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The Sorbonne, Paris, in a 17th century engraving
The Sorbonne, Paris, in a 17th century engraving

The historic University of Paris (French: Université de Paris) first appeared in the second half of the 12th century, but was in 1970 reorganised as 13 autonomous universities (University of Paris I–XIII). French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people A university is an institution of Higher education and Research, which grants Academic degrees in a variety of subjects The university is often referred to as the Sorbonne or La Sorbonne after the collegiate institution (Collège de Sorbonne) founded about 1257 by Robert de Sorbon, but the university as such was older and was never completely centred on the Sorbonne. This article is about the Collège de Sorbonne. For other uses of the name see Sorbonne. Robert de Sorbon ( October 9, 1201 &ndash August 15, 1274) was a French theologian and founder of the Sorbonne Of the thirteen current successor universities, the first four have a presence in the historical Sorbonne building, and three include "Sorbonne" in their names.

While the universities are now essentially independent of each other, and some now fall under the Académie of Creteil or the Académie of Versailles rather than the Académie of Paris, some residual administrative functions of the thirteen universities are formally supervised by a common chancellor, the Rector of the Académie of Paris, with offices in the Sorbonne. Créteil is a commune in the southeastern suburbs of Paris, France. Versailles (vɛʀsaj in French) formerly de facto capital of the kingdom of France, is now a wealthy suburb of Paris and is still an important Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city The word rector ("ruler" from the Latin regere and Rector meaning "Teacher" In Latin has a number of different meanings but all of them indicate an academic As of 2006, the Rector of the Academy of Paris and Chancellor of the Universities of Paris is Maurice Quénet. The Vice-Chancellor of the Universities of Paris is Pierre Gregory [1] [2]. Despite this link, and the historical ties, there is today no University of Paris system that binds the universities at an academic level.

The Sorbonne today, from the same point of view
The Sorbonne today, from the same point of view

Contents

Origin and early organisation

Similarly to the other early medieval universities (University of Bologna, University of Padova, University of Oxford), but unlike later ones (such as the University of Prague or the University of Heidelberg), the University of Paris was only later established through a specific foundation act by a royal charter or papal bull. This article is about Western European institutions See also Medieval university (Asia and Byzantine university Medieval university The University of Bologna (Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna UNIBO) is one of the oldest continually operating degree-granting universities in the world The University of Padua ( Italian Università degli Studi di Padova, UNIPD) located in Padua, Italy, was founded in 1222 The University of Oxford (informally "Oxford University" or simply "Oxford" located in the city of Oxford, Oxfordshire, England is the The Ruprecht Karl University of Heidelberg ( University of Heidelberg, Ruperto Carola, Heidelberg University, or simply Heidelberg) is a A Royal Charter is a Charter granted by the Sovereign on the advice of the Privy council to legitimize an incorporated body such as a city company A Papal bull is a particular type of Letters patent or charter issued by a Pope. It grew up in the latter part of the 12th century around the Notre Dame Cathedral as a corporation similar to other medieval corporations, such as guilds of merchants or artisans. NotreDameFlyingButtressjpg|right|thumb|250px|Notre Dame de Paris Flying Buttress]] Notre Dame de Paris is a Gothic Cathedral on the eastern half of the A corporation is a separate legal entity usually used to conduct business A guild is an association of craftsmen in a particular trade The earliest guilds were formed as confraternities of workers The medieval Latin term universitas actually had the more general meaning of a guild, and the university of Paris was known as a universitas magistrorum et scholarium (a guild of masters and scholars).

The university had four Faculties: Arts, Medicine, Law, and Theology. A faculty is a division within a University. The concept of a university with different faculties for different subjects dates back to Al-Azhar University, which had The arts is a broad subdivision of Culture, composed of many expressive disciplines. Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Law is a system of rules enforced through a set of Institutions used as an instrument to underpin civil obedience politics economics and society Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective The Faculty of Arts was the lowest in rank, but also the largest as students had to graduate there to be admitted to one of the higher faculties. The students there were divided into four nationes according to language or regional origin, those of France, Normandy, Picard, and England, the last one of which later came to be known as the Alemannian (German) nation. A nation (Latin natio meaning being born) was a regional corporation of Students at a Medieval university. Recruitment to each nation was wider than the names might imply: the English-German nation in fact included students from Scandinavia and Eastern Europe.

The faculty and nation system of the University of Paris (along with that of the University of Bologna) became the model for all later medieval universities.

The original schools

Three schools were especially famous at Paris, the palatine or palace school, the school of Notre-Dame, and that of Sainte-Geneviève. The decline of royalty inevitably brought about the decline of the first. The other two, which were very old, like those of the cathedrals and the abbeys, are only faintly outlined during the early centuries of their existence. The glory of the palatine school doubtless eclipsed theirs, until in the course of time it completely gave way to them. These two centres were much frequented and many of their masters were esteemed for their learning.

