Vaccination is the administration of antigenic material (the Vaccine) to produce immunity to a disease. An antigen (from antibody-generating) or immunogen is a substance that prompts the generation of Antibodies and can cause an immune response A vaccine is a biological preparation which is used to establish or improve immunity to a particular disease Immunity is a material term that describes a state of having sufficient biological defenses to avoid Infection, Disease, or other unwanted biological invasion Vaccines can prevent or ameliorate the effects of infection by a pathogen. An infection is the detrimental Colonization of a host Organism by a foreign Species. A pathogen (from Greek πάθος pathos "suffering passion" and γἰγνομαι (γεν- gignomai (gen- "I give birth to" infectious It is considered to be the most effective and cost-effective method of preventing infectious diseases. The material administrated can either be live, but weakened forms of pathogens such as bacteria or viruses, killed or inactivated forms of these pathogens, or purified material such as proteins. A pathogen (from Greek πάθος pathos "suffering passion" and γἰγνομαι (γεν- gignomai (gen- "I give birth to" infectious The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have A virus (from the Latin virus meaning Toxin or Poison) is a sub-microscopic infectious agent that is unable Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl Smallpox was the first disease people tried to prevent by purposely inoculating themselves with other types of infections; smallpox inoculation was started in China or India before 200 BC. Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. Inoculation is the placement of something to where it will grow or reproduce and is most commonly used in respect of the introduction of a serum Vaccine, or antigenic substance China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country ^[1] In 1718, Lady Mary Wortley Montague reported that the Turks have a habit of deliberately inoculating themselves with fluid taken from mild cases of smallpox and she inoculated her own children. Year 1718 ( MDCCXVIII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a The Lady Mary Wortley Montagu ( 26 May 1689 &ndash 21 August 1762) was an English aristocrat and writer ^[2]Before Edward Jenner tested the possibility of using the cowpox vaccine as an immunisation for smallpox in humans in 1796 for the first time, at least six people had done the same several years earlier: a person whose identity is unknown, England, (about 1771), Mrs. Sevel, Germany (about 1772), Mr. Jensen, Germany (about 1770), Benjamin Jesty, England, in 1774, Mrs. Rendall, England (about 1782) and Peter Plett, Germany, in 1791. ^[3] In 1796 Edward Jenner inoculated using cowpox (a mild relative of the deadly smallpox virus). Year 1796 ( MDCCXCVI) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year Edward Jenner, FRS, ( May 17 1749 – January 26 1823) was an English scientist who studied his natural surroundings in Berkeley Cowpox is a Disease of the skin that is caused by a Virus known as the Cowpox virus. Pasteur and others built on this. Louis Pasteur (27 December 1822 – 28 September 1895 a French Chemist and Microbiologist, is best known for remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and ^[1]

The word vaccination was first used by Edward Jenner an English physician 22 years later, in 1796. Edward Jenner, FRS, ( May 17 1749 – January 26 1823) was an English scientist who studied his natural surroundings in Berkeley Louis Pasteur further adapted in his pioneering work in microbiology. Louis Pasteur (27 December 1822 – 28 September 1895 a French Chemist and Microbiologist, is best known for remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and Vaccination (Latin: vacca—cow) is so named because the first vaccine was derived from a virus affecting cows—the relatively benign cowpox virus—which provides a degree of immunity to smallpox, a contagious and deadly disease. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Cattle, colloquially referred to as cows, are domesticated Ungulates a member of the Subfamily Bovinae of the family A vaccine is a biological preparation which is used to establish or improve immunity to a particular disease A virus (from the Latin virus meaning Toxin or Poison) is a sub-microscopic infectious agent that is unable Cowpox is a Disease of the skin that is caused by a Virus known as the Cowpox virus. Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. In common speech, 'vaccination' and 'immunization' generally have the same colloquial meaning. This distinguishes it from inoculation which uses unweakened live pathogens, although in common usage either is used to refer to an immunization. Inoculation is the placement of something to where it will grow or reproduce and is most commonly used in respect of the introduction of a serum Vaccine, or antigenic substance Immunization, or immunisation, is the process by which an individual's Immune system becomes fortified against an agent (known as the The word "vaccination" was originally used specifically to describe the injection of smallpox vaccine. Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. ^[3]

Vaccination efforts have been met with some controversy since their inception, on ethical, political, medical safety, religious, and other grounds. A vaccine controversy is a dispute over the morality ethics effectiveness or safety of Vaccination. Early success and compulsion brought widespread acceptance and mass vaccination campaigns were undertaken which are credited with greatly reducing the incidence of many diseases in numerous geographic regions. The UK Vaccination Acts of 1840 1853 and 1898 reflect the continuing argument over Vaccination policy in the United Kingdom. The eradication of smallpox, which was last seen in a natural case in 1977, is considered the most evident success of vaccination. Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor.

