| Ethics |
| Theoretical |
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Meta-ethics |
| Applied |
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Bioethics · Cyberethics · Medical |
| Core issues |
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Justice · Value |
| Key thinkers |
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Confucius · Mencius |
| Lists |
Value theories investigate how people positively and negatively value things and concepts, the reasons they use in making their evaluations, and the scope of applications of legitimate evaluations across the social world. Ethics is a major branch of Philosophy, encompassing right conduct and good life In Philosophy, meta-ethics (sometimes called "analytic ethics" is the branch of Ethics that seeks to understand the nature of ethical properties Normative ethics is the branch of philosophical Ethics that investigates the set of questions that arise when we think about the question “how ought one act Descriptive ethics, also known as comparative ethics is the study of people's beliefs about Morality. Consequentialism refers to those moral theories which hold that the consequences of a particular action form the basis for any valid moral judgment about that action Deontological ethics or deontology (from Greek grc δέον deon, "obligation duty" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Virtue theory is a branch of Moral philosophy that emphasizes character rather than rules or consequences as the key element of ethical thinking The ethics of care is a normative ethical theory; that is a theory about what makes actions right or wrong In Religion, Ethics, and Philosophy, the phrase good and evil refers to the location of objects desires and Behaviors on a two-way Morality (from the Latin la moralitas "manner character proper behavior" has three principal meanings Bioethics is the philosophical study of the ethical controversies brought about by advances in Biology and Medicine. Cyberethics is a branch of Ethics that studies ethical dilemma brought on by the emergence of digital technologies Medical ethics is primarily a field of Applied ethics, the study of Moral values and judgments as they apply to Medicine. Engineering ethics is the field of Applied ethics which examines and sets standards for Engineers ' obligations to the public, their clients employers and Environmental ethics is the part of Environmental philosophy which considers the ethical relationship between Human beings and the Natural environment Human rights refers to the "basic Rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled "Animal liberation" redirects here for other uses see Animal liberation (disambiguation. Legal ethics refers to an Ethical code governing the conduct of people engaged in the Practice of law. Media ethics is the subdivision of Applied ethics dealing with the specific ethical principles and standards of media, including Broadcast media, Film Business ethics is a form of Applied ethics that examines ethical principles and moral or ethical problems that arise in a business environment Fundamental issues in marketing ethics Frameworks of analysis for marketing ethics Possible frameworks Value -oriented framework analyzing ethical Ethics is a branch of Philosophy dealing with right and wrong in human behavior Just War theory is a Doctrine of military ethics of Roman philosophical and Catholic origin studied by moral Theologians Ethicists and international JUSTICE is a Human rights and law reform organisation based in the United Kingdom. Philosophic or ethic value is a property of objects, including Physical objects as well as Abstract objects (e Duty (from "due" that which is owing O Fr deu did past participle of devoir Lat Virtue ( Latin virtus; Greek) is moral Excellence. Personal virtues are characteristics valued as promoting individual Egalitarianism (derived from the French word égal, meaning equal) is a political doctrine that holds that all people should be treated as equals and have Freedom, or the idea of being free is a broad concept that Trust is a relationship of reliance A trusted party is presumed to seek to fulfill policies, ethical codes Law and their previous promises The question of free will Consent as a term of jurisprudence is a possible defence (an Excuse or justification against civil or criminal liability Moral responsibility can refer to two different but related things Confucius ( lit " Master Kung " September 28, 551 BC - 479 BC) was a Chinese thinker and social philosopher Life Mencius also known by his birth name Meng Ke or Ko, was born in the State of Zou (simp Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. David Hume (26 April 1711 25 August 1776 Scottish Philosopher, Economist, and Historian is an important figure in Western philosophy Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg Jeremy Bentham ( IPA: or) (15 February 1748&ndash6 June 1832 was an English Jurist, Philosopher, and legal and Social reformer John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 &ndash 8 May 1873 British Philosopher, political economist, civil servant and Member of Parliament, was an influential Søren Aabye Kierkegaard (ˈsœːɐn ˈkʰiɐ̯kəˌɡ̊ɒˀ in Danish Anglicized as;) Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (October 15 1844 August 25 1900 ( was a nineteenth-century German philosopher and classical philologist Richard Mervyn Hare ( 21 March 1919 &ndash 29 January 2002) was an English moral philosopher who held the post of White's John Rawls ( February 21, 1921 &ndash November 24, 2002) was an American Philosopher, a Professor of Robert Nozick ( November 16, 1938 &ndash January 23, 2002) was an American Philosopher and Pellegrino University This list of Ethics topics puts articles relevant to well-known ethical (right and wrong good and bad debates and decisions in one place - including practical problems long List of ethicists including religious or political figures recognized by those outside their tradition as having made major contributions to ideas about Ethics, or raised major When put into practice, these views are meant to explain our views of the good.
