 Etymology and usage 2 Dating 3 Categories of Vedic texts 3.1 Vedic Sanskrit corpus 3.2 Shruti literature 4 Vedic schools or recensions 5 The Four Vedas 5.1 Rigveda 5.2 Yajurveda 5.3 Samaveda 5.4 Atharvaveda 6 Brahmanas 7 Vedanta 8 The Vedas in post-Vedic literature 8.1 Vedanga 8.2 Puranas 8.3 Other "Vedas" 9 Notes 10 References 11 Literature 12 See also 13 External links

Etymology and usage

The Sanskrit word véda "knowledge, wisdom" is derived from the root vid- "to know". Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical This is reconstructed as being derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *u̯eid-, meaning "see" or "know". ^[9]

As a noun, the word appears only in a single instance in the Rigveda, in RV 8. The eighth Mandala of the Rigveda has 103 hymns Other than the "family books" (Mandalas 2-7 dated as an old part of the RV and RV 1 and 19. 5, translated by Griffith as "ritual lore":

yáḥ samídhā yá âhutī / yó védena dadâśa márto agnáye / yó námasā svadhvaráḥ

"The mortal who hath ministered to Agni with oblation, fuel, ritual lore, and reverence, skilled in sacrifice. "

Geldner's translation of the same passage has Wissen "knowledge". ^[10]

The noun is from Proto-Indo-European *u̯eidos, cognate to Greek (ϝ)εἶδος "aspect", "form". Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Not to be confused is the homonymous 1st and 3rd person singular perfect tense véda, cognate to Greek (ϝ)οἶδα (w)oida "I know". Root cognate are Greek ἰδέα, English wit, witness, wisdom, vision (the last from the Latin video, videre), German wissen ("to know", "knowledge"), Norwegian viten (knowledge), Swedish veta ("to know"), Polish wiedza ("knowledge"), Latin video ("I see"), Czech vím ("I know") or vidím ("I see"), and Dutch weten ("to know"). An idea is a form (such as a Thought) formed by Consciousness (including Mind) through the Process of ideation. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Wit is a form of intellectual Humour. A wit (person is someone skilled in making witty remarks A witness is someone who has firsthand knowledge about a Crime or dramatic event through their Senses (e Wisdom is a concept of personal gaining of Knowledge, Understanding, Experience, discretion and intuitive understanding, along with a capacity VisiCorp 's VisiOn was a short-lived but influential Graphical user interface -based Operating environment program for IBM PC compatible The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. Norwegian ( norsk) is a North Germanic Language spoken primarily in Norway, where it is an official language Swedish ( is a North Germanic language spoken by more than nine million people predominantly in Sweden and parts of Finland, especially along the Polish ( język polski, polszczyzna) is the Official language of Poland. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Video is the technology of electronically capturing, Recording, processing storing transmitting and reconstructing a sequence of Still images Czech (ˈʧɛk čeština ˈʧɛʃcɪna in Czech is a West Slavic language with about 12 million native speakers it is the majority language in the Dutch ( is a West Germanic language spoken by around 24 million people 22 million of which are from the Netherlands, Belgium and Suriname ^[11]

In English, the term Veda is mostly used to refer to the Samhitas (collection of mantras, or chants) of the four canonical Vedas (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda). A mantra ( Devanāgarī मन्त्र (or mantram is a religious or mystical syllable or poem typically from the Sanskrit language The adjective Vedic on the other hand has wide currency, and depending on whether the context is academic (Indological or Philological) or religious (contemporary Hinduism) may refer either to the corpus of Vedic Sanskrit texts or to Hindu tradition in general. Indology refers to the academic study of the languages texts History and Cultures of the Indian subcontinent, and as such a subset of Asian studies See Comparative linguistics for the narrower field of "comparative philology" Hinduism is a religious tradition that originated in the Indian subcontinent. Vedic Sanskrit is an ancient Indian language, the language of the Vedas, the oldest Shruti texts of Hinduism.

The Sanskrit term veda its primary meaning, as a common noun meaning "knowledge"", can also be used to refer to fields of study unrelated to liturgy or ritual, freely compounded e. g. in agada-veda "medical science", sasya-veda "science of agriculture" or sarpa-veda "science of snakes" (already found in the early Upanishads); durveda means "without knowledge, ignorant".

Dating

Main article: Vedic period

The Vedas are arguably the oldest sacred texts that are still used. The Vedic Period (or Vedic Age) is the period in the History of India during which the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism, were being The History of literature begins with the History of writing, in Bronze Age Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, although the oldest literary Most Indologists agree that an oral tradition existed long before a literary tradition gradually sets in from about the 2nd century BCE. Indology refers to the academic study of the languages texts History and Cultures of the Indian subcontinent, and as such a subset of Asian studies Oral tradition, oral culture and oral lore is a way for a society to transmit history, literature, law and other Knowledges ^[12] Due to the ephemeral nature of the manuscript material (birch bark or palm leaves), surviving manuscripts rarely surpass an age of a few hundred years. The oldest surviving manuscripts of the Rigveda are dated to the 11th century CE. . The Benares Sanskrit University has a manuscript of the mid-14th century.

