Degree ceremony at the University of Oxford. Graduation is the action of receiving or conferring an Academic degree or the associated ceremony The University of Oxford (informally "Oxford University" or simply "Oxford" located in the city of Oxford, Oxfordshire, England is the The Pro-Vice-Chancellor in MA gown and hood, Proctor in official dress and new Doctors of Philosophy in scarlet full dress. In the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge and Dublin, the degree of Master of Arts or Master in Arts ( MA) is awarded to Bachelors Proctor, an English variant of the word procurator, is a person who takes charge of or acts for another "PhD" redirects here for other uses see PhD (disambiguation. Behind them, a bedel, another Doctor and Bachelors of Arts and Medicine. The bedel (from Medieval Latin pedellus or bidellus, occasionally bidellus generalis, from OHG bital, pital,

A university is an institution of higher education and research, which grants academic degrees in a variety of subjects. Higher education is Education that is provided by universities, vocational universities, Community colleges Liberal arts colleges Research is defined as Human activity based on Intellectual application in the investigation of Matter. A degree is any of a wide range of status levels conferred by institutions of Higher education, such as universities, normally as the result of successfully completing A university provides both undergraduate education and postgraduate education. In some Educational systems undergraduate education is Post-secondary education up to the level of a Bachelor's degree. See also Postgraduate Training in Education Postgraduate education (synonymous in North America with graduate education, and sometimes described The word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, roughly meaning "community of teachers and scholars". Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. ^[1]

History

Early history

Further information: List of oldest universities in continuous operation

Representation of a university class in the 1350s

The original Latin word "universitas", first used in time of renewed interest in Classical Greek and Roman tradition, tried to reflect this feature of the Academy of Plato (established 385 BC). This is a list of the oldest extant universities in the world. In the context of the art architecture and culture of Ancient Greece, the classical period corresponds to most of the 5th and 4th centuries Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC An academy ( Greek Ἀκαδημία is an institution of higher learning research or honorary membership The term "academia" is sometimes extended to a number of educational institutions of non-Western antiquity, including China, India and Persia:

• Academies such as Shang Hsiang, and later Taixue and Guozijian, succeeded by the medieval Academies of Classical Learning
• Taxila^[2] in Gandhara and the Buddhist Nalanda University^[3] in Bihar, India (5th century BC)
• The Sassanid Academy of Gundishapur was founded in the 5th century. Chinese civilization originated in various city-states along the Yellow River ( valley in the Neolithic era This article is about the history of South Asia prior to the Partition of British India in 1947 See Also Persian Empire History of Iran and Greater Iran (also referred to as the " Iranian Cultural Continent Shang Xiang ( was a school founded in the Yu Shun (虞舜 era in China. Taixue (Chinese 太学) which literally means Greatest Study or Learning was the highest rank of educational establishment in Ancient China between the Han Dynasty The Guozijian (國子監 guózǐjiàn) the School of the Sons of State sometimes called the Imperial Central School, Imperial Academy The Shūyuàn (书院 usually known in English as Academies or Academies of Classical Learning, were a type of school in ancient China. For the Genus of metalmark butterflies, see Taxila (butterfly. Gandhāra ( Sanskrit: गन्धार Urdu: گندھارا Gandḥārā; also known as Waihind in Persian is the name of an ancient Nālandā is the name of an ancient University in Bihar, India. Bihar ( Hindi:बिहार Urdu: بہار bɪhaːr) is a state in eastern India. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire The Academy of Gundishapur (in دانشگاه گنديشاپور Dânešgâh Gondišâpur was a renowned academy of learning in the city of Gundeshapur during Late antiquity