At the general level, there is a difference between moral and natural goods. Moral goods are those that have to do with the conduct of persons, usually leading to praise or blame. Natural goods, on the other hand, have to do with objects, not persons. For example, to say that "Mary is a morally good person" might involve a different sense of "good" than that in the sentence "A tummy tuck is good. "
Ethics tend to be more interested in moral goods than natural goods, while economics tends to be more interested in the reverse. However, both moral and natural goods are equally interesting to goodness and value theory, which is more general in scope.
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Psychology
In psychology, value theory refers to the study of the manner in which human beings develop, assert and believe in certain values, and act or fail to act on them. A personal and cultural value is a Relative ethic value, an assumption upon which implementation can be extrapolated Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and
Attempts are made to explain experimentally why human beings prefer or choose some things over others, how personal behavior may be guided (or fail to be guided) by certain values and judgments, and how values emerge at different stages of human development (see e. g. the work by Lawrence Kohlberg and Kohlberg's stages of moral development. Lawrence Kohlberg ( October 25, 1927 – January 19, 1987) was an American Kohlberg's stages of moral development are planes of moral adequacy conceived by Lawrence Kohlberg to explain the development of Moral reasoning. )
In psychotherapy and counseling, eliciting and clarifying the values of the patient can play an important role to help him/her orient or reorient himself or herself in social life. Psychotherapy is an Interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living
Sociology
In sociology, value theory is concerned with personal values which are popularly held by a community, and how those values might change under particular conditions. A personal and cultural value is a Relative ethic value, an assumption upon which implementation can be extrapolated Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge" Different groups of people may hold or prioritize different kinds of values influencing social behavior.
Major Western theorists include Max Weber, Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim and Jürgen Habermas. Maximilian Carl Emil Weber (maks 'veːbɐ (21 April 1864 &ndash 14 June 1920 was a German political economist and sociologist who was considered Émile Durkheim ( April 15, 1858 – November 15, 1917) was a French Sociologist whose contributions were instrumental Jürgen Habermas (ˈjʏʁgən ˈhaːbɐmaːs born June 18, 1929 is a German Philosopher and Sociologist in the tradition of
Methods of study range from questionnaire surveys to participant observation.
Economics
- Further information: Value (economics)
Those who are interested in describing the values people have may often take up an economist's standpoint. The economic value of a good or service has puzzled economists since the beginning of the discipline An economist is an expert in the Social science of Economics. Economic analysis emphasizes that what is sought in the marketplace are goods, and tends to use the consumer's choices as evidence that various products are of value. In this view, religious or political struggle over what "goods" are available in the marketplace is inevitable, and consensus on some core questions about body and society and ecosystems affected by the transaction, are outside the market's goods so long as they are unowned. Consensus has two common meanings One is a general agreement among the members of a given group or Community, each of which exercises some discretion in
However, some natural goods seem to also be moral goods. For example, those things that are owned by a person may be said to be natural goods, but over which particular individual(s) may have moral claims. So it is necessary to make another distinction: between moral and non-moral goods. A non-moral good is something that is desirable for someone or other; despite the name to the contrary, it may include moral goods. A moral good is anything which an actor is considered to be morally obligated to strive toward.