The Vedic period lasts for about a millennium, spanning the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age. The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent succeeds the Late Harappan (Cemetery H culture also known as the last phase of the Indus Valley Tradition Gavin Flood^[13] sums up mainstream estimates, according to which the Rigveda was compiled from as early as 1500 BCE over a period of several centuries. The Vedic period reaches its peak only after the composition of the mantra texts, with the establishment of the various shakhas all over Northern India which annotated the mantra samhitas with Brahmana discussions of their meaning, and reaches its end in the age of Buddha and Panini and the rise of the Mahajanapadas (archaeologically, Northern Black Polished Ware). A shakha ( Sanskrit IAST śākhā, literally "branch" or "limb" is a Hindu theological school that specializes in learning The Brāhmaṇa s ( Devanagari: sa ब्राह्मणं are part of the Hindu śruti literature Siddhārtha Gautama ( Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual Teacher from Ancient India and the founder Pāṇini ( IAST: Pāṇini Dēvanāgarī: sa पाणिनि a Patronymic meaning "descendant of {{IAST|Paṇi}} " was an ancient Mahajanapadas ( Sanskrit: महाजनपद Mahājanapadas) literally "Great Kingdoms" (from Maha, "great" and Janapada The Northern Black Polished Ware culture (NBPW/NBP of the South Asia (ca Michael Witzel gives a time span of c. 1500 BCE to c. 500-400 BCE. Witzel makes special reference to the Mitanni material of ca. Some theonyms proper names and other terminology of the Mitanni exhibit an Indo-Aryan Superstrate, suggesting that an Indo-Aryan 1400 BCE as the only epigraphic record of Indo-Aryan that may date to the Rigvedic period. However Mitanni Indo-Aryan is linguistically slightly older than the language of the Rigveda, and the comparison thus still does not allow for an absolute dating of any Vedic text. He gives 150 BCE (Patanjali) as a terminus ante quem for all Vedic Sanskrit literature, and 1200 BCE (the early Iron Age) as terminus post quem for the Atharvaveda. Patañjali ( Devanāgarī पतञ्जलि (fl 150 BCE or 2nd c The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent succeeds the Late Harappan (Cemetery H culture also known as the last phase of the Indus Valley Tradition ^[14]

Categories of Vedic texts

The term "Vedic texts" is used in two distinct meanings:

1. texts composed in Vedic Sanskrit during the Vedic period (Iron Age India)
2. any text considered as "connected to the Vedas" or a "corollary of the Vedas"^[15]

Vedic Sanskrit corpus

The corpus of Vedic Sanskrit texts includes:

• The Samhita (Sanskrit saṃhitā, "collection"), are collections of metric texts ("mantras"). Vedic Sanskrit is an ancient Indian language, the language of the Vedas, the oldest Shruti texts of Hinduism. The Vedic Period (or Vedic Age) is the period in the History of India during which the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism, were being The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent succeeds the Late Harappan (Cemetery H culture also known as the last phase of the Indus Valley Tradition Vedic Sanskrit is an ancient Indian language, the language of the Vedas, the oldest Shruti texts of Hinduism. A mantra ( Devanāgarī मन्त्र (or mantram is a religious or mystical syllable or poem typically from the Sanskrit language There are four "Vedic" Samhitas: the Rig-Veda, Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Atharva-Veda, most of which are available in several recensions (śākhā). The Rigveda ( Sanskrit sa ऋग्वेद ṛgveda, a compound of ṛc "praise verse" and veda "knowledge" The Samaveda ( Sanskrit: सामवेद sāmaveda, from sāman "melody" + veda "knowledge") is third (in the usual The Yajurveda ( Sanskrit यजुर्वेदः, a Tatpurusha compound of yajus "sacrificial formula' + veda The Atharvaveda ( Sanskrit: अथर्ववेद atharvaveda, a Tatpurusha compound of {{IAST|atharvan}}, an ancient Rishi In some contexts, the term Veda is used to refer to these Samhitas. This is the oldest layer of Vedic texts, apart from the Rigvedic hymns, which were probably essentially complete by 1200 BC, dating to ca. the 12th to 10th centuries BC. The complete corpus of Vedic mantras as collected in Bloomfield's Vedic Concordance (1907) consists of some 89,000 padas (metric feet), of which 72,000 occur in the four Samhitas. Maurice Bloomfield Ph D LLD ( February 23 1855 - June 12 1928) was an American philologist and Sanskrit scholar In verse, many meters use a foot as the basic unit in their description of the underlying rhythm of a poem ^[16]
• The Brahmanas are prose texts that discuss, in technical fashion, the solemn sacrificial rituals as well as comment on their meaning and many connected themes. The Brāhmaṇa s ( Devanagari: sa ब्राह्मणं are part of the Hindu śruti literature Each of the Brahmanas is associated with one of the Samhitas or its recensions. The Brahmanas may either form separate texts or can be partly integrated into the text of the Samhitas. They may also include the Aranyakas and Upanishads.
• The Aranyakas, or "wilderness texts", are the concluding part of the Brahmanas that contain discussions and interpretations of dangerous rituals (to be studied outside the settlement) and various sorts of additional materials. The Aranyakas (Sanskrit आरण्यक āraṇyaka) are part of the Hindu śruti, the four Vedas these religious texts were composed in They are not "forest texts" for ascetics, as is frequently read in secondary literature.
• some of the older Mukhya Upanishads (Bṛhadāraṇyaka, Chandogya, Kaṭha). The Muktika canon of 108 Upanishads is headed by 10 Mukhya Upanishads The Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upanishad ( Sanskrit: बृहदारण्यक उपनिषद् is one of the older "primary" ( Mukhya The Chandogya Upanishad is one of the "primary" ( Mukhya) Upanishads Together with the Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana and the Brihadaranyaka The Kaṭha Upanishad is one of the older Mukhya "primary" Upanishads commented upon by Shankara. ^[17][18]
• certain Sutra literature, i. e. the Shrautasutras and the Grhyasutras. Kalpa is one of the six disciplines of Vedanga, treating Ritual. Kalpa is one of the six disciplines of Vedanga, treating Ritual.

The Shrauta Sutras, regarded as belonging to the smriti, are late Vedic in language and content, thus forming part of the Vedic Sanskrit corpus. Kalpa is one of the six disciplines of Vedanga, treating Ritual. ^[19][20] The composition of the Shrauta and Grhya Sutras (ca. 6th century BC) marks the end of the Vedic period , and at the same time the beginning of the flourishing of the "circum-Vedic" scholarship of Vedanga, introducing the early flowering of classical Sanskrit literature in the Mauryan and Gupta periods. The Vedanga ( vedāṅga, "member of the Veda" are six auxiliary disciplines for the understanding and tradition of the Vedas. Literature in Sanskrit begins with the Vedas, and continues with the Sanskrit Epics of Iron Age India; the golden age of Classical The Maurya Empire ( 322 – 185 BCE) ruled by the Mauryan dynasty was a geographically extensive and powerful political and military The Gupta Empire ( Hindi: गुप्त राजवंश was ruled by members of the Gupta dynasty from around 320 to 550 C