The first renowned professor at the school of Ste-Geneviève was Hubold, who lived in the tenth century. Not content with the courses at Liège, he continued his studies at Paris, entered or allied himself with the chapter of Ste-Geneviève, and attracted many pupils via his teaching. Liège (ljɛːʒ Older English: Luick, Walloon: Lidje, German: Lüttich; Latin: Leodium, Dutch Distinguished professors from the school of Notre-Dame in the eleventh century include Lambert, disciple of Filbert of Chartres; Drogo of Paris; Manegold of Germany; Anselm of Laon. Anselm of Laon (died 1117 was a French theologian. Born of very humble parents at Laon before the middle of the 11th century he is said to have studied These two schools attracted scholars from every country and produced many illustrious men, among whom were: St. Stanislaus of Szczepanów, Bishop of Kraków; Gebbard, Archbishop of Salzburg; St. Stephen, third Abbot of Cîteaux; Robert d'Arbrissel, founder of the Abbey of Fontevrault etc. Saint Stanisław Szczepanowski or Saint Stanislaus of Szczepanów (July 26 1030 &ndash April 11? 1079 was a Bishop of Kraków known chiefly for having been Saint Stephen Harding (died March 28, 1134) is a Christian Saint and monastic Abbot, one of the founders of the Cistercian Robert of Arbrissel (c 1045 - 1116) was an itinerant preacher and founder of the abbey of Fontevrault. Fontevraud Abbey (or Fontevrault Abbey) is located in the village of Fontevraud-l'Abbaye, near Chinon, in Anjou, France. Three other men who added new splendor to the schools of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève were William of Champeaux, Abelard, and Peter Lombard. Guillaume de Champeaux ( c 1070 &ndash 1122 also known as William of Champeaux ( English) or Guglielmus de Campellis ( Latin) was Peter Lombard or Petrus Lombardus; (c 1100 — July 20, 1160 in Paris) was a scholastic theologian and Bishop and author

The honour of having formed similar pupils is indiscriminately ascribed to Notre-Dame and to Ste-Geneviève, as Claude du Molinet has justly remarked (Bibl. Sainte-Geneviève, MS. H. fr. 21, in fol. , p. 576).

Humanistic instruction comprised grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy (trivium and quadrivium). Grammar is the field of Linguistics that covers the Rules governing the use of any given natural language. Rhetoric has had many definitions no simple definition can do it justice In classical Philosophy, dialectic (διαλεκτική is controversy the exchange of arguments and counter-arguments respectively advocating Propositions Arithmetic or arithmetics (from the Greek word αριθμός = number is the oldest and most elementary branch of mathematics used by almost everyone Geometry ( Greek γεωμετρία; geo = earth metria = measure is a part of Mathematics concerned with questions of size shape and relative position Music is an Art form in which the medium is Sound organized in Time. Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study In medieval universities, the trivium comprised the three subjects taught first Grammar, Logic, and Rhetoric. The quadrivium comprised the four subjects or arts taught in Medieval universities after the trivium. To the higher instruction belonged dogmatic and moral theology, whose source was the Scriptures and the Fathers, and which was completed by the study of Canon law. Dogmatic Theology is that part of theology which treats the theoretical truths of faith concerning God and his works whereas Moral theology has Ethics is a branch of Philosophy dealing with right and wrong in human behavior Canon Law, the Ecclesiastical law of the Catholic Church, is a fully developed legal system with all the necessary elements courts lawyers judges a fully articulated

The school of St-Victor then arose to rival those of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève, founded by William of Champeaux when he withdrew to the Abbey of St-Victor. Its most famous professors are Hugh of St. Victor and Richard of St. Victor.

The plan of studies expanded in the schools of Paris, as it did elsewhere. A Bolognese compendium of canon law called the "Decretum Gratiani" brought about a division of the theology department. Bologna (boloɲa from Latin Bononia, Bulåggna in Bolognese dialect is the capital city of Emilia-Romagna in northern Italy The Decretum Gratiani or Concordia discordantium canonum (in some manuscripts Concordantia discordantium canonum) is a collection of Canon law compiled Hitherto the discipline of the Church had not been separate from so-called theology; they were studied together under the same professor. But this vast collection necessitated a special course, which was naturally undertaken first at Bologna, where Roman law was taught. Roman law is the legal system of Ancient Rome. As used in the West the term commonly refers to legal developments prior to the Roman/Byzantine state's adopting In France, first Orléans and then Paris erected chairs of canon law. This article is about the French city of Orléans for other meanings see Orleans (disambiguation. Before the end of the twelfth century, the Decretals of Gerard (or Girard) La Pucelle, Mathieu d'Angers, and Anselm (or Anselle) of Paris, were added to the Decretum Gratiani. Decretals ( Epistolae decretales) is the name that is given in Canon law to those letters of the Pope which formulate decisions in ecclesiastical law Gerard la Pucelle was an Anglo-French scholar of Canon law, clerk and Bishop of Coventry. However, civil law was not included at Paris. Civil law or Romano-Germanic law or Continental law is the predominant system of law in the world.

In the course of the twelfth century, medicine also began to be publicly taught at Paris: the first professor of medicine in Paris records is Hugo, "physicus excellens qui quadrivium docuit. Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the "

Two things were necessary to be a professor: knowledge and appointment. Knowledge was proved by examination, the appointment came from the examiner himself, who was the head of the school, and was known as scholasticus, capiscol, and eventually as "chancellor". To examine somebody or something is to inspect it closely hence an examination is a detailed inspection or analysis of an object or person This was called the licence or faculty to teach. The verb license or grant license means to give permission The noun license is the document demonstrating that permission The licence had to be granted freely. No one could teach without it; on the other hand, it could not be refused when the applicant deserved it.