When discussing non-moral goods, one may make a useful distinction between inherently serviced and material goods in the marketplace (or its exchange value), versus perceived intrinsic and experiential goods to the buyer. In Political economy and especially Marxian economics, exchange value refers to one of four major attributes of a commodity, i A strict service economy model takes pains to distinguish between the goods and service guarantees to the market, and that of the service and experience to the consumer. Service economy can refer to one or both of two recent economic developments
Sometimes, moral and natural goods can conflict. The value of natural "goods" is challenged by such issues as addiction. The term " addiction " is used in many contexts to describe an obsession compulsion or excessive Physical dependence or psychological dependence such as The issue of addiction also brings up the distinction between economic and moral goods, where an economic good is whatever stimulates economic growth. Economic growth is the increase in the amount of the goods and services produced by an economy over time For instance, some claim that cigarettes are a "good" in the economic sense, as their production can employ tobacco growers and doctors who treat lung cancer. A cigarette ( French "small Cigar " from cigar + -ette) is a product consumed through Smoking and manufactured Tobacco is an Agricultural product recognized as an addictive drug processed from the fresh Leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana. Lung cancer is a Disease of uncontrolled Cell growth in tissues of the Lung. Many people would agree that cigarette smoking is not morally "good", nor naturally "good," but still recognize that it is economically good, which means, it has exchange value, even though it may have a negative public good or even be bad for a person's body (not the same as "bad for the person" necessarily - consider the issue of suicide. In Political economy and especially Marxian economics, exchange value refers to one of four major attributes of a commodity, i In Economics, a public good is a good that is non-rivaled and non-excludable. )
In Ecological Economics value theory is separated into two types: Donor-type value and receiver-type value. Ecological economics is a Transdisciplinary field of academic research within Economics that aims to address the interdependence between human economies and natural Ecological economists tend to believe that 'real wealth' needs a donor-determined value as a measure of what things were needed to make an item or generate a service. (H. T. Odum 1996). An example of receiver-type value is 'market value', or 'willingness to pay', the principal method of accounting used in neo-classical economics. In contrast both, Marx's labour theory of value and the 'Emergy' concept are conceived as donor-type value. The term Emergy was originally coined by David M Scienceman in collaboration with the late Howard T Emergy theorists believe that this conception of value has relevance to all of philosophy, economics, sociology and psychology as well as Environmental Science.
Ethics and Axiology
Intuitively, theories of value must be important to ethics. Philosophic or ethic value is a property of objects, including Physical objects as well as Abstract objects (e Ethics is a major branch of Philosophy, encompassing right conduct and good life A number of useful distinctions have been made by philosophers in the treatment of value.
Intrinsic and instrumental value
Many people find it useful to distinguish instrumental value and intrinsic values, first discussed by Plato in the "Republic". Intrinsic value is an ethical and philosophic property. It is the ethical or Philosophic value that an object has "in itself" or "for its Instrumental value (or Extrinsic value, contributory value) is the value of objects both Physical objects and Abstract Instrumental value (or Extrinsic value, contributory value) is the value of objects both Physical objects and Abstract Intrinsic value is an ethical and philosophic property. It is the ethical or Philosophic value that an object has "in itself" or "for its Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece An instrumental value is worth having as a means towards getting something else that is good (e. g. , a radio is instrumentally good in order to hear music). An intrinsically valuable thing is worth for itself, not as a means to something else. It is giving value intrinsic and extrinsic properties. An intrinsic property is a property that an objected or a thing has of itself independently of other things including its context
Intrinsic and instrumental goods are not mutually exclusive categories. Some things are both good in themselves, and also good for getting other things that are good. "Understanding science" may be such a good, being both worthwhile in and of itself, and as a means of achieving other goods.
A prominent argument in environmental ethics, made by writers like Aldo Leopold and Holmes Rolston III, is that wild nature and healthy ecosystems have intrinsic value, prior to and apart from their instrumental value as resources for humans, and should therefore be preserved. Environmental ethics is the part of Environmental philosophy which considers the ethical relationship between Human beings and the Natural environment Aldo Starker Leopold ( January 11, 1887 – April 21, 1948) was an American Ecologist, Forester and Environmentalist Holmes Rolston III (born 1932) is University Distinguished Professor of philosophy at Colorado State University.