The University of Constantinople, founded as an institution of higher learning in 425 and reorganized as a corporation of students in 849 by the regent Bardas of emperor Michael III, is considered by some to be the earliest institution of higher learning with some of the characteristics we associate today with a university (research and teaching, auto-administration, academic independence, et cetera). The University of Constantinople, sometimes known as the University of the palace hall of Magnaura in the Byzantine Empire was recognised as a University For the US area code see Area code 425. Events By Place Western Roman Empire Events Asia In the Tang Dynasty Chinese capital city of Chang'an, an imperial prince was impeached from his position by officials at Bardas was the Regent (856-866 of Byzantine Emperor Michael III. Michael III the Drunkard (Μιχαήλ Γ΄ ο Μέθυσος Mikhaēl III ho Methysos) ( January 19, 840 &ndash September 23–24 867 If a university is defined as "an institution of higher learning" then it is preceded by several others, including the Academy that it was founded to compete with and eventually replaced. If the original meaning of the word is considered "a corporation of students" then this could be the first example of such an institution. ^[4]

If the definition of a university is assumed to mean an institution of higher education and research which issues academic degrees at all levels (bachelor, master and doctorate) like in the modern sense of the word, then the medieval Madrasahs known as Jami'ah ("university" in Arabic) founded in the 9th century would be the first examples of such an institution. A degree is any of a wide range of status levels conferred by institutions of Higher education, such as universities, normally as the result of successfully completing A bachelor's degree is usually an Undergraduate Academic degree awarded for a course or major that generally lasts for three four or in some cases and A doctorate is an Academic degree that indicates the highest level of academic achievement "Madrasa" and "Medrese" redirect here For the village in Azerbaijan see Mədrəsə. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language ^[5][6] The University of Al Karaouine in Fez, Morocco is thus recognized by the Guinness Book of World Records as the oldest degree-granting university in the world with its founding in 859 by the princess Fatima al-Fihri. The University of Al-Karaouine or Al-Qarawiyyin (جامعة القرويين (other transliterations of the name include Qarawiyin Kairouyine Kairaouine Qairawiyin Qaraouyine Fes or Fez ( Arabic: فاس, French Fès is the fourth largest City in Morocco, after Casablanca, Rabat Guinness World Records, known until 2000 as The Guinness Book of Records (and in previous U ^[7] Also in the 9th century, Bimaristan medical schools were founded in the medieval Islamic world, where medical degrees and diplomas were issued to students of Islamic medicine who were qualified to be a practicing Doctor of Medicine. Bimaristan is a Middle Persian and modern Persian ( بیمارستان bīmārestān) word meaning Hospital, with Bimar- A diploma (from Greek δίπλωµα diploma, meaning "folded paper" is a Certificate or Deed issued by an educational institution Doctor of Medicine ( MD or MD, from the Latin Medicinæ Doctor meaning "Teacher of Medicine" is a doctoral ^[6][8] Al-Azhar University, founded in Cairo, Egypt in 975, was a Jami'ah university which offered a variety of post-graduate degrees (Ijazah),^[6] and had individual faculties^[9] for a theological seminary, Islamic law and jurisprudence, Arabic grammar, Islamic astronomy, early Islamic philosophy, and logic in Islamic philosophy. Al-Azhar University (pronounced "az-HAR" الأزهر الشريف, "the Noble Azhar" in Egypt, founded in 975 is the chief centre of Cairo () which means "the Vanquisher" or "the Triumphant" is the capital and largest city of Egypt. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. An ijazah is a certificate used primarily by Muslims to indicate that one has been authorized by a higher authority to transmit a certain subject or text of Islamic knowledge A faculty is a division within a University. The concept of a university with different faculties for different subjects dates back to Al-Azhar University, which had A seminary, theological college, or divinity school is a specialized and often live-in Higher education institution for the purpose of instructing students Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. Fiqh ( Arabic: فقه, fɪqəh is Islamic Jurisprudence. Fiqh is an expansion of the Sharia Islamic law—based directly on the Arabic is a Semitic language See Arabic language for more information on the language in general Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar Logic ( Arabic: Mantiq) played an important role in Early Islamic philosophy. ^[6]