While production of Brahmanas and Aranyakas ceases with the end of the Vedic period, there is a large number of Upanishads composed after the end of the Vedic period. While most of the ten mukhya Upanishads can be considered to date to the Vedic or Mahajanapada period, most of the 108 Upanishads of the full Muktika canon date to the Common Era. The Muktika canon of 108 Upanishads is headed by 10 Mukhya Upanishads The Muktikā ("deliverance" see Mukti) Upanishad is the final Upanishad of the Hindu canon of 108 texts of the Advaita

The Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads often interpret the polytheistic and ritualistic Samhitas in philosophical and metaphorical ways to explore abstract concepts such as the Absolute (Brahman), and the soul or the self (Atman), introducing Vedanta philosophy, one of the major trends of later Hinduism. The Brāhmaṇa s ( Devanagari: sa ब्राह्मणं are part of the Hindu śruti literature The Aranyakas (Sanskrit आरण्यक āraṇyaka) are part of the Hindu śruti, the four Vedas these religious texts were composed in The Upanishads ( Devanagari: उपनिषद् IAST: upaniṣad also spelled "Upanisad" are Hindu scriptures that constitute the core teachings Brahman ( bráhman-, Nominative bráhma sa ब्रह्म is a concept of Hinduism. The Ātman ( IAST: Ātman Sanskrit: आत्मन्‍ is a philosophical term used within Hinduism and Vedanta to identify the Soul Vedanta ( Devanagari: sa वेदान्त Vedānta) is a spiritual tradition explained in the Upanishads that is concerned with the Self-realisation Hinduism is a religious tradition that originated in the Indian subcontinent.

The Vedic Sanskrit corpus is the scope of A Vedic Word Concordance (Vaidika-Padānukrama-Koṣa) prepared from 1930 under Vishva Bandhu, and published in five volumes in 1935-1965. A Vedic Word Concordance ( Sanskrit: Vaidika-Padānukrama-Koṣa) is a multi-volume concordance of the corpus of Vedic Sanskrit texts Its scope extends to about 400 texts, including the entire Vedic Sanskrit corpus besides some "sub-Vedic" texts.

Volume I: Samhitas

Volume II: Brahmanas and Aranyakas

Volume III: Upanishads

Volume IV: Vedangas

A revised edition, extending to about 1800 pages, was published in 1973-1976.

Shruti literature

Main article: Shruti

The texts considered "Vedic" in the sense of "corollaries of the Vedas" is less clearly defined, and may include numerous post-Vedic texts such as Upanishads or Sutra literature. If you are looking for the singer see Shruti Haasan. For other meanings see Śruti (disambiguation. The Upanishads ( Devanagari: उपनिषद् IAST: upaniṣad also spelled "Upanisad" are Hindu scriptures that constitute the core teachings

The latter group of texts is called shruti (Sanskrit: śruti; "the heard"). If you are looking for the singer see Shruti Haasan. For other meanings see Śruti (disambiguation. Since post-Vedic times it has been considered to be revealed wisdom, as distinct from other texts, collectively known as smriti (Sanskrit: smṛti; "the remembered"), that is texts that are considered to be of human origin. Smriti (Sanskrit स्मृति " that which is remembered " refers to a specific body of Hindu religious Scripture This indigenous system of categorization was adopted by Max Müller and, while it is subject to some debate, it is still widely used. For the Danish Colonel Max Müller see Second War of Schleswig. As Axel Michaels explains:

These classifications are often not tenable for linguistic and formal reasons: There is not only one collection at any one time, but rather several handed down in separate Vedic schools; Upanişads . . . are sometimes not to be distinguished from Āraṇyakas. . . ; Brāhmaṇas contain older strata of language attributed to the Saṃhitās; there are various dialects and locally prominent traditions of the Vedic schools. Nevertheless, it is advisable to stick to the division adopted by Max Müller because it follows the Indian tradition, conveys the historical sequence fairly accurately, and underlies the current editions, translations, and monographs on Vedic literature. "^[21]

The Upanishads are largely philosophical works in dialog form. The Upanishads ( Devanagari: उपनिषद् IAST: upaniṣad also spelled "Upanisad" are Hindu scriptures that constitute the core teachings They discuss questions of nature philosophy and the fate of the soul, and contain some mystic and spiritual interpretations of the Vedas. For long, they have been regarded as their putative end and essence, and are thus known as Vedānta ("the end of the Vedas"). Taken together, they are the basis of the Vedanta school. Vedanta ( Devanagari: sa वेदान्त Vedānta) is a spiritual tradition explained in the Upanishads that is concerned with the Self-realisation

Other texts such as the Bhagavad Gita or the Vedanta Sutras are considered shruti or "Vedic" by some Hindu denominations but not universally within Hinduism. The Brahma sūtras, also known as Vedānta Sūtras, constitute the Nyāya prasthāna, the logical starting point of the Vedānta philosophy (Nyāya Hinduism comprises numerous Sects or denominations The main divisions in current Hinduism are Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism The Bhakti movement, and Gaudiya Vaishnavism in particular extended the term to include the Sanskrit Epics and Vaishnavite devotional texts such as the Pancaratra. The Bhakti movement was a Hindu religious movement in which the main spiritual practice was loving devotion to God, or Bhakti. Gaudiya Vaishnavism (also known as Chaitanya Vaishnavism) is a Vaishnava religious movement founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486-1534 in India Indian epic poetry is the Epic poetry written in the Indian subcontinent. Pāñcarātra are Vaishnavite devotional texts dedicated to a single deity Sriman Narayana who manifests in different forms ^[22]

Vedic schools or recensions

Main article: Shakha

Study of the extensive body of Vedic texts has been organized into a number of different schools or branches (Sanskrit śākhā, literally "branch" or "limb") each of which specialized in learning certain texts. A shakha ( Sanskrit IAST śākhā, literally "branch" or "limb" is a Hindu theological school that specializes in learning ^[23] Multiple recensions are known for each of the Vedas, and each Vedic text may have a number of schools associated with it. Elaborate methods for preserving the text were based on memorizing by heart instead of writing. Specific techniques for parsing and reciting the texts were used to assist in the memorization process. (See also: patha)