The School of St-Victor, which shared the obligations as well as the immunities of the abbey, conferred the licence in its own right; the school of Notre-Dame depended on the diocese, that of Ste-Geneviève on the abbey or chapter. The diocese and the abbey or chapter, through their chancellor, gave professorial investiture in their respective territories where they had jurisdiction.

Besides Notre-Dame, Ste-Geneviève, and St-Victor, there were several schools on the "Island" and on the "Mount". "Whoever", says Crevier "had the right to teach might open a school where he pleased, provided it was not in the vicinity of a principal school". Thus a certain Adam, who was of English origin, kept his "near the Petit Pont"; another Adam, Parisian by birth, "taught at the Grand Pont which is called the Pont-au-Change" (Hist. The Petit Pont ( Little Bridge) is a bridge crossing the River Seine in Paris, built in 1853, although a structure has crossed the river The Pont au Change is a Bridge over the Seine River in Paris, France. de l'Univers. de Paris, I, 272).

The number of students in the school of the capital grew constantly, so that eventually the lodgings were insufficient. French students included princes of the blood, sons of the nobility, and the most distinguished youths of the kingdom. The courses at Paris were considered so necessary as a completion of studies that many foreigners flocked to them. Popes Celestine II, Adrian IV and Innocent III studied at Paris, and Alexander III sent his nephews there. Pope Celestine II (died March 8, 1144) born Guido di Castello, was Pope from 1143 to 1144 Pope Adrian IV (or Hadrian IV – c 1100&ndash 1 September, 1159) born Nicholas Breakspear or Breakspeare, was Pope Pope Innocent III ( February 22, 1161 &ndash June 16, 1216) born Lotario de' Conti di Segni, was Pope from January Pope Alexander III (c 1100/1105 &ndash August 30, 1181) born Rolando (or Orlando) Bandinelli, was Pope from 1159 Illustrious German and British students included Otto of Freisingen, Cardinal Conrad, Archbishop of Mainz, St. Thomas of Canterbury, and John of Salisbury; while Ste-Geneviève became practically the seminary for Denmark. Otto von Freising ( Otto Frisingensis) (c 1114 in Klosterneuburg – September 22, 1158) was a German Bishop and chronicler St Thomas Becket (c 1118 &ndash December 29, 1170) was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1162 to 1170 John of Salisbury (c 1120 &ndash 1180 English author diplomat and Bishop of Chartres, was born at Salisbury. The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe The chroniclers of the time call Paris the city of letters par excellence, placing it above Athens, Alexandria, Rome, and other cities: "At that time", we read in the "Chroniques de St-Denis", "there flourished at Paris philosophy and all branches of learning, and there the seven arts were studied and held in such esteem as they never were at Athens, Egypt, Rome, or elsewhere in the world" ("Les gestes de Philippe-Auguste"). Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's Alexandria ( Egyptian Arabic: اسكندريه Eskendereyya; Standard Arabic: ar الإسكندرية Al-Iskandariyya; Ἀλεξάνδρεια Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Poets said the same thing in their verses, and they compared it to all that was greatest, noblest, and most valuable in the world.

The Sorbonne covered in snow
The Sorbonne covered in snow

Soon, the university required greater organization to maintain order among the students and define the relations of the professors. First, the professors formed an association, for according to Matthew Paris, John of Celles, twenty-first Abbot of St Albans, England, was admitted as a member of the teaching corps of Paris after he had followed the courses (Vita Joannis I, XXI, abbat. Matthew Paris (c 1200 &ndash 1259 was a Benedictine monk English chronicler, artist in Illuminated manuscripts and Cartographer St Albans Cathedral (formerly St Albans Abbey, officially The Cathedral and Abbey Church of St Alban) is an Anglican church at S. Alban). The masters as well as the students were divided according to national origin, for as the same historian states, Henry II, King of England, in his difficulties with St. Thomas of Canterbury, wished to submit his cause to a tribunal composed of professors of Paris, chosen from various provinces (Hist. major, Henry II, to end of 1169). This was probably the beginnings of that division according to "nations" which was later to play an important part in the university. A nation is a Human Cultural and Social Community. In as much as most members never meet each other yet feel a common bond it may be considered After a decision made by Celestine III, both professors and students had the privilege of being amenable only to the ecclesiastical courts, not to civil courts. Other decisions dispensed them from residence in case they possessed benefices and permitted them to receive their revenues.

The three schools of Notre-Dame, Ste-Geneviève, and St-Victor may be regarded as the triple cradle of the Universitas scholarium, which included masters and students; hence the name University. Heinrich Denifle and some others hold that this honour is exclusive to the school of Notre-Dame (Chartularium Universitatis Parisiensis), but the reasons do not seem convincing. Henry Denifle, in German Heinrich Seuse Denifle ( January 16, 1844, Imst, Austrian Tyrol - June 10, He excludes St-Victor because, at the request of the abbot and the religious of St-Victor, Gregory IX in 1237 authorized them to resume the interrupted teaching of theology. But the university was in large part founded about 1208, as is shown by a Bull of Innocent III. Consequently the schools of St-Victor might well have furnished their contingent towards its formation. Secondly, Denifle excludes the schools of Ste-Geneviève because there had been no interruption in the teaching of the liberal arts. Now this is far from proved, and moreover, it seems incontestable that theology also had never ceased to be taught, which is sufficient for our point. Besides, the chancellor of Ste-Geneviève continued to give degrees in arts, something he would have ceased to have done when the university was organized if his abbey had no share in its organization. And while the name Universitas scholarium is quite intelligible on the basis of the common opinion, it is incompatible with the recent (Denifle's) view, according to which there would have been schools outside the university.