Contents 1 Triggering immune sensitization 2 Types of vaccinations 3 History of vaccinations 4 Vaccination policies, compulsory vaccination 5 Herd immunity and medical risk management issues 6 Adjuvants and preservatives 7 Combined vaccines 8 Methods of administration 9 Vaccine research 10 See also 11 References 12 External links

Triggering immune sensitization

In the generic sense, the process of artificial induction of immunity, in an effort to protect against infectious disease, works by 'priming' the immune system with an 'immunogen'. Immunity against infections that can cause serious illness is generally beneficial An infectious disease is a clinically evident Disease resulting from the presence of Pathogenic microbial agents including Pathogenic viruses Pathogenic An immune system is a collection of mechanisms within an Organism that protects against Disease by identifying and killing Pathogens and Tumor An antigen (from antibody-generating) or immunogen is a substance that prompts the generation of Antibodies and can cause an immune response Stimulating immune response, via use of an infectious agent, is known as immunization. Immunization, or immunisation, is the process by which an individual's Immune system becomes fortified against an agent (known as the Vaccinations involve the administration of one or more immunogens, which can be administered in several forms.

Some modern vaccines are administered after the patient already has contracted a disease, as in the cases of experimental AIDS, cancer and Alzheimer's disease vaccines. Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled Alzheimer's disease ( AD) also called Alzheimer disease or simply Alzheimer's, is the most common form of Dementia. Vaccinia given after exposure to smallpox, within the first four days, is reported to attenuate the disease considerably, and vaccination within the first week is known to be beneficial to a degree. The first rabies immunization was given by Louis Pasteur to a child bitten by a rabid dog, subsequently post-exposure immunization to rabies has generally been followed by survival. Rabies (from rabies “madness rage fury” Also known as “ hydrophobia ” is a viral Zoonotic neuroinvasive disease that Louis Pasteur (27 December 1822 – 28 September 1895 a French Chemist and Microbiologist, is best known for remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and The essential empiricism behind such immunizations is that the vaccine triggers an immune response more rapidly than the natural infection itself.

Most vaccines are given by hypodermic injection as they are not absorbed reliably through the gut. Live attenuated Polio, some Typhoid and Cholera Vaccines are given orally in order to produce immunity based in the bowel.

Types of vaccinations

All vaccinations work by presenting a foreign antigen to the immune system in order to evoke an immune response, but there are several ways to do this. The three main types are as follows:

1. An inactivated vaccine consists of virus particles which are grown in culture and then killed using a method such as heat or formaldehyde. The virus particles are destroyed and cannot replicate, but the virus capsid proteins are intact enough to be recognized by the immune system and evoke a response. For the leaf bug see Miridae. A capsid is the protein shell of a virus. When manufactured correctly, the vaccine is not infectious, but improper inactivation can result in intact and infectious particles. Since the properly produced vaccine does not reproduce, booster shots are required periodically to reinforce the immune response. After initial Immunization, a booster injection or booster dose is a re-exposure to the immunizing Antigen.
2. In an attenuated vaccine, live virus particles with very low virulence are administered. They will reproduce, but very slowly. Since they do reproduce and continue to present antigen beyond the initial vaccination, boosters are required less often. These vaccines are produced by growing the virus in tissue cultures that will select for less virulent strains, or by mutagenesis or targeted deletions in genes required for virulence. There is a small risk of reversion to virulence, this risk is smaller in vaccines with deletions. Virulence (also called pestiferousness) refers to the degree of Pathogenicity of a Microbe, or in other words the relative ability of a Microbe Attenuated vaccines also cannot be used by immunocompromised individuals. In Medicine, immunodeficiency (or immune deficiency) is a state in which the Immune system 's ability to fight Infectious disease is compromised
3. A subunit vaccine presents an antigen to the immune system without introducing viral particles, whole or otherwise. One method of production involves isolation of a specific protein from a virus and administering this by itself. A weakness of this technique is that isolated proteins can be denatured and will then bind to different antibodies than the proteins in the virus. A second method of subunit vaccine is the recombinant vaccine, which involves putting a protein gene from the targeted virus into another virus. The second virus will express the protein, but will not present a risk to the patient. This is the type of vaccine currently in use for hepatitis, and it is experimentally popular, being used to try to develop new vaccines for difficult to vaccinate viruses such as Ebola and HIV. Ebola is the common term for a group of Viruses belonging to genus Ebolavirus, family Filoviridae, and for the disease which they Human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV) is a Lentivirus (a member of the Retrovirus family that can lead to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome ^[4]