Medieval universities

The University of Salamanca in Spain, founded 1218

Main article: Medieval university

The first higher education institution in medieval Europe was the University of Constantinople, followed by the University of Salerno (9th century), the Preslav Literary School and Ohrid Literary School in the Bulgarian Empire (9th century). The University of Salamanca (Universidad de Salamanca located in the town of Salamanca, west of Madrid, is the oldest university in Spain (the older Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. This article is about Western European institutions See also Medieval university (Asia and Byzantine university Medieval university The University of Constantinople, sometimes known as the University of the palace hall of Magnaura in the Byzantine Empire was recognised as a University The University of Salerno ( Italian: Università degli Studi di Salerno, UNISA is a university located in Salerno, Italy. The Preslav Literary School (Pliska Literary School was the first literary school in the medieval Bulgarian Empire. The Ohrid Literary School was one of the two major medieval Bulgarian cultural centres along with the Preslav Literary School ( Pliska Literary School) Bulgarian Empire (Българско царство Balgarsko tsarstvo ˈʦar The first degree-granting universities in Europe were the University of Bologna (1088), the University of Paris (c. The University of Bologna (Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna UNIBO) is one of the oldest continually operating degree-granting universities in the world The historic University of Paris (Université de Paris first appeared in the second half of the 13th century 1150, later associated with the Sorbonne), the University of Oxford (1167), the University of Cambridge (1209), the University of Salamanca (1218), the University of Montpellier (1220), the University of Padua (1222), the University of Naples Federico II (1224), and the University of Toulouse (1229). The University of Oxford (informally "Oxford University" or simply "Oxford" located in the city of Oxford, Oxfordshire, England is the The University of Cambridge (often Cambridge University) located in Cambridge, England, is the second-oldest university in the The University of Salamanca (Universidad de Salamanca located in the town of Salamanca, west of Madrid, is the oldest university in Spain (the older The University of Montpellier (Université Montpellier was a French University in Montpellier in the Languedoc-Roussillon région The University of Padua ( Italian Università degli Studi di Padova, UNIPD) located in Padua, Italy, was founded in 1222 The University of Naples Federico II (Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II is a university located in Naples, Italy. The University of Toulouse ' is a consortium of universities and other institutions of higher education and research named after one of the earliest universities established ^[10][11] Some scholars such as George Makdisi,^[5] John Makdisi^[12] and Hugh Goddard^[13] argue that these medieval universities were influenced in many ways by the medieval Madrasah institutions in Islamic Spain, the Emirate of Sicily, and the Middle East (during the Crusades). "Madrasa" and "Medrese" redirect here For the village in Azerbaijan see Mədrəsə. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or The Emirate of Sicily was an Islamic state on the island of Sicily from 965 to 1072. The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents

The earliest universities in Western Europe were developed under the aegis of the Catholic Church, usually as cathedral schools or by papal bull as Studia Generali (NB: The development of cathedral schools into Universities actually appears to be quite rare, with the University of Paris being an exception - see Leff, Paris and Oxford Universities), later they were also founded by Kings (Charles University in Prague, Jagiellonian University in Krakow) or municipal administrations (University of Cologne, University of Erfurt). A Papal bull is a particular type of Letters patent or charter issued by a Pope. Studium Generale is the old name for a Medieval university which was registered as an institution of international excellence by the Holy Roman Empire. Charles University in Prague (also simply Charles University; Univerzita Karlova v Praze Universitas Carolina Karls-Universität zu Prag is the oldest and largest For several academies alternatively called "Krakow Academy" see Education in Kraków The Jagiellonian University (Uniwersytet The University of Cologne ( German Universität zu Köln) is one of the oldest universities in Europe and with over 44000 students one The University of Erfurt is a German University History The University of Erfurt was founded in 1392 as the third university in the territory In the early medieval period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools, usually when these schools were deemed to have become primarily sites of higher education. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries.