Organization in the thirteenth century

Meeting of doctors at the university of Paris. From a medieval manuscript.
Meeting of doctors at the university of Paris. From a medieval manuscript.

In 1200, King Philip II issued a diploma "for the security of the scholars of Paris" that made the students subject only to ecclesiastical jurisdiction. Philip II Augustus (Philippe Auguste ( 21 August[[ 165]] &ndash 14 July 1223) was the King of France from 1180 until his death The provost and other officers were forbidden to arrest a student for any offence, unless this was done to hand over the culprit to ecclesiastical authority, for in the event of grave crime royal justice was limited to taking cognizance of the procedure and the verdict. The king's officers could never lay hands on the head of the schools or even on a simple region unless they had a mandate from an ecclesiastical authority. This action was motivated at least in part by a violent incident between students and officers outside the city walls at a pub.

In 1215, the statues of the Apostolic legate, Robert de Courçon, dealt with three principal points regarding the moral and intellectual part of university instruction: the conditions of the professorate, the matter to be treated, and the granting of the license. Robert of Courçon (born at Kedleston, England died at Damietta, 1218 was an English cardinal To teach the arts it was necessary to have reached the age of twenty-one, after having studied these arts at least six years, and to take an engagement as professor for at least two years. For a chair in theology the candidate had to be thirty years of age with eight years of theological studies, of which the last three years were devoted to special courses of lectures in preparation for the mastership. These studies had to be made in the local schools and under the direction of a master, for at Paris one was not regarded as a scholar unless he had a particular master. Lastly, purity of morals was as important as reading. Priscian's "Grammar", Aristotle's "Dialectics", mathematics, astronomy, music, certain books of rhetoric and philosophy were the subjects taught in the arts course; to these might be added the Ethics of the Stagyrite and the fourth book of the Topics. Priscianus Caesariensis ( fl 500 AD commonly known as Priscian, was a Latin grammarian. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. But it was forbidden to read the books of Aristotle on Metaphysics and Physics, or abbreviations of them. The licence was granted, according to custom, gratuitously, without oath or condition. Masters and students were permitted to unite, even by oath, in defence of their rights, when they could not otherwise obtain justice in serious matters. No mention is made either of law or of medicine, probably because these sciences were less prominent.

In 1229, a denial of justice by the queen led to suspension of the courses (see University of Paris strike of 1229). In 1229, a student riot at the University of Paris resulted in the deaths of a number of students and the ensuing "dispersion" or Student strike The pope intervened with a Bull that began with lavish praise of the university: "Paris", said Gregory IX, "mother of the sciences, is another Cariath-Sepher, city of letters". Pope Gregory IX, born Ugolino di Conti, was Pope from March 19, 1227 to August He compared it to a laboratory in which wisdom tested the metals which she found there, gold and silver to adorn the Spouse of Jesus Christ, iron to fashion the spiritual sword which should smite the inimical powers. He commissioned the Bishops of Le Mans and Senlis and the Archdeacon of Châlons to negotiate with the French Court for the restoration of the university. The year 1230 came to an end without any result, and Gregory IX took the matter directly in hand by a Bull of 1231 addressed to the masters and scholars of Paris. Not content with settling the dispute and giving guarantees for the future, he empowered the university to frame statutes concerning the discipline of the schools, the method of instruction, the defence of theses, the costume of the professors, and the obsequies of masters and students (expanding upon Robert de Courçon's statutes). Most importantly, the pope recognized in the university or granted it the right to suspend its courses, if justice were denied it, until it should receive full satisfaction.

In the schools of Paris, the general rule was that the granting of licence was gratuitous and instruction was also free. However, it was often necessary to depart from the rule. Thus the pope authorized Pierre Le Mangeur to levy a moderate fee for the conferring of the licence. Similar fees were exacted for the first degree in arts and letters, and the scholars were taxed two sous weekly, to be deposited in the common fund.

The Rector

The university was organized as follows: at the head of the teaching body was a rector. The word rector ("ruler" from the Latin regere and Rector meaning "Teacher" In Latin has a number of different meanings but all of them indicate an academic The office was elective and of short duration; at first it was limited to four or six weeks. Simon de Brion, legate of the Holy See in France, realizing that such frequent changes caused serious inconvenience, decided that the rectorate should last three months, and this rule was observed for three years. Pope Martin IV (between 1210 and 1220 &ndash March 28, 1285) born Simon de Brion, held the Papacy from February 21, 1281 Then the term was lengthened to one, two, and sometimes three years. The right of election belonged to the procurators of the four nations. A nation (Latin natio meaning being born) was a regional corporation of Students at a Medieval university.