Exegetical literature developed in the Vedic schools but comparatively few early medieval commentaries have survived. The oral tradition of the Vedas ( Śrauta) consists of several pathas, "recitations" or ways of chanting the Vedic Mantras Such traditions Sayana, from the 14th century, is known for his elaborate commentaries on the Vedic texts. Sāyaṇa ( सायण, with honorific Sāyaṇācārya;died 1387 was an important commentator on the Vedas He flourished under King Bukka I It is frequently alleged that all classes (varna) in early Vedic society were allowed to study the Vedas and that there were Vedic sages that authored the Vedas (Rishis) that were women. However, the dharmashastras, from the Sutra age, state that women and Shudras were neither required nor allowed to study the Veda. Dharmaśāstra is a genre of Sanskrit texts and refers to the śāstra, or Indic branch of learning pertaining to Hindu Dharma, religious Shudra ( IAST: Śūdra is the fourth Varna in the traditional four-section division in historic Hindu society These dharmashastras regard the study of the Vedas a religious duty of the three upper varnas (Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas). Dharmaśāstra is a genre of Sanskrit texts and refers to the śāstra, or Indic branch of learning pertaining to Hindu Dharma, religious Varna (sa वर्ण varṇa) is a Sanskrit term derived from the root meaning "to enclose" Kshatriya (क्षत्रिय kṣatriya from क्षत्र kṣatra) is one of the four varnas (social orders in Hinduism The Hindu varna (class System, a Vaishya ( Sanskrit वैश्य vaiśya) is a member of the third of the four classes of traditional

The Four Vedas

The canonical division of the Vedas is fourfold (turīya) viz. ,^[24]

1. Rig-Veda (RV)
2. Yajur-Veda (YV, with the main division TS vs. The Rigveda ( Sanskrit sa ऋग्वेद ṛgveda, a compound of ṛc "praise verse" and veda "knowledge" The Yajurveda ( Sanskrit यजुर्वेदः, a Tatpurusha compound of yajus "sacrificial formula' + veda The Taittiriya Shakha is a notable Shakha ("rescension" of the Black Yajurveda. VS)
3. Sama-Veda (SV)
4. Atharva-Veda (AV)

Of these, the first three were the principal original division, also called trayī, "the triple Vidyā", that is, "the triple sacred science" of reciting hymns (RV), performing sacrifices (YV), and chanting (SV). A shakha ( Sanskrit IAST śākhā, literally "branch" or "limb" is a Hindu theological school that specializes in learning The Samaveda ( Sanskrit: सामवेद sāmaveda, from sāman "melody" + veda "knowledge") is third (in the usual The Atharvaveda ( Sanskrit: अथर्ववेद atharvaveda, a Tatpurusha compound of {{IAST|atharvan}}, an ancient Rishi ^[25][26] This triplicity is so introduced in the Brahmanas (ShB, ABr and others), but the Rigveda is the older work of the three from which the other two borrow, next to their own independent Yajus, sorcery and speculative mantras. The Brāhmaṇa s ( Devanagari: sa ब्राह्मणं are part of the Hindu śruti literature The Shatapatha Brahmana (sa शतपथ ब्राह्मण śatapatha brāhmaṇa, " Brahmana of one-hundred paths" abbreviated ŚB The Aitareya Brahmana (AB is the Brahmana associated with the Rigveda in the Shakala Shakha.

Thus, the Mantras are properly of three forms: 1. Ric, which are verses of praise in metre, and intended for loud recitation; 2. Yajus, which are in prose, and intended for recitation in lower voice at sacrifices; 3. Sāman, which are in metre, and intended for singing at the Soma ceremonies. Soma ( Sanskrit: सोम) or Haoma ( Avestan) from Proto-Indo-Iranian * sauma-, was a ritual drink of importance

The Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda are independent collections of mantras and hymns intended as manuals for the Adhvaryu, Udgatr and Brahman priests respectively. Priests of the Vedic religion were officiants of the ''yajna'' service Priests of the Vedic religion were officiants of the ''yajna'' service Brahman ( bráhman-, Nominative bráhma sa ब्रह्म is a concept of Hinduism.

The Atharvaveda is the fourth Veda. Its status has occasionally been ambiguous, probably due to its use in sorcery and healing. However, it contains very old materials in early Vedic language. Manusmrti, which often speaks of the three Vedas, calling them trayam-brahma-sanātanam, "the triple eternal Veda". The Manu Smriti ( Sanskrit: मनुस्मृति is a work of Hindu law and ancient Indian society The Atharvaveda like the Rigveda, is a collection of original incantations, and other materials borrowing relatively little from the Rigveda. It has no direct relation to the solemn Shrauta sacrifices, except for the fact that the mostly silent Brahmán priest observes the procedures and uses Atharvaveda mantras to 'heal' it when mistakes have been made. Śrauta ( Devanagari sa श्रौत traditions are conservative Ritualistic traditions of Historical Vedic religion in Hinduism, based on Its recitation also produces long life, cures diseases, or effects the ruin of enemies.

Each of the four Vedas consists of the metrical Mantra or Samhita and the prose Brahmana part, giving discussions and directions for the detail of the ceremonies at which the Mantras were to be used and explanations of the legends connected with the Mantras and rituals. A mantra ( Devanāgarī मन्त्र (or mantram is a religious or mystical syllable or poem typically from the Sanskrit language The Brāhmaṇa s ( Devanagari: sa ब्राह्मणं are part of the Hindu śruti literature Both these portions are termed shruti (which tradition says to have been heard but not composed or written down by men). If you are looking for the singer see Shruti Haasan. For other meanings see Śruti (disambiguation. Each of the four Vedas seems to have passed to numerous Shakhas or schools, giving rise to various recensions of the text. A shakha ( Sanskrit IAST śākhā, literally "branch" or "limb" is a Hindu theological school that specializes in learning They each have an Index or Anukramani, the principal work of this kind being the general Index or Sarvānukramaṇī. An anukramaṇī (also anukramaṇikā) is an index of Vedic hymns recording poetic meter, content and traditions of authorship