Pragmatism and contributory goodness
- Further information: Pragmatism
John Dewey (1859-1952) in his book Theory of Valuation saw goodness as the outcome of ethic valuation, a continuous balancing of "ends in view. Pragmatism generally considered to have originated in the late nineteenth century with Charles Peirce, who first stated the Pragmatic maxim. John Dewey (October 20 1859 &ndash June 1 1952 was an American Philosopher, Psychologist, and educational reformer, whose thoughts and ideas have Year 1859 ( MDCCCLIX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Year 1952 ( MCMLII) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. A personal and cultural value is a Relative ethic value, an assumption upon which implementation can be extrapolated " An end in view was said to be an objective potentially adopted, which may be refined or rejected based on its consistency with other objectives or as a means to objectives already held, roughly similar to an object with relative intrinsic value. Philosophic or ethic value is a property of objects, including Physical objects as well as Abstract objects (e Intrinsic value is an ethical and philosophic property. It is the ethical or Philosophic value that an object has "in itself" or "for its
His empirical approach had absolute intrinsic value denial, not accepting intrinsic value as an inherent or enduring property of things. Intrinsic value is an ethical and philosophic property. It is the ethical or Philosophic value that an object has "in itself" or "for its He saw it as an illusory product of our continuous valuing activity as purposive beings. When held across only some contexts, Dewey held that goods are only intrinsic relative to a situation. When across all contexts, goodness is best understood as instrumental, with no contrasting intrinsic goodness. In other words, Dewey claimed that anything can only be of intrinsic value if it is a contributory good.
Another improvement is to distinguish contributory goods with a contributory conditionality. Instrumental value (or Extrinsic value, contributory value) is the value of objects both Physical objects and Abstract These have the same qualities as the good thing, but need some emergent property of a whole state-of-affairs in order to be good. For example, salt is food on its own, and good as such, but is far better as part of a prepared meal. Providing a good outside this context is not delivery of what is expected. In other words, such goods are only good when certain conditions are met. This is in contrast to other goods, which may be considered "good" in a wider variety of situations.
Kant: hypothetical and categorical goods
For more information, see the main article, Immanuel Kant. Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg
The thinking of Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) greatly influenced moral philosophy. Year 1724 ( MDCCXXIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Year 1804 ( MDCCCIV) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Ethics is a major branch of Philosophy, encompassing right conduct and good life He thought of moral value as a unique and universally identifiable property, as an absolute value rather than a relative value. Philosophic or ethic value is a property of objects, including Physical objects as well as Abstract objects (e Philosophic or ethic value is a property of objects, including Physical objects as well as Abstract objects (e He showed that many practical goods are good only in states-of-affairs described by a sentence containing an "if" clause. For example, in the sentence, "Sunshine is only good if you do not live in the desert". Further, the "if" clause often described the category in which the judgment was made (art, science, etc. ). Kant described these as "hypothetical goods", and tried to find a "categorical" good that would operate across all categories of judgment without depending on an "if-then" clause.
An influential result of Kant's search was the idea of a good will as being the only intrinsic good. Intrinsic value is an ethical and philosophic property. It is the ethical or Philosophic value that an object has "in itself" or "for its Moreover, Kant saw a good will as acting in accordance with a moral command, the "Categorical Imperative:" "Act according to those maxims that you could will to be universal law. The categorical imperative is the central philosophical concept of the Moral philosophy of Immanuel Kant, and of modern Deontological ethics " From this, and a few other axioms, Kant developed a moral system that would apply to any "praiseworthy person. " (See Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, third section, 446-[447]. The Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals or Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten 1785) Immanuel Events By place British Isles The Cor Tewdws (Collage of Theodosius Llantwit Major is burned down )
Kantian philosophers believe that any general definition of goodness must define goods that are categorical in the sense that Kant intended.
See also
- Ultimate importance
- Axiology
- Normative science
- Summum bonum
- Value-added theory
- Cultural Institutions Studies
- Intuitionism
Dictionary
value theory
-noun
- A theory of how people positively and negatively value things and concepts, the reasons they use in making their evaluations, and the scope of applications of legitimate evaluations across the social world.
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