The four nations

Main article: Nation (university corporation)

The "Nations" appeared in the second half of the twelfth century; they were mentioned in the Bull of Honorius III in 1222 and in that of Gregory IX in 1231; later they formed a distinct body. A nation (Latin natio meaning being born) was a regional corporation of Students at a Medieval university. Pope Honorius III (1148 &ndash March 18 1227) born Cencio, was Pope from 1216 to 1227 Pope Gregory IX, born Ugolino di Conti, was Pope from March 19, 1227 to August In 1249 the four nations existed with their procurators, their rights (more or less well-defined), and their keen rivalries; and in 1254, in the heat of the controversy between the university and the mendicant orders, a letter was addressed to the pope bearing the seals of the four nations. The mendicant orders are religious orders which depend directly on the charity of the people for their livelihood These were the French, English, Normans, and Picards. After the Hundred Years' War the English nation was replaced by the Germanic or German. The four nations constituted the faculty of arts or letters. The Faculty of Arts was one of the four traditional divisions of the teaching bodies of medieval universities the others being Theology, Law and Medicine The expression "faculty", though of ancient usage, did not mean what it does in modern American English; instead, it indicated a division by subject within the university (as it still does in British English). Phonology North American English regional phonology In many ways compared to English English, North American English is conservative in its Phonology. British English or UK English ( BrE, BE, en-GB) is the broad term used to distinguish the forms of the English language used in the In a Bull of Gregory IX the word is used to designate the professional body, and it may have had the same meaning in a university Act of 1221 (cf. Pope Gregory IX, born Ugolino di Conti, was Pope from March 19, 1227 to August "Hist. Universitatis Parisiensis", III, 106).

Faculties

To classify professors' knowledge, the schools of Paris divided into faculties. These arose gradually and consequently no precise account of their origin can be given. Professors of the same science were brought into closer contact until the community of rights and interests cemented the union and made them distinct groups, which at the same time remained integral parts of the teaching body. The faculty of medicine seems to have been the last to form. But the four faculties were already formally designated in a letter addressed in Feb. , 1254, by the university to the prelates of Christendom, wherein mention is made of "theology, jurisprudence, medicine, and rational, natural, and moral philosophy". In the celebrated Bull "Quasi Lignum" (April, 1255), Pope Alexander IV speaks of "the faculties of theology" of other "faculties", namely those of canonists, physicians, and artists. Pope Alexander IV (1199 or ca 1185 &ndash May 25 1261) was Pope from 1254 until his death The masters of theology often set the example for the other faculties, e. g. they were the first to adopt an official seal.

The faculties of theology, or canon law, and medicine, were called "superior faculties". The title of "Dean" as designating the head of a faculty, was not in use until the second half of the thirteenth century. In Academic administration, a dean is a person with significant authority over a specific academic unit or over a specific area of concern or both This habit seems to have started in the faculties of decretals and medicine, followed by the faculty of theology, for in authentic acts of 1268 we read of the deans of decretals and medicine, while the dean of theology is not mentioned until 1296. It seems that at first the deans were the oldest masters. The faculty of arts continued to have four procurators of its four nations and its head was the rector. As the faculties became more fully organized, the division into four nations partially disappeared for theology, decretals and medicine, though it continued in arts. Eventually the superior faculties were to include only doctors, leaving the bachelors to the nations. At this period, therefore, the university had two principal degrees, the baccalaureate and the doctorate. A degree is any of a wide range of status levels conferred by institutions of Higher education, such as universities, normally as the result of successfully completing A bachelor's degree is usually an Undergraduate Academic degree awarded for a course or major that generally lasts for three four or in some cases and A doctorate is an Academic degree that indicates the highest level of academic achievement It was not until much later that the licentiate and the DEA, while retaining their early characters, became intermediate degrees: Besides, the university numbered among its members beadles and messengers, who also performed the duties of clerks. Licentiate (from Latin licentia docendi = permission/right to teach is the title of a person who holds an Academic degree called a License.

Colleges

Rue Saint-Jacques and the Sorbonne in Paris
Rue Saint-Jacques and the Sorbonne in Paris

The scattered condition of the scholars in Paris often made lodging difficult. Some students rented rooms from townspeople, who often exacted high rates while the students demanded lower. This tension between scholars and citizens would have developed into a sort of civil war if Robert de Courçon had not found the remedy of taxation. It was upheld in the Bull of Gregory IX of 1231, but with an important modification: its exercise was to be shared with the citizens. The aim was to offer the students a shelter where they would fear neither annoyance from the owners nor the dangers of the world. Thus were founded the colleges (colligere, to assemble); these were not usually centers of instruction, but simple student boarding-houses. College ( Latin collegium) is a term most often used today to denote an Educational Institution. Each had a special object, being established for students of the same nationality or the same science. They also enabled students to use their time more wisely, under the guidance sometimes of resident masters and out of the way of dissipation.