In Europe, young men proceeded to university when they had completed their study of the trivium–the preparatory arts of grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic or logic–and the quadrivium: arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. In medieval universities, the trivium comprised the three subjects taught first Grammar, Logic, and Rhetoric. Grammar is the field of Linguistics that covers the Rules governing the use of any given natural language. Rhetoric has had many definitions no simple definition can do it justice In classical Philosophy, dialectic (διαλεκτική is controversy the exchange of arguments and counter-arguments respectively advocating Propositions Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference. The quadrivium comprised the four subjects or arts taught in Medieval universities after the trivium. Arithmetic or arithmetics (from the Greek word αριθμός = number is the oldest and most elementary branch of mathematics used by almost everyone Geometry ( Greek γεωμετρία; geo = earth metria = measure is a part of Mathematics concerned with questions of size shape and relative position Music is an Art form in which the medium is Sound organized in Time. Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study (See Degrees of the University of Oxford for the history of how the trivium and quadrivium developed in relation to degrees, especially in anglophone universities). This article concerns the degrees of the University of Oxford. An Anglophone (or anglophone) is someone who speaks the English language.

Outside of Europe, there were many notable institutions of learning throughout history. In China, there was the famous Hanlin Academy, established during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD), and was once headed by the Chancellor Shen Kuo (1031-1095), a famous Chinese scientist, inventor, mathematician, and statesman. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The Hanlin Academy ( Chinese: 翰林院 Pinyin: Hànlín Yuàn, literally "brush wood court" was founded in China by Emperor The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by Shen Kuo or Shen Kua ( (1031&ndash1095 style name Cunzhong and pseudonym Mengqi Weng, was a Polymathic Chinese

Modern universities

The tower of the University of Coimbra, the oldest Portuguese university

Main article: History of European research universities

The end of the medieval period marked the beginning of the transformation of universities that would eventually result in the modern research university. The University of Coimbra (UC ( Portuguese: Universidade de Coimbra, pron Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. research universities have a long history that arguably dates back to the founding of the University of Bologna in 1088 although the University of Paris and the University Many external influences, such as eras of humanism, Enlightenment, Reformation, and revolution, shaped research universities during their development. Renaissance Humanism was a European intellectual movement beginning in Florence in the last decades of the 14th century The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time

By the 18th century, universities published their own research journals, and by the 19th century, the German and the French university models had arisen. An academic journal is a peer-reviewed Periodical in which scholarship relating to a particular Academic discipline is published The German, or Humboldtian model, was conceived by Wilhelm von Humboldt and based on Friedrich Schleiermacher’s liberal ideas pertaining to the importance of freedom, seminars, and laboratories in universities. Friedrich Wilhelm Christian Karl Ferdinand Freiherr von Humboldt ( June 22, 1767 April 8, 1835) government functionary Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher (ˈʃlaɪɐmaxɐ ( November 21, 1768 &ndash February 12, 1834) was a German theologian Freedom, or the idea of being free is a broad concept that Seminar is generally a form of Academic instruction either at a University or offered by a commercial or professional organization A laboratory (informally lab) is a facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific Research, Experiments and The French university model involved strict discipline and control over every aspect of the university.

Universities concentrated on science in the 19th and 20th centuries, and they started to become accessible to the masses after 1914. Until the 19th century, religion played a significant role in university curriculum; however, the role of religion in research universities decreased in the 19th century, and by the end of the 19th century, the German university model had spread around the world. A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos The British also established universities worldwide, and higher education became available to the masses not only in Europe. Higher education is Education that is provided by universities, vocational universities, Community colleges Liberal arts colleges In a general sense, the basic structure and aims of universities have remained constant over the years.

Organization

The University of Sydney is Australia's oldest university. The University of Sydney (informally Sydney Uni or USyd) is the oldest university in Australia For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics.

Although each institution is differently organized, nearly all universities have a board of trustees; a president, chancellor, or rector; at least one vice president, vice-chancellor, or vice-rector; and deans of various divisions. A Chancellor is the head of a University. Other titles are sometimes used such as President or Rector. The word rector ("ruler" from the Latin regere and Rector meaning "Teacher" In Latin has a number of different meanings but all of them indicate an academic Universities are generally divided into a number of academic departments, schools or faculties. A faculty is a division within a University. The concept of a university with different faculties for different subjects dates back to Al-Azhar University, which had Public university systems are ruled over by government-run higher education boards. A public university is a University that is predominantly funded by public means through a national or subnational government as opposed to private universities. They review financial requests and budget proposals and then allocate funds for each university in the system. They also approve new programs of instruction and cancel or make changes in existing programs. In addition, they plan for the further coordinated growth and development of the various institutions of higher education in the state or country. However, many public universities in the world have a considerable degree of financial, research and pedagogical autonomy. Private universities are privately funded and generally have a broader independence from state policies. Unlike Public universities, private universities generally do not receive direct operational funding from national or subnational governments and thus rely on private