History of vaccinations

Early forms of vaccination were developed in ancient China as early as 200 B. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National C. ^[1] Scholar Ole Lund comments: "The earliest documented examples of vaccination are from India and China in the 17th century, where vaccination with powdered scabs from people infected with smallpox was used to protect against the disease. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Smallpox used to be a common disease throughout the world and 20% to 30% of infected persons died from the disease. Smallpox was responsible for 8 to 20% of all deaths in several European countries in the 18th century. The 18th century lasted from 1701 to 1800 in the Gregorian calendar, in accordance with the Anno Domini / Common Era numbering system The tradition of vaccination may have originated in India in AD 1000. "^[5] The mention of vaccination in the Sact'eya Grantham, an Ayurvedic text, was noted by the French scholar Henri Marie Husson in the journal Dictionaire des sciences me`dicales. Ayurveda ( Devanāgarī: आयुर्वॆद the 'science of life' is a system of Traditional medicine native to India, and practiced in other ^[6] Almroth Wright, the professor of pathology at Netley, further helped shape the future of vaccination by conducting limited experiments on the professional staff at Netly, including himself. Sir Almroth Edward Wright, KBE, CB (1861-1947 was a British Bacteriologist and Immunologist. Netley, sometimes called Netley Abbey, is a Village on the south coast of Hampshire, England, situated close to the city of Southampton The outcome of these experiments resulted in further development of vaccination in Europe. ^[7] The Anatolian Ottoman Turks knew about methods of vaccination about a hundred years before Edward Jenner to whom the discovery is attributed. Edward Jenner, FRS, ( May 17 1749 – January 26 1823) was an English scientist who studied his natural surroundings in Berkeley They called vaccination Ashi or engrafting, which they used to apply to their children with cowpox taken from the breast of cattle. This kind of vaccination and other forms of variolation were introduced into England by Lady Montagu, a famous English letter-writer and wife of the English ambassador at Istanbul between 1716 and 1718. She came across the Turkish methods of vaccination, consenting to have her son inoculated by the Embassy surgeon Charles Maitland in the Turkish way. Lady Montagu wrote to her sister and friends in England describing the process in details. On her return to England she continued to propagate the Turkish tradition of vaccination and had many of her relatives inoculated. The breakthrough came when a scientific description of the vaccination operation was submitted to the Royal Society in 1724 by Dr Emmanual Timoni, who had been the Montagu’s family physician in Istanbul. Inoculation was adopted both in England and in France nearly half a century before Jenner's famous smallpox vaccine of 1796. Edward Jenner, FRS, ( May 17 1749 – January 26 1823) was an English scientist who studied his natural surroundings in Berkeley ^[8]

Since then vaccination campaigns have spread throughout the globe, sometimes prescribed by law or regulations (See Vaccination Acts). The UK Vaccination Acts of 1840 1853 and 1898 reflect the continuing argument over Vaccination policy in the United Kingdom. Vaccines are now used to fight a wide variety of disease threats besides smallpox. Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. Louis Pasteur further developed the technique during the 19th century, extending its use to protecting against bacterial anthrax and viral rabies. Louis Pasteur (27 December 1822 – 28 September 1895 a French Chemist and Microbiologist, is best known for remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and Anthrax is an acute Disease in humans and animals caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis which is highly lethal in some forms Rabies (from rabies “madness rage fury” Also known as “ hydrophobia ” is a viral Zoonotic neuroinvasive disease that The method Pasteur used entailed treating the infectious agents for those diseases so they lost the ability to cause serious disease. Pasteur adopted the name vaccine as a generic term in honor of Jenner's discovery, which Pasteur's work built upon.