Four colleges appeared in the twelfth century; they became more numerous in the thirteenth, including Collège d'Harcourt (1280) and the Collège de Sorbonne (1257). The lycée Saint-Louis is a higher education establishment located in the VIe arrondissement of Paris, in the Latin Quarter. This article is about the Collège de Sorbonne. For other uses of the name see Sorbonne. Thus the University of Paris, which in general was the model for other universities, assumed its basic form. It was composed of seven groups, the four nations of the faculty of arts, and the three superior faculties of theology, law, and medicine. Ecclesiastical dignities, even abroad, seemed reserved for the masters and students of Paris. This preference became a general rule, and eventually a right, that of eligibility to benefices. Church officials lavishly praised the university: St. Louis, in the diploma which he granted to the Carthusians for their establishment near Paris, speaks of this city, where "flow the most abundant waters of wholesome doctrine, so that they become a great river which after refreshing the city itself irrigates the Universal Church". Clement IV uses a no less charming comparison: "the noble and renowned city, the city which is the source of learning and sheds over the world a light which seems an image of the celestial splendour; those who are taught there shine brilliantly, and those who teach there will shine with the stars for all eternity" (cf. Pope Clement IV ( Saint-Gilles-du-Gard, November 23, year ca 1195 &ndash November 29, 1268 in Viterbo) born Gui Faucoi César-Egasse du Boulay, "Hist. César-Egasse du Boulay (b at the beginning of the seventeenth century at Saint-Ellier, Mayenne, 16 October[[ 678]] known as Bulaeus, was a Univers. Paris", III, 360-71).

Besides the famous Collège de Sorbonne, other collegia provided housing and meals to students, sometimes for those of the same geographical origin in a more restricted sense than that represented by the nations. There were 8 or 9 collegia for foreign students: the oldest one was the Danish college, the Collegium danicum or dacicum, founded in 1257. Swedish students could, during the 13 and 14th centuries, live in one of three Swedish colleges, the Collegium Upsaliense, the Collegium Scarense or the Collegium Lincopense, named after the Swedish dioceses of Uppsala, Skara and Linköping, the cathedral schools of which the scholars had presumably attended before travelling to Paris. Uppsala ˈɵpˌsɑːla (older spelling Upsala) is the capital of Uppsala County ( Uppsala län) and the fourth largest city of Skara (pop 10700 is a city in Västergötland, Sweden, an Episcopal see and the seat of Skara Municipality, Västra Götaland Linköping is a city in southern Sweden, with a population of 97885 (2006 The first cathedral schools originated in the Early Middle Ages. The German College, Collegium alemanicum is mentioned as early as 1345, the Scottish college or Collegium scoticum was founded in 1325. The Lombard college or Collegium lombardicum was founded in the 1330s. The Collegium constantinopolitanum was, according to a tradition, founded in the 13th century to facilitate a merging of the eastern and western churches. It was later reorganized as a French institution, the Collège de la Marche-Winville. The Collège de Montaigu was founded by the Archbishop of Rouen in the 14th century, and reformed in the 15th century by the humanist Jan Standonck, when it attracted reformers from within the Roman Catholic Church (such as Erasmus and Loyola) and those who subsequently became Protestants (John Calvin and John Knox). The Collège de Montaigu was one of the constituent Colleges of the Faculty of Arts of the University of Paris. Humanism is a broad category of ethical philosophies that affirm the dignity and worth of all people based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appealing to universal Jan Standonck (1454&ndash1504 (or Jan or Jean Standonk) was a Dutch Priest and Reformer. Loyola may refer to People Ignatius of Loyola, a Catholic saint Martín Ignacio de Loyola, Franciscan friar and circumnavigator Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. John Calvin (or Jean Calvin) (10 July 1509 – 27 May 1564 was a French Protestant theologian during the Protestant Reformation and John Knox (c 1510 – 24 November 1572 was a Scottish clergyman and leader of the Protestant Reformation who is considered the founder of the Presbyterian

Later history

The Old Sorbonne before the fire in 1670.
The Old Sorbonne before the fire in 1670.

In the fifteenth century, Guillaume d'Estouteville, a cardinal and Apostolic legate, carried out a project to reform the university, correcting its abuses and introducing various needed modifications. Guillaume d'Estouteville (1403 &ndash 1483 was a French ecclesiastic He was Bishop of Angers, then Bishop of Digne, Archbishop of Rouen Nuncio is an ecclesiastical Diplomatic title, derived from the ancient Latin word Nuntius, meaning "envoy This reform was less an innovation than a recall to the better observance of the old rules, as was the reform of 1600, undertaken by the royal government, with regard to the three superior faculties. However, as to the faculty of arts, the reform of 1600 introduced the study of Greek, of the French poets and orators, and of additional classical figures like Hesiod, Plato, Demosthenes, Cicero, Virgil, and Sallust. Hesiod ( Greek: Hesiodos) was an early Greek Poet and Rhapsode, who presumably lived around 700 BCE Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece For the Athenian general see Demosthenes (general. For the ancient physician see Demosthenes Philalethes. Marcus Tullius Cicero ( Classical Latin ˈkikeroː usually ˈsɪsərəʊ in English January 3, 106 BC &ndash December 7, 43 BC was a Roman Publius Vergilius Maro ( October 15, 70 BCE &ndash September 21, 19 BCE later called Virgilius, and known in English as Virgil or For the philosopher see Sallustius; for other uses see Sallust (disambiguation. The prohibition to teach civil law was never well observed at Paris, but in 1679 Louis XIV authorized the teaching of civil law in the faculty of decretals. Early years Birth and ancestry Louis XIV was born in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye on September 5 1638 and bore the Heir apparent Thus, the name "faculty of law" replaced that of "faculty of decretals". The colleges meantime had multiplied; those of Cardinal Le-Moine and Navarre were founded in the fourteenth century. The College of Navarre ( Collège de Navarre) was one of the Colleges of the historic University of Paris. The Hundred Years' War was fatal to these establishments, but the university set about remedying the injury.