Despite the variable policies, or cultural and economic standards available in different geographical locations create a tremendous disparity between universities around the world and even inside a country, the universities are usually among the foremost research and advanced training providers in every society. Most universities not only offer courses in subjects ranging from the natural sciences, engineering, architecture or medicine, to sports sciences, social sciences, law or humanities, they also offer many amenities to their student population including a variety of places to eat, banks, bookshops, print shops, job centres, and bars. In Science, the term natural science refers to a naturalistic approach to the study of the Universe, which is understood as obeying rules or law of Engineering is the Discipline and Profession of applying technical and scientific Knowledge and The term architecture (from Greek αρχιτεκτονικήarchitektoniki) can be used to mean a process a profession or documentation Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Sport Science is a discipline that studies the application of scientific principles and techniques with the aim of improving sporting performance The social sciences comprise academic disciplines concerned with the study of the social life of human groups and individuals including Anthropology, Communication studies Law is a system of rules enforced through a set of Institutions used as an instrument to underpin civil obedience politics economics and society The humanities are academic disciplines which study the Human condition, using methods that are primarily Analytic, Critical, or Speculative In addition, universities have a range of facilities like libraries, sports centers, students' unions, computer labs, and research laboratories. A library is a collection of information sources resources and services and the structure in which it is housed it is organized for use and maintained by a public body an institution A students' union, student government, student senate, students' association, or guild of students is a Student Organization A computer lab also known as a Computer Suite is typically a room which contains many networked Computers for public use A laboratory (informally lab) is a facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific Research, Experiments and In a number of countries, major classic universities usually have their own botanical gardens, astronomical observatories, business incubators and university hospitals. Botanical gardens grow a wide variety of Plants primarily to categorize and document for scientific purposes An observatory is a location used for observing terrestrial and/or celestial events Business incubators are programs designed to accelerate the successful development of Entrepreneurial companies through an array of business support resources and services developed A teaching hospital is a Hospital that in addition to delivering medical care to patients also provides Clinical education and training to future and current doctors

Universities around the world

Texas Tech University in Lubbock, Texas, US

See also: List of colleges and universities by country

The funding and organisation of universities varies widely between different countries around the world. Texas Tech University is a public, coeducational research university in Lubbock Texas. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the This is a list of universities, Colleges and other educational institutions providing Higher education (meaning tertiary, quaternary In some countries universities are predominantly funded by the state, while in others funding may come from donors or from fees which students attending the university must pay. In some countries the vast majority of students attend university in their local town, while in other countries universities attract students from all over the world, and may provide university accommodation for their students. ^[14]

Classification

Brooks Hall, home of the Terry College of Business at the University of Georgia in Athens, Georgia, US

Across the world there are very differing standards of legal definition of the term "university" and formal accreditation of institutions. The University of Georgia ( UGA) is a public research University located in Athens, Georgia, the oldest and largest of the Athens-Clarke County is a unified city-county in Georgia, US, in the northeastern part of the state at the intersection of U For example at one end of the scale there is no legal definition of the term in the United States. At the other, in the United Kingdom an institution can only use the term if it has been granted by the Privy Council, under the terms of the Further and Higher Education Act 1992. Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council is a body of advisors to the British Sovereign. The Further and Higher Education Acts 1992 made changes in the funding and administration of Further education and Higher education within the United Kingdom ^[15]