Prior to vaccination with cowpox, the only known protection against smallpox was inoculation or variolation (Variola - the Smallpox viruses) where a small amount of live smallpox virus was administered to the patient; this carried the serious risk that the patient would be killed or seriously ill. Inoculation is the placement of something to where it will grow or reproduce and is most commonly used in respect of the introduction of a serum Vaccine, or antigenic substance The death rate from variolation was reported to be around a tenth of that from natural infection with Variola, and the immunity provided was considered quite reliable. Factors contributing to the efficacy of variolation probably include the choices of Variola Minor strains used, the relatively low number of cells infected in the first phase of multiplication following initial exposure, and the exposure route used, via the skin or nasal lining rather than inhalation of droplets into the lungs.

Consistency would suggest the activity should have predated Jenner's description of an effective vaccination system, and there is some history relating to opposition to the older and more hazardous procedure of variolation.

In modern times, the first vaccine-preventable disease targeted for eradication was smallpox. The World Health Organization (WHO) coordinated the global effort to eradicate this disease. The last naturally occurring case of smallpox occurred in Somalia in 1977. Somalia ( Soomaaliya; الصومال) officially the Somali Republic ( Jamhuuriyadda Soomaaliya, جمهورية الصومال) and formerly known

In 1988, the governing body of WHO targeted polio for eradication by the year 2000. The global eradication of poliomyelitis is a Public health effort to eliminate all cases of Poliomyelitis (polio infection Although the target was missed, eradication is very close. The next eradication target would most likely be measles, which has declined since the introduction of measles vaccination in 1963.

In 2000, the Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization was established to strengthen routine vaccinations and introduce new and under-used vaccines in countries with a per capita GDP of under US$1000. GAVI is now entering its second phase of funding, which extends through 2014.

Vaccination policies, compulsory vaccination

Main article: Vaccination policy

Further information: Vaccine controversy

In an attempt to eliminate the risk of outbreaks of some diseases, at various times several governments and other institutions have instituted policies requiring vaccination for all people. Vaccination policy refers to the policy a government adopts in relation to Vaccination. A vaccine controversy is a dispute over the morality ethics effectiveness or safety of Vaccination. For example, an 1853 law required universal vaccination against smallpox in England and Wales, with fines levied on people who did not comply. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland Common contemporary U. S. vaccination policies require that children receive common vaccinations before entering school. A few other countries also have some compulsory vaccinations.

Beginning with early vaccination in the nineteenth century, these policies led to resistance from a variety of groups, collectively called anti-vaccinationists, who objected on ethical, political, medical safety, religious, and other grounds. A vaccine controversy is a dispute over the morality ethics effectiveness or safety of Vaccination. Historical Catholic and Anglican missionaries vaccinated Northwest Coast Indians during a 1862 smallpox epidemic Common objections are that compulsory vaccination represents excessive government intervention in personal matters, or that the proposed vaccinations are not sufficiently safe. ^[9] Many modern vaccination policies allow exemptions for people who have compromised immune systems, allergies to the components used in vaccinations or strongly-held objections. ^[10]

Herd immunity and medical risk management issues

Vaccination campaigns are generally accepted as having contributed to the worldwide elimination of smallpox, through herd immunity, and to the restriction of polio to isolated pockets in countries where healthcare access is difficult. Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. Herd immunity (or community immunity) describes a type of immunity that occurs when the Vaccination of a portion of the Population (or herd Poliomyelitis, often called polio or infantile paralysis, is an acute viral Infectious disease spread from person to person primarily via The risk management practices of government health agencies' promoting widespread vaccination campaigns has prompted increasing controversy in recent years, despite the fact that many once-common childhood diseases, such as mumps, measles and rubella, are now relatively rare in developed countries. For non-business risks see Risk or the disambiguation page Risk analysis. Mumps or epidemic Parotitis is a Viral disease of the Human species Measles (rubeola is a Disease caused by a virus specifically a Paramyxovirus of the genus Morbillivirus. Rubella, commonly known as German measles, is a Disease caused by Rubella virus

Adjuvants and preservatives

Vaccines typically contain one or more adjuvants, used to boost the immune response. Tetanus toxoid, for instance, is usually adsorbed onto alum. For the purely-slang term alum meaning "graduate" see Alumnus. This presents the antigen in such a way as to produce a greater action than the simple aqueous tetanus toxoid. People who get an excessive reaction to adsorbed tetanus toxoid may be given the simple vaccine when time for a booster occurs.