Remarkable for its teaching, the University of Paris played an important part: in the Church, during the Great Schism; in the councils, in dealing with heresies and deplorable divisions; in the State, during national crises; and though under the domination of England it dishonoured itself in the trial of Joan of Arc, it rehabilitated itself by rehabilitating Joan. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland Joan of Arc (c 1412 Joan asserted that she had visions from God that told her to recover her homeland from English domination late in the Hundred Years' Proud of its rights and privileges, it fought energetically to maintain them, hence the long struggle against the mendicant orders on academic as well as on religious grounds. Hence also the shorter conflict against the Jesuits, who claimed by word and action a share in its teaching. The Society of Jesus ( Latin: Societas Iesu, SJ and SI or SJ, SI) is a Catholic religious order It made liberal use of its right to decide administratively according to occasion and necessity. In some instances it openly endorsed the censures of the faculty of theology and pronounced condemnation in its own name, as in the case of the Flagellants. Flagellants are practitioners of an extreme form of mortification of their own flesh by Whipping it with various instruments

Its patriotism was especially manifested on two occasions. During the captivity of King John, when Paris was given over to factions, the university sought to restore peace; and under Louis XIV, when the Spaniards crossed the Somme and threatened the capital, it placed two hundred men at the king's disposal and offered the Master of Arts degree gratuitously to scholars who should present certificates of service in the army (Jourdain, Hist. de l'Univers. de Paris au XVIIe et XVIIIe siècle, 132-34; Archiv. du ministère de l'instruction publique).

Suppression of the colleges and establishment of the University of France

The ancient university disappeared with ancient France under the Revolution. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an On 15 Sept. , 1793, petitioned by the Department of Paris and several departmental groups, the National Convention decided that independently of the primary schools, "there should be established in the Republic three progressive degrees of instruction; the first for the knowledge indispensable to artisans and workmen of all kinds; the second for further knowledge necessary to those intending to embrace the other professions of society; and the third for those branches of instruction the study of which is not within the reach of all men". During the French Revolution, the National Convention or Convention, in France, comprised the Constitutional and legislative assembly Measures were to be taken immediately: "For means of execution the department and the municipality of Paris are authorized to consult with the Committee of Public Instruction of the National Convention, in order that these establishments shall be put in action by 1 November next, and consequently colleges now in operation and the faculties of theology, medicine, arts, and law are suppressed throughout the Republic". This was the death-sentence of the university. It was not to be restored after the Revolution had subsided, any more than those of the provinces. All were replaced by a single centre, the University of France. The University of France (Université de France originally the Imperial University of France) was a highly centralized educational state organization founded by Napoleon After a century (in 1896), people recognized that the new system was less favourable to study and restored the old system, but without the faculty of theology.

Student revolt and reorganization

In 1968 it was the starting point of the cultural revolution commonly known as "the French May" (see also Situationist International), resulting in the closing of the university for only the third time in history (the first one in 1229 and the second having been the invasion by the German army of 1940). Year 1968 ( MCMLXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. For other events in May 1968 see 1968. The Situationist International ( SI) was a small group of international political and artistic Agitators with roots in Marxism, Lettrism and the In World War II, the Battle of France, also known as the Fall of France, was the German invasion of France and the Low Countries Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar.

The University of Paris has since been reorganised into several autonomous universities and schools, some of which still carry the Sorbonne name. The historical campus, located in the Quartier Latin, in the 5th arrondissement of Paris, featuring mural paintings by Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, was split for use between several of the universities of Paris, the prestigious École Nationale des Chartes and the Rector's services. The 5th arrondissement of Paris is one of the 20 arrondissements (administrative districts of the capital city of France. Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, ( 14 December 1824 – 24 October 1898) was a French painter, who became the president This article is about the school For the academic journal please see Bibliothèque de l'École des Chartes The École Nationale des Chartes is

La Sorbonne was occupied again in March 2006 as part of country-wide protests against the introduction of the CPE (first employment contract). The contrat première embauche ( CPE) translated first employment contract, was a new form of employment contract pushed in spring 2006 in France

Present universities

The Sorbonne as seen from the Rue des Écoles
The Sorbonne as seen from the Rue des Écoles

The thirteen successor universities to the University of Paris are now split over the three academies of the Île-de-France region. Île-de-France ( pronounced /il d̪ə fʁɑ̃s/ literally "Island of France" is one of the twenty-six administrative regions of France.