In many regions of the world, a university is any institution of higher education and research which grants autonomously a range of academic degrees in several fields, from bachelor's degrees to doctorate degrees, including masters' degrees, as well as honoris causa degrees and agrégation/habilitation diplomas in the places where these are used. Higher education is Education that is provided by universities, vocational universities, Community colleges Liberal arts colleges Research is defined as Human activity based on Intellectual application in the investigation of Matter. A degree is any of a wide range of status levels conferred by institutions of Higher education, such as universities, normally as the result of successfully completing A bachelor's degree is usually an Undergraduate Academic degree awarded for a course or major that generally lasts for three four or in some cases and A doctorate is an Academic degree that indicates the highest level of academic achievement An honorary degree or a degree honoris causa ( Latin: 'for the sake of the honour' is an Academic degree for which a university (or other degree-awarding In France, the agrégation is a civil service Competitive examination for some positions in the Public education system Habilitation is the highest academic qualification a person can achieve by their own pursuit in certain European and Asian countries Independently performed research conducted by universities includes both fundamental research and applied research. Basic Research is an Herbal supplement and cosmetics manufacturer based in Salt Lake City, Utah that distributes products through a large number of Applied research: is Research accessing and using some part of the research communities' (the Academy 's accumulated theories knowledge methods and techniques

Colloquial usage

Colloquially, the term university may be used to describe a phase in one's life: "when I was at university…" (in the United States and Ireland, college is used instead: "when I was in college. . . "). See the college article for further discussion. College ( Latin collegium) is a term most often used today to denote an Educational Institution. In Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the German speaking countries "university" is often contracted to "uni". The German language (both as an official language and as a minority language is spoken in a number of countries and territories in West and Central Europe In New Zealand and in South Africa it is sometimes called "varsity", which was also common usage in the UK in the 19th century.

Criticism

In his study of the American university since World War II, The Knowledge Factory, Stanley Aronowitz argues that the American university has been besieged by growing unemployment issues, the pressures of big business on the land grant university, as well as the political passivity and ivory tower naivety of American academics. Stanley Aronowitz (born 1933 is professor of Sociology, cultural studies and Urban education at the CUNY Graduate Center.

In a somewhat more theoretical vein, the late Bill Readings contends in his 1995 study The University in Ruins that the university around the world has been hopelessly commodified by globalization and the bureaucratic non-value of "excellence. " His view is that the university will continue to linger on as an increasingly consumerist, ruined institution until or unless society is able to conceive of advanced education in transnational ways that can move beyond both the national subject and the corporate enterprise.

Moreover, the social sciences, while studied by approximately 30% of the population, were previously pursued by only 3% or less. The social sciences comprise academic disciplines concerned with the study of the social life of human groups and individuals including Anthropology, Communication studies This means the bulk of arts and humanities degrees do not necessarily lead to improved access to employment opportunities. The arts is a broad subdivision of Culture, composed of many expressive disciplines. The humanities are academic disciplines which study the Human condition, using methods that are primarily Analytic, Critical, or Speculative Employment is a Contract between two parties, one being the employer and the other being the employee. David Graeber in his 2004 study Fragments of an Anarchist Anthropology claimed that the university functions as a hierarchical disciplining device that places graduates in state and corporate bureaucracies. David Rolfe Graeber (born 12 February 1961 is an American Anthropologist and Anarchist. Fragments of an Anarchist Anthropology is one of a series of pamphlets published by Prickly Paradigm Press in Chicago A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. A corporation is a separate legal entity usually used to conduct business Bureaucracy is the structure and set of regulations in place to control activity usually in large organizations and government ^[16]

Richard Vedder, an Ohio University professor and member of the Commission on the Future of Higher Education, has been a vocal critic of how institutions of higher education, including the universities, are financed. Ohio University is a public university located in Athens Ohio that is situated on a 1800 acre (7 The formation of a Commission on the Future of Higher Education, also known as the Spellings Commission, was announced on September 19, 2005 by U In his 2004 book, "Going Broke by Degree," Vedder says that tuition increases have rapidly outpaced inflation; that productivity in higher education has fallen or remained stagnant; and that third-party tuition payments from government or private sources have insulated students from bearing the full cost of their education, allowing costs to rise more rapidly. ^[17]