Rigveda

Main article: Rigveda

The Rig-Veda Samhita is the oldest significant existent Indian text. The Rigveda ( Sanskrit sa ऋग्वेद ṛgveda, a compound of ṛc "praise verse" and veda "knowledge" The Rigveda ( Sanskrit sa ऋग्वेद ṛgveda, a compound of ṛc "praise verse" and veda "knowledge" ^[27] It is a collection of 1,028 Vedic Sanskrit hymns and 10,600 verses in all, organized into ten books (Sanskrit: mandalas). Vedic Sanskrit is an ancient Indian language, the language of the Vedas, the oldest Shruti texts of Hinduism. A hymn is a type of Song, usually religious specifically written for the purpose of praise adoration or Prayer, and typically addressed to a deity/deities ^[28] The hymns are dedicated to Rigvedic deities. There are 1028 hymns in the Rigveda, most of them dedicated to specific deities. ^[29]

The books were composed by poets from different priestly groups over a period of some 500 years, which Avari dates as 1400 BCE to 900 BCE, if not earlier^[30] According to Max Müller, based on internal evidence (philological and linguistic), the Rigveda was composed roughly between 1700–1100 BCE (the early Vedic period) in the Punjab (Sapta Sindhu) region of the Indian subcontinent. The Vedic Period (or Vedic Age) is the period in the History of India during which the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism, were being Punjab ( ਪੰਜਾਬ پنجاب, पंजाब پنجاب also Panjab (پنجاب meaning "Land of the Five Rivers") (c The Sapta Sindhu ( Sanskrit: सप्त सिंधु also Hapta Hindu in Avestan "seven rivers" are the seven sacred rivers in Indian mythology This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia For geopolitical treatments see South Asia. ^[31] Michael Witzel believes that the Rig Veda must have been composed more or less in the period 1450-1350 BCE, in the Greater Panjab, before the onset of the Iron Age. ^[32]

There are strong linguistic and cultural similarities between the Rigveda and the early Iranian Avesta, deriving from the Proto-Indo-Iranian times, often associated with the Andronovo culture; the earliest horse-drawn chariots were found at Andronovo sites in the Sintashta-Petrovka cultural area near the Ural mountains and date to ca. The Avesta is the primary collection of sacred texts of Zoroastrianism, composed in the Avestan language. Proto-Indo-Iranian, is the reconstructed Proto-language of the Indo-Iranian branch of Indo-European. Indo-Iranian originspng|thumb|300px|Archaeological cultures associated with Indo-Iranian migrations (after EIEC) Indo-Iranian originspng|thumb|300px|Archaeological cultures associated with Indo-Iranian migrations (after EIEC) Riphean redirects here For the time period see Riphean stage The Ural Mountains (Ура́льские го́ры Uralskiye 2000 BCE. ^[33]

Yajurveda

Main article: Yajurveda

The Yajur-Veda ("Veda of sacrificial formulas") consists of archaic prose mantras and also in part of verses borrowed and adapted from the Rig-Veda. The Yajurveda ( Sanskrit यजुर्वेदः, a Tatpurusha compound of yajus "sacrificial formula' + veda The Yajurveda ( Sanskrit यजुर्वेदः, a Tatpurusha compound of yajus "sacrificial formula' + veda Its purpose was practical, in that each mantra must accompany an action in sacrifice but, unlike the Sama-Veda, it was compiled to apply to all sacrificial rites, not merely the Soma offering. Soma ( Sanskrit: सोम) or Haoma ( Avestan) from Proto-Indo-Iranian * sauma-, was a ritual drink of importance There are two major recensions of this Veda known as the "Black" and "White" Yajur-Veda. Recension refers to the practice of significantly altering a text after its initial form The origin and meaning of these designations are not very clear. The White Yajur-Veda contains only the verses and formulas (yajus) necessary for the sacrifice, while their discussion exist in a separate work, the Shatapatha Brahmana. It differs widely from the Black Yajurveda, which incorporates such discussions in the work itself, often immediately following the verses. Of the Black Yajurveda four major recensions survive (Maitrayani, Katha, Kapisthala-Katha, Taittiriya), all showing by and large the same arrangement, but differing in many other respects, notably in the individual discussion of the rituals but also in matters of phonology, accent, grammatical forms, syntax and choice of words.

Samaveda

Main article: Samaveda

The Sama-Veda (Sanskrit sāmaveda ) is the "Veda of melodies" or "Knowledge of melodies". The Samaveda ( Sanskrit: सामवेद sāmaveda, from sāman "melody" + veda "knowledge") is third (in the usual The Samaveda ( Sanskrit: सामवेद sāmaveda, from sāman "melody" + veda "knowledge") is third (in the usual The name of this Veda is from the Sanskrit word sāman which means a melody applied to metrical hymn or song of praise. ^[34] It consists of 1549 stanzas, taken entirely (except 78) from the Rig-Veda. ^[35] Like the Rigvedic stanzas in the Yajurveda, the Samans have been changed and adapted for use in singing. Some of the Rig-Veda verses are repeated more than once. Including repetitions, there are a total of 1875 verses numbered in the Sama-Veda recension translated by Griffith. ^[36] Two major recensions remain today, the Kauthuma/Ranayaniya and the Jaiminiya.

Its purpose was liturgical and practical, to serve as a songbook for the "singer" priests who took part in the liturgy. A priest who sings hymns from the Sama-Veda during a ritual is called an udgātṛ, a word derived from the Sanskrit root ud-gai ("to sing" or "to chant"). ^[37] A similar word in English might be "cantor". The styles of chanting are important to the liturgical use of the verses. The hymns were to be sung according to certain fixed melodies; hence the name of the collection.