Thirteen successor universities

I Pantheon-Sorbonne University Website Academy of Paris Paris Centre Universités
II Pantheon-Assas University Website Academy of Paris Paris Universitas
III University of the New Sorbonne Website Academy of Paris Paris Universitas
IV Paris-Sorbonne University Website Academy of Paris
V René Descartes University Website Academy of Paris Paris Centre Universités
VI Pierre and Marie Curie University Website Academy of Paris Paris Universitas
VII Denis Diderot University Website Academy of Paris Paris Centre Universités
VIII University of Vincennes in Saint-Denis Website Academy of Créteil Université de Paris Île-de-France
IX Paris Dauphine University Website Academy of Paris Paris Universitas
X University of Nanterre Website Academy of Versailles
XI University of Paris-Sud Website Academy of Versailles UniverSud Paris
XII University of Val-de-Marne Website Academy of Créteil Université Paris-Est
XIII University of Paris-Nord Website Academy of Créteil Université de Paris Île-de-France

Six alliances of universities

Paris Universitas
Paris Universitas

Most of these universities have joined, or are in the process of forming (March 2008), new groupings along the lines of a collegiate university. This is a list of the eighty-three autonomous public universities in France including the one French "university centre" which are distinguished as being state institutes of higher education Paris Centre Universités is the alliance of three Parisian universities which each one constitutes a reference in its disciplinary fields Université Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne This is a list of the eighty-three autonomous public universities in France including the one French "university centre" which are distinguished as being state institutes of higher education Paris Universitas is an alliance or affiliation of six Parisian institutions of higher education which serve as a reference in their disciplinary fields The University of the New Sorbonne ( Université de la Sorbonne Nouvelle, also known as Paris III is a Public university in Paris, France This is a list of the eighty-three autonomous public universities in France including the one French "university centre" which are distinguished as being state institutes of higher education Paris Universitas is an alliance or affiliation of six Parisian institutions of higher education which serve as a reference in their disciplinary fields Paris-Sorbonne University (Paris IV, (Université Paris-Sorbonne (Paris IV is a university in Paris, France. This is a list of the eighty-three autonomous public universities in France including the one French "university centre" which are distinguished as being state institutes of higher education University of Paris Descartes is one of the main Paris universities with a strong focus on: Medical Sciences (Medicine Dental Medicine Pharmacy Psychology This is a list of the eighty-three autonomous public universities in France including the one French "university centre" which are distinguished as being state institutes of higher education Paris Centre Universités is the alliance of three Parisian universities which each one constitutes a reference in its disciplinary fields Université Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne Pierre and Marie Curie University ( Université Pierre et Marie Curie or UPMC - Paris Universitas or Paris 6) is a French University This is a list of the eighty-three autonomous public universities in France including the one French "university centre" which are distinguished as being state institutes of higher education Paris Universitas is an alliance or affiliation of six Parisian institutions of higher education which serve as a reference in their disciplinary fields Paris Diderot University ( also known as Université Paris 7 - Denis Diderot) is a University in Paris, France. This is a list of the eighty-three autonomous public universities in France including the one French "university centre" which are distinguished as being state institutes of higher education Paris Centre Universités is the alliance of three Parisian universities which each one constitutes a reference in its disciplinary fields Université Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne The University of Paris VIII or University of Vincennes in Saint-Denis (french Université de Vincennes à Saint-Denis) was founded in 1969 as a direct This is a list of the eighty-three autonomous public universities in France including the one French "university centre" which are distinguished as being state institutes of higher education Dauphine University Paris ( Université de technologie en sciences des organisations et de la décision de Paris-Dauphine or Université Paris-Dauphine, formerly This is a list of the eighty-three autonomous public universities in France including the one French "university centre" which are distinguished as being state institutes of higher education Paris Universitas is an alliance or affiliation of six Parisian institutions of higher education which serve as a reference in their disciplinary fields The Paris X University Nanterre is a French university in the Academy of Versailles. This is a list of the eighty-three autonomous public universities in France including the one French "university centre" which are distinguished as being state institutes of higher education Paris-Sud 11 University ( ( Université Paris-Sud 11) is a French university distributed among several campuses in the southern suburb of Paris (including This is a list of the eighty-three autonomous public universities in France including the one French "university centre" which are distinguished as being state institutes of higher education Paris 12 Val de Marne University ( Université Paris 12 Val de Marne) was inaugurated in 1970. This is a list of the eighty-three autonomous public universities in France including the one French "university centre" which are distinguished as being state institutes of higher education Paris 13 University ( Université Paris 13 or UP13 is one of the thirteen universities which replaced the University of Paris in 1968 This is a list of the eighty-three autonomous public universities in France including the one French "university centre" which are distinguished as being state institutes of higher education A collegiate university is a University whose functions are divided between the central administration of the university and a number of constituent colleges Typically, these groupings take the legal form of a Center for Research and Higher Education (Pôle de Recherche et d'Enseignement Supérieur, or PRES), though some have opted for other forms of organization.

There are five such centers in the Paris region:

In the Paris region, these thirteen universities are joined by four other public universities that historically were not part of the University of Paris system. One of these is in the Academy of Paris: the University of Marne la Vallée (also part of Université Paris-Est). The three others are in the Academy of Versailles: the University of Cergy-Pontoise (part of the PRES Cergy-Pontoise Val-d'Oise), the University of Versailles, Saint Quentin en Yvelines (also part of UniverSud Paris), and the University of Evry - Val d'Essonne. The Université d'Évry Val-d'Essonne (UEVE is a university in Évry, France.

See also

Lecture hall.
Lecture hall.

Further reading

External links

References

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