Cost

See also: Tuition

Although not a factor in the early sense of a university, a typical modern higher education institution is fee-charging. Tuition means instruction or teaching. In American English, the term tuition is often used to refer to a fee charged for educational instruction The amount it takes to attend a university varies from country to country. Often, a student must find some form of financial aid to afford the costs of attending a university. Student financial aid refers to funding intended to help students pay education expenses including Tuition and fees Room and board, books and supplies etc

Under pressure

In some countries, in some political systems, universities are controlled by political and/or religious authorities, who forbid certain fields and/or impose certain other fields. Sometimes national or racial limitations exist - for students, staff, research.

Nazi universities

Main article: Nazi university

Books from university libraries, written by anti-Nazi or Jewish authors, were burned in places (e. g. , in Berlin) in 1933, and the curricula were subsequently modified. For other universities in Berlin see List of Universities in Berlin. Jewish professors and students were expelled according to the racial policy of Nazi Germany, see also the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service. The racial policy of Nazi Germany refers to the policies and laws implemented by Nazi Germany, asserting the superiority of the so-called " Aryan race " and The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service (in German: Gesetz zur Wiederherstellung des Berufsbeamtentums or short Berufsbeamtengesetz Martin Heidegger became the rector of Freiburg University, where he delivered a number of Nazi speeches. Martin Heidegger ( September 26, 1889 &ndash May 26, 1976) (ˈmaɐ̯tiːn ˈhaɪ̯dɛgɐ was an influential German philosopher On August 21, 1933 Heidegger established the Führer-principle at the university, later he was appointed Führer of Freiburg University. University of Poznań was closed by the Nazi Occupation in 1939. Adam Mickiewicz University ( Polish: Uniwersytet im Adama Mickiewicza is one of the major Polish universities opened 1941–1944 a German university worked there. University of Strasbourg was transferred to Clermont-Ferrand and Reichsuniversität Straßburg existed 1941–1944 [1]. The University of Strasbourg in Strasbourg, Alsace, France, founded in 1631 was divided in the 1970s into three separate institutions with a total Clermont-Ferrand ( Auvergnat dialect of Occitan: Clarmont-Ferrand / Clarmont d'Auvèrnhe) is a city and commune of France

Nazi universities ended in 1945.

Soviet universities

Moscow State University at Sparrow Hills is the largest educational building in the world. Sparrow Hills (Воробьёвы го́ры in 1935 &ndash 1999: Lenin Hills, ru Ле́нинские го́ры is a Hill on the

Soviet type universities existed in the Soviet Union and in other countries of the Eastern Bloc. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 During the Cold War, the term Communist Bloc (or Soviet Bloc) was used to refer to the Soviet Union and countries it either controlled or that were Medical, technical, economical, technological and arts faculties were frequently separated from universities (compare the List of institutions of higher learning in Russia). The following is a list of universities and other higher educational institutions in Russia: Higher educational institutions Academy of State Soviet ideology was taught divided into three disciplines: Scientific Communism, Marxism-Leninism and Communist Political Economy, and was introduced as part of many courses, eg. Scientific Communism was one of the three major ingredients of Marxism-Leninism as taught in the Soviet Union in all institutions of Higher education and Marxism-Leninism is a Communist ideological stream that emerged as the mainstream tendency amongst the Communist parties in the 1920s as it was adopted Political economy originally was the term for studying production buying and selling and their relations with law custom and government teaching Karl Marx' or Vladimir Lenin's views on energy or history. Sciences were generally tolerated, but the humanities curbed. Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding The humanities are academic disciplines which study the Human condition, using methods that are primarily Analytic, Critical, or Speculative In 1922, the Bolshevik government expelled some 160 prominent intellectuals on the Philosophers' ship, later some professors and students were killed or worked in Gulag camps. Philosophers' ships is the collective name of several boats which carried Soviet expellees abroad The Gulag was the government agency that administered the penal labor camps of the Soviet Union. Communist economy was preferred, liberal ideas criticized or ignored. Genetics was degradated to Lysenkoism from the middle of the 1930s to the middle of the 1960s. Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is Lysenkoism was a set of repressive political and social campaigns in science and Agriculture by the powerful Stalinist director of the Soviet Lenin All-Union Communist parties controlled or influenced universities. The leading university was the Moscow State University. After Joseph Stalin's death, universities in some Communist countries obtained more freedom. Joseph Stalin ( ნამდვილი გვარი ჯუღაშვილი|Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; March 5 1953 was General Secretary of the Communist Party The Patrice Lumumba Peoples' Friendship University provided higher education as well as a training ground for young communists from developing countries. The Peoples' Friendship University of Russia ( Russian: Российский университет дружбы народов РУДН is an educational and research institution Developing countries are countries that haven't reached Western-style standards of democratic government free market economy industrialization social programs and human rights guaranties