Atharvaveda

Main article: Atharvaveda

The Artharva-Veda is the "Knowledge of the [atharvans] (and Angirasa)". The Atharvaveda ( Sanskrit: अथर्ववेद atharvaveda, a Tatpurusha compound of {{IAST|atharvan}}, an ancient Rishi The Atharvaveda ( Sanskrit: अथर्ववेद atharvaveda, a Tatpurusha compound of {{IAST|atharvan}}, an ancient Rishi The Artharva-Veda or Atharvangirasa is the text 'belonging to the Atharvan and Angirasa' poets. The Atharvaveda ( Sanskrit: अथर्ववेद atharvaveda, a Tatpurusha compound of {{IAST|atharvan}}, an ancient Rishi Apte defined an atharvan as a priest who worshipped fire and Soma. ^[38] However, the etymology of Atharvan is unclear, but according to Mayrhofer it is related to Avesta athravan (āθrauuan); he denies any connection with fire priests. ^[39] Atharvan was an ancient term for a certain Rishi even in the Rigveda. A rishi (ṛṣi denotes a Vedic poet by whom Vedic hymns were composed or according to post-Vedic tradition a "sage" to whom they were "originally revealed" (Ṛṣis (The older secondary literature took them as priests who worshipped fire).

The Atharva-Veda Saṃhitā has 760 hymns, and about 160 of the hymns are in common with the Rig-Veda. ^[40] Most of the verses are metrical, but some sections are in prose. ^[41]

It was compiled around 900 BCE, although some of its material may go back to the time of the Rig Veda,^[42] and some parts of the Atharva-Veda are older than the Rig-Veda^[43] though not in linguistic form.

The Atharvana-Veda is preserved in two recensions, the Paippalāda and Śaunaka. ^[44] According to Apte it had nine schools (shakhas). A shakha ( Sanskrit IAST śākhā, literally "branch" or "limb" is a Hindu theological school that specializes in learning ^[45] The Paippalada text, which exists in a Kashmir and an Orissa version, is longer than the Saunaka one; it is only partially printed in its two versions and remains largely untranslated.

Unlike the other three Vedas, the Atharvana-Veda has less connection with sacrifice. ^[46][47] Its first part consists chiefly of spells and incantations, concerned with protection against demons and disaster, spells for the healing of diseases, for long life and for various desires or aims in life. ^[48][49]

The second part of the text contains speculative and philosophical hymns. R. C. Zaehner notes that:

"The latest of the four Vedas, the Atharva-Veda, is, as we have seen, largely composed of magical texts and charms, but here and there we find cosmological hymns which anticipate the Upanishads, -- hymns to Skambha, the 'Support', who is seen as the first principle which is both the material and efficient cause of the universe, to Prāna, the 'Breath of Life', to Vāc, the 'Word', and so on. ^[50]

In its third section, the Atharvaveda contains Mantras used in marriage and death rituals, as well as those for kingship, female rivals and the Vratya (in Brahmana style prose).

Gavin Flood discusses the relatively late acceptance of the Atharva-Veda as follows:

"There were originally only three priests associated with the first three Saṃhitās, for the Brahman as overseer of the rites does not appear in the Ṛg Veda and is only incorporated later, thereby showing the acceptance of the Atharva Veda, which had been somewhat distinct from the other Saṃhitās and identified with the lower social strata, as being of equal standing with the other texts. "^[51]

Brahmanas

Further information: Brahmanas

The mystical notions surrounding the concept of "Veda" that would flower in Vedantic philosophy have their roots already in Brahmana literature, for example in the Shatapatha Brahmana. The Brāhmaṇa s ( Devanagari: sa ब्राह्मणं are part of the Hindu śruti literature Vedanta ( Devanagari: sa वेदान्त Vedānta) is a spiritual tradition explained in the Upanishads that is concerned with the Self-realisation The Brāhmaṇa s ( Devanagari: sa ब्राह्मणं are part of the Hindu śruti literature The Shatapatha Brahmana (sa शतपथ ब्राह्मण śatapatha brāhmaṇa, " Brahmana of one-hundred paths" abbreviated ŚB The Vedas are identified with Brahman, the universal principle (ŚBM 10. Brahman ( bráhman-, Nominative bráhma sa ब्रह्म is a concept of Hinduism. 1. 1. 8, 10. 2. 4. 6). Vāc "speech" is called the "mother of the Vedas" (ŚBM 6. Vāk or Vāc (stem vāc-, nominative vāk) is the Sanskrit word for "speech" "voice" "talk" or "language" 5. 3. 4, 10. 5. 5. 1). The knowledge of the Vedas is endless, compared to them, human knowledge is like mere handfuls of dirt (TB 3. The Taittiriya Shakha is a notable Shakha ("rescension" of the Black Yajurveda. 10. 11. 3-5). The universe itself was originally encapsulated in the three Vedas (ŚBM 10. 4. 2. 22 has Prajapati reflecting that "truly, all beings are in the triple Veda"). In Hinduism, Prajapati ( Sanskrit prajā-pati sa प्रजापति "lord of creatures" is a Hindu deity presiding over procreation

Vedanta

Further information: Vedanta, Upanishads, and Aranyakas

While contemporary traditions continued to maintain Vedic ritualism (Shrauta, Mimamsa), Vedanta renounced all ritualism and radically re-interpreted the notion of "Veda" in purely philosophical terms. Vedanta ( Devanagari: sa वेदान्त Vedānta) is a spiritual tradition explained in the Upanishads that is concerned with the Self-realisation The Upanishads ( Devanagari: उपनिषद् IAST: upaniṣad also spelled "Upanisad" are Hindu scriptures that constitute the core teachings The Aranyakas (Sanskrit आरण्यक āraṇyaka) are part of the Hindu śruti, the four Vedas these religious texts were composed in Śrauta ( Devanagari sa श्रौत traditions are conservative Ritualistic traditions of Historical Vedic religion in Hinduism, based on Mīmāṃsā, a Sanskrit word meaning "investigation" (compare Greek ἱστορία) is the name of an Astika ("orthodox" school Vedanta ( Devanagari: sa वेदान्त Vedānta) is a spiritual tradition explained in the Upanishads that is concerned with the Self-realisation The association of the three Vedas with the bhūr bhuvaḥ svaḥ mantra is found in the Aitareya Aranyaka: "Bhūḥ is the Rigveda, bhuvaḥ is the Yajurveda, svaḥ is the Samaveda" (1. The Aranyakas (Sanskrit आरण्यक āraṇyaka) are part of the Hindu śruti, the four Vedas these religious texts were composed in 3. 2). The Upanishads reduce the "essence of the Vedas" further, to the syllable Aum (ॐ). Aum (also Om) ॐ is a mystical or sacred Syllable in the Hindu, Jain and Buddhist religions Thus, the Katha Upanishad has:

"The goal, which all Vedas declare, which all austerities aim at, and which humans desire when they live a life of continence, I will tell you briefly it is Aum" (1. The Kaṭha Upanishad is one of the older Mukhya "primary" Upanishads commented upon by Shankara. 2. 15)

The Vedas in post-Vedic literature

Vedanga

Main article: Vedanga

Six technical subjects related to the Vedas are traditionally known as vedāṅga "limbs of the Veda". The Vedanga ( vedāṅga, "member of the Veda" are six auxiliary disciplines for the understanding and tradition of the Vedas. V. S. Apte defines this group of works as:

"N. of a certain class of works regarded as auxiliary to the Vedas and designed to aid in the correct pronunciation and interpretation of the text and the right employment of the Mantras in ceremonials. "^[52]

These subjects are treated in Sutra literature dating from the end of the Vedic period to Mauryan times, seeing the transition from late Vedic Sanskrit to Classical Sanskrit. The Maurya Empire ( 322 – 185 BCE) ruled by the Mauryan dynasty was a geographically extensive and powerful political and military Vedic Sanskrit is an ancient Indian language, the language of the Vedas, the oldest Shruti texts of Hinduism. Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical

The six subjects of Vedanga are:

• Phonetics (Śikṣā)
• Meter (Chandas)
• Grammar (Vyākaraṇa)
• Etymology (Nirukta)
• Astronomy (Jyotiṣa)
• Ritual (Kalpa)

Puranas

A traditional view given in the Vishnu Purana (likely dating to the Gupta period^[53]) attributes the current arrangement of four Vedas to the mythical sage Vedavyasa. See Shiksha (NGO for the Indian non-governmental organization The main principle of Vedic meter is measurement by the number of syllables The Sanskrit grammatical tradition of vyākaraṇa is one of the six Vedanga disciplines Nirukta ("explanation etymological interpretation" is one of the six {{IAST|Vedānga}} disciplines of Hinduism, treating Etymology, particularly Jyotiṣa ( Sanskrit jyotiṣa, from jyótis- "light heavenly body" also spelled Jyotish and Jyotisha in English Kalpa is one of the six disciplines of Vedanga, treating Ritual. The Gupta Empire ( Hindi: गुप्त राजवंश was ruled by members of the Gupta dynasty from around 320 to 550 C Vyāsa ( Devanāgarī: व्यास is a central and revered figure in the majority of Hindu traditions ^[54]. Puranic tradition also postulates a single original Veda that, in varying accounts, was divided into three or four parts. According to the Vishnu Purana (3. 2. 18, 3. 3. 4 etc) the original Veda was divided into four parts, and further fragmented into numerous shakhas, by Vishnu in the form of Vyasa, in the Dvapara Yuga; the Vayu Purana (section 60) recounts a similar division by Vyasa, at the urging of Brahma. For other meanings see Vishnu (disambiguation. Vishnu ( IAST viṣṇu Devanagari विष्णु (honorific Vyāsa ( Devanāgarī: व्यास is a central and revered figure in the majority of Hindu traditions Dvapara Yuga ( Devanagari: द्वापर युग is the third out of four Yugas or ages described in the scriptures of Hinduism. The Vayu Purana ( Hindi: वायु पुराण is a Shaiva Purana, a Hindu religious text dedicated to the god Vayu (the wind Brahma is the Hindu god ( deva) of creation and one of the Trimurti, the others being Vishnu and Shiva. The Bhagavata Purana (12. The Bhagavata Purana (also known as Śrīmad Bhāgavatam, or simply Bhāgavatam) is one of the Puranic texts of Hindu literature 6. 37) traces the origin of the primeval Veda to the syllable aum, and says that it was divided into four at the start of Dvapara Yuga, because men had declined in age, virtue and understanding. Aum (also Om) ॐ is a mystical or sacred Syllable in the Hindu, Jain and Buddhist religions In a differing account Bhagavata Purana (9. 14. 43) attributes the division of the primeval veda (aum) into three parts to the monarch Pururavas at the beginning of Treta Yuga. Pururavas ( Hindi:पुरूरव, According to Vedas is a mythological entity associated with the Surya (the sun and Usha (the dawn and The Treta Yuga ( Devanagari: त्रेता युगis the second out of four Yugas or ages of man in the religion of Hinduism, following the The Mahabharata (santiparva 13,088) also mentions the division of the Veda into three in Treta Yuga. ^[55]

Other "Vedas"

The term upaveda ("secondary knowledge") is used in traditional literature to designate the subjects of certain technical works. ^[56][57] They have no relation to the Vedas, except as subjects worthy of study despite their secular character. Lists of what subjects are included in this class differ among sources. The Charanavyuha mentions four Upavedas:

• Medicine (Āyurveda), associated with the Rigveda
• Archery (Dhanurveda), associated with the Yajurveda
• Music and sacred dance (Gāndharvaveda), associated with the Samaveda
• Military science (Shastrashastra), associated with the Atharvaveda

But Sushruta and Bhavaprakasha mention Ayurveda as an upaveda of the Atharvaveda. Shaunaka is the name applied to teachers and to a Shakha of the Atharvaveda. Ayurveda ( Devanāgarī: आयुर्वॆद the 'science of life' is a system of Traditional medicine native to India, and practiced in other The Indian subcontinent is home to a variety of Martial arts. Indian classical dance is a relatively new umbrella term for various codified art forms rooted in Natya, the sacred Hindu Musical theatre styles whose theory The origins of Indian classical music can be found from the oldest of Scriptures part of the Hindu tradition the Vedas. The Indian subcontinent is home to a variety of Martial arts. Sushruta was a surgeon and teacher of Ayurveda who flourished in the Indian city of Kashi by the 6th century BCE Sthapatyaveda (architecture), Shilpa Shastras (arts and crafts) are mentioned as fourth upaveda according to later sources. A basic Hindu Temple consists of an inner sanctum the Garbha griha or womb-chamber in which the image is housed often with space for its circumambulation Shilpa Shastras (Sanskrit Śilpa Śāstras) are traditional Hindu texts that describe the standards for religious Hindu iconography, prescribing