In the preparation for the 1990 Gulf campaign, Pertussis vaccine (not acellular) was used as an adjuvant for Anthrax vaccine. This produces a more rapid immune response than giving only the Anthrax, which is of some benefit if exposure might be imminent.

They may also contain preservatives, which are used to prevent contamination with bacteria or fungi. The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ Until recent years, the preservative thiomersal was used in many vaccines that did not contain live virus. Thiomersal ( INN) (C9H9HgNaO2S commonly known in the United States as thimerosal, is an Organomercury compound (approximately As of 2005, the only childhood vaccine in the U. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. S. that contains thiomersal in greater than trace amounts is the influenza vaccine [1], which is currently recommended only for children with certain risk factors. ^[11] The UK is considering Influenza immunisation in children perhaps as soon as in 2006-7. Single-dose Influenza vaccines supplied in the UK do not list Thiomersal (its UK name) in the ingredients. Preservatives may be used at various stages of production of vaccines, and the most sophisticated methods of measurement might detect traces of them in the finished product, as they may in the environment and population as a whole [2].

Combined vaccines

Combined vaccinations are now widely used around the world, a result of the rapid increase in the number of shots recommended in current vaccination schedules. A vaccination schedule is a recommended series of Vaccinations including the suggested timing of all doses

Methods of administration

A vaccine administration may be oral, by injection (intramuscular, intradermal, subcutaneous), by puncture, transdermal or intranasal. ^[12]

Vaccine research

Some major contemporary research in vaccination focuses on development of vaccinations for diseases including HIV and malaria. An HIV vaccine is a hypothetical Vaccine against HIV, the etiological agent of AIDS. Malaria is a vector -borne Infectious disease caused by Protozoan Parasites It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions including

Vaccine is an international peer-reviewed journal for vaccination researchers, indexed in Medline pISSN: 0264-410X. Peer review (also known as refereeing) is the process of subjecting an author's scholarly work research or Ideas to the scrutiny of others who are MEDLINE ( Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System Online is a literature database of life sciences and biomedical information

See also

• Inoculation
• Influenza vaccine
• H5N1 flu vaccine clinical trials
• Vaccine
• Vaccine controversy
• Vaccine trial
• Vaccination schedule
• Vaccination of dogs
• Immunization during pregnancy

References

External links

• The Vaccine Page links to resources in many countries.
• Immunisation Immunisation schedule for children in the UK. Published by the UK Department of Health.
• Vaccine Ingredients A list of vaccine ingredients.
• Brian Deer.com - 'mmr & autism investigation: part 1: the Lancet scandal', Brian Deer
• CDC.gov - 'National Immunization Program: leading the way to healthy lives', US Centers for Disease Control (CDC information on vaccinations)
• CDC.gov - 'Mercury and Vaccines (Thimerosal)', US Centers for Disease Control
• Immunize.org - Immunization Action Coalition' (nonprofit working to increase immunization rates)
• NYTimes.com - 'On Autism's Cause, It's Parents vs. Brian Deer is a British investigative reporter best known for inquiries into the drug industry medicine and social issues for the Sunday Times of London The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (or CDC) is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services based in unincorporated Research', Gardiner Harris, Anahad O'Connor, New York Times (front page; June 25, 2005)
• OpinionJournal.com - 'Autism and vaccines: Activists wage a nasty campaign to silence scientists' (unsigned editorial opinion), Wall Street Journal (February 16, 2004)
• SNHS.com - 'Anti-vaccine activists get jabbed', Michael Fumento (March 11, 2004)
• WHO.int - 'Immunizations, vaccines and biologicals: Towards a World free of Vaccine Preventable Diseases', World Health Organization (WHO's global vaccination campaign website)
• 909Shot.com - 'National Vaccine Information Center: the oldest and largest national organization advocating reformation of the mass vaccination system'
• VaccinationDebate.com - 'Vaccination Debate', Ian Sinclair
• VacLib.org - 'Vaccination Liberation'

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