Gallery

Indoor tennis courts, University of Bath, Somerset, England	CIAP building, Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education, Monterrey, Mexico	Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey	The Miller Building, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, Florida, US
Sherman Hall, Western Illinois University, Macomb, Illinois, US	Mandeville Hall, Saint Joseph's University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, US	Old College at Aberystwyth University. Tennis is a sport played between two players ( singles) or between two teams of two players each ( doubles) The University of Bath is a Campus university located in Bath, England. Somerset ( or) is a county in south west England The County town is Taunton, which is in the south of the county England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland The Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education ( Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey ITESM) commonly shortened as Monterrey This article is about the Mexican city for other uses see Monterrey (disambiguation. The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. Istanbul Technical University ( ITU, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi commonly referred to as İTÜ or Teknik Üniversite is an international Technical university Florida Institute of Technology, also known as Florida Tech, is a private independent technical university located in Melbourne Florida. Melbourne is a city in Brevard County Florida, United States. Western Illinois University is a public university founded in 1899 as Western Illinois State Normal School Macomb is a city located in McDonough County Illinois founded in 1831 Saint Joseph's University (also called SJU or St Joe's) is a private Coeducational Roman Catholic University located Philadelphia (ˌfɪləˈdɛlfiə Aberystwyth University (Prifysgol Aberystwyth sometimes called "Aber" or "the College by the Sea" is a university located in Aberystwyth, Wales Established in 1872, it is one of the oldest intitutes of higher education In Wales and the United Kingdom

References

Bibliography

• Stanley Aronowitz, The Knowledge Factory. Boston: Beacon, 2000. ISBN 0807031224
• Clyde W. Barrow, Universities and the Capitalist State: Corporate Liberalism and the Reconstruction of American Higher Education, 1894–1928, University of Wisconsin Press 1990 ISBN 0-299-12400-2
• Sigmund Diamond, Compromised Campus: The Collaboration of Universities with the Intelligence Community, 1945–1955, Oxford University Press 1992 ISBN 0-195-05382-6
• Olaf Pedersen, The First Universities : Studium Generale and the Origins of University Education in Europe, Cambridge University Press, 1998 ISBN 0-521-59431-6
• Bill Readings, The University in Ruins. Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP is a Publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534 Harvard University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-674-92953-5.
• Thomas F. Richards, The Cold War Within American Higher Education: Rutgers University As a Case Study,Pentland Press 1998 ISBN 1-571-97108-4
• Walter Ruegg (ed), A History of the University in Europe, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (3 vols) ISBN 0-521-36107-9 (vol 3 reviewed by Laurence Brockliss in the Times Literary Supplement, no 5332, 10 June 2005, pages 3–4)

See also

Related terms

academia - academic rank - academy - admission - alumnus - aula - polytechnic - Brain farm - Bologna process - business schools - Grandes écoles - campus - college - college and university rankings - dean - degree - diploma - discipline - dissertation - faculty - fraternities and sororities - graduate student - graduation - Ivory Tower - lecturer - medieval university - medieval university (Asia) - mega university - perpetual student - professor - provost - rector - research - scholar - senioritis - student - tenure - Town and Gown - tuition - undergraduate - universal access - university administration