Some post-Vedic texts, including the Mahabharata, the Natyasastra and certain Puranas, refer to themselves as the "fifth Veda". The Nātya Shastra ( Sanskrit: Nātyaśāstra नाट्य शास्त्र is an ancient Indian treatise on the Performing arts For other meanings see Purana (disambiguation. The Puranas ( Sanskrit: sa पुराण purāṇa, "of ancient times" The notion of a fifth veda ( Sanskrit: pañcama veda) that is of a text which lies outside than the four canonical Vedas but nonetheless has the status ^[58] The earliest reference to such a "fifth Veda" is found in the Chandogya Upanishad. The Chandogya Upanishad is one of the "primary" ( Mukhya) Upanishads Together with the Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana and the Brihadaranyaka "Dravida Veda" is a term for canonical Tamil Bhakti texts. The Nalayira Divya Prabandha (or Nalayira Divya Prabhandham) is a collection of 4000 verses (Naalayira in Tamil means 'four thousand' composed before 8th century Tamil (ta தமிழ்; t̪əmɨɻ is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by Tamil people of the Indian subcontinent. Bhakti ( Devanāgarī: भक्ति) is a word of Sanskrit origin meaning devotion.

Notes

References

• Apte, Vaman Shivram (1965), The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary (4th revised & enlarged ed. ), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0567-4 .
• Avari, Burjor (2007), India: The Ancient Past, London: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-35616-9 
• Flood, Gavin (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-43878-0 
• Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, Malden, MA: Blackwell, ISBN 1-4051-3251-5 
• Holdrege, Barbara A. (1995), Veda and Torah, SUNY Press, ISBN 0791416399 
• MacDonell, Arthur Anthony (2004), A History Of Sanskrit Literature, Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 1417906197 
• Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism: Past and Present, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-08953-1 
• Monier-Williams, Monier, ed. Arthur Anthony Macdonell (1854 - 1930 7th of Lochgarry, was a noted Sanskrit scholar Sir Monier Monier-Williams (1819&ndash1899 studied documented and taught Asian languages in England, and compiled one of the most widely-used Sanskrit (2006), Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary, Nataraj Books, ISBN 18-81338-58-4 .
• Muir, John (1861), Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and Progress of the Religion and Institutions of India, Williams and Norgate, <http://books.google.com/books/pdf/Original_Sanskrit_Texts_on_the_Origin_an.pdf?id=_VCXTBk-PtoC> 
• Muller, Max (1891), Chips from a German Workshop, New York: C. John Muir ( February 5, 1810 &ndash March 7, 1882) was a Scottish Sanskrit scholar and Indologist. For the Danish Colonel Max Müller see Second War of Schleswig. Scribner's sons, <http://books.google.com/books?id=J8Zo_rtoWAEC> .
• Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli & Moore, Charles A. Sir Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, OM ( Telugu:సర్వేపల్లి రాధాకృష్ణ Tamil:சர்வேபள்ளி , eds. (1957), A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy (12th Princeton Paperback ed. ), Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-01958-4 .
• Smith, Brian K. , Canonical Authority and Social Classification: Veda and "Varṇa" in Ancient Indian Texts-, History of Religions, The University of Chicago Press (1992), 103-125.
• Sullivan, B. M. (Summer 1994). "The Religious Authority of the Mahabharata: Vyasa and Brahma in the Hindu Scriptural Tradition". Journal of the American Academy of Religion 62 (1): 377-401.  
• Witzel, Michael (ed.) (1997), Inside the Texts, Beyond the Texts. Michael Witzel (born July 18, 1943 at Schwiebus, Germany now Poland is Wales Professor of Sanskrit at Harvard University, United New Approaches to the Study of the Vedas, Harvard Oriental Series, Opera Minora vol. 2, Cambridge: Harvard University Press 
• Zaehner, R. C. (1966), Hindu Scriptures, London: Everyman's Library 

Literature

Overviews

• J. Robert Charles Zaehner (1913 - 1974 was a British academic who specialised in Eastern religions. Gonda, Vedic Literature: Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas, A History of Indian literature. Vol. 1, Veda and Upanishads (1975), ISBN 9783447016032.
• J. A. Santucci, An Outline of Vedic Literature (1976).
• S. Shrava, A Comprehensive History of Vedic Literature — Brahmana and Aranyaka Works, Pranava Prakashan (1977).

Concordances

• M. Bloomfield, A Vedic Concordance (1907)
• Vishva Bandhu, Bhim Dev, S. Bhaskaran Nair (eds. ), Vaidika-Padānukrama-Koṣa: A Vedic Word-Concordance, Vishveshvaranand Vedic Research Institute, Hoshiarpur, 1963-1965, revised edition 1973-1976.

Conference proceedings

• Griffiths, Arlo and Houben, Jan E. M. (eds. ), The Vedas : texts, language & ritual: proceedings of the Third International Vedic Workshop, Leiden 2002, Groningen Oriental Studies 20, Groningen : Forsten, (2004), ISBN 90-6980-149-3.

See also

• Hindu Philosophy
• Pandit
• Vedic chant
• Vedic civilization/EB 1911
• Shakha

External links

• The Vedas at sacred-texts.com
• Vedas: Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Artharva

Hindu philosophy is divided into six Sanskrit ''{{IAST|āstika}}'') schools of thought or darshanas (literally "views" Sankhya A paṇḍit or pundit ( Devanagari: पण्डित is a scholar a teacher particularly one skilled in Sanskrit and Hindu Law, Religion The oral tradition of the Vedas ( Śrauta) consists of several pathas, "recitations" or ways of chanting the Vedic Mantras Such traditions (Encyclopedia Britannica 1911 sv Sanskrit Samhitas The term veda "knowledge (sacred lore" embraces a body of writings the origin of which is ascribed A shakha ( Sanskrit IAST śākhā, literally "branch" or "limb" is a Hindu theological school that specializes in learning

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