Citizendia

United States Bill of Rights
United States Bill of Rights
United States Bill of Rights
Created1791
LocationNational Archives
AuthorsJames Madison
PurposeA bill of rights for the United States

In the United States, the Bill of Rights is the name by which the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution are known. The United States National Archives and Records Administration ( NARA) is an independent agency of the United States federal government charged James Madison Jr (March 16 1751 – June 28 1836 was an American Politician, the fourth President of the United States (1809–1817 and one of the Founding A Bill of Rights is a list or summary of rights that are considered important and essential by a group of people The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme Law of the United States. [1] They were introduced by James Madison to the First United States Congress in 1791 as a series of constitutional amendments, and came into effect on December 15, 1791, when they had been ratified by three-fourths of the States. James Madison Jr (March 16 1751 – June 28 1836 was an American Politician, the fourth President of the United States (1809–1817 and one of the Founding The First United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government consisting of the United States Senate and the Events 533 - Byzantine general Belisarius defeats the Vandals, commanded by King Gelimer, at the Battle of Year 1791 ( MDCCXCI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme Law of the United States. The Bill of Rights limits the powers of the Federal government of the United States, protecting the rights of all citizens, residents and visitors on United States territory. The federal government of the United States is the central United States Governmental body established by the United States Constitution.

The Bill of Rights protects the freedoms of speech, press, and religion; the right to keep and bear arms; the freedom of assembly; the freedom to petition; and prohibits unreasonable search and seizure; cruel and unusual punishment; and compelled self-incrimination. Freedom of speech is the freedom to speak freely without Censorship or Limitation. Freedom Constitutional or statutory protections pertaining to freedom of the press Freedom of religion is the freedom of an individual or community in public or private to manifest religion or belief in teaching practice worship and observance The right to keep and bear arms, RKBA, or right to bear arms is the concept that people individually or collectively have a right to Weapons Today this Freedom of assembly, sometimes used interchangeably with the Freedom of association, is the Individual right to come together with other individuals and collectively The right to petition is the freedom of individuals (and sometimes groups and corporations to Petition their government for a correction or repair of some form of Search and seizure is a legal procedure used in many civil law and Common law legal systems whereby Police or other authorities and their agents who suspect The Fifth Amendment ( Amendment V) of the United States Constitution, which is part of the Bill of Rights, is related to legal procedure The Bill of Rights also prohibits Congress from making any law respecting establishment of religion and prohibits the Federal Government from depriving any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law. The United States Congress is the bicameral Legislature of the federal government of the United States of America, consisting of two houses A state religion (also called an official religion, established church or state church) is a religious body or Creed officially Liberty, the freedom to act or believe without being stopped by unnecessary force Property is any physical or virtual entity that is owned by an individual Due process (more fully due process of law) is the principle that a person has a right to receive notice and be heard in an orderly proceeding in order to protect his or her In Federal, criminal cases, it requires indictment by grand jury for any capital or "infamous crime," guarantees a speedy public trial with an impartial jury composed of members of the state or judicial district in which the crime occurred, and prohibits double jeopardy. In the Common law legal system an indictment (ɪnˈdaɪtmənt (in-DITE-mint is a formal accusation of having committed a criminal offense In the Common law, a grand jury is a type of Jury which determines whether there is enough evidence for a trial. Capital punishment, the death penalty or execution, is the Killing of a person by judicial process as Punishment. Double jeopardy (non bis in idem is a Procedural defense (and in many countries such as the United States, Canada, Mexico and India In addition, the Bill of Rights states that "the enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people,"[2] and reserves all powers not granted to the federal government to the citizenry or States. Article I section 8 clause 4 of the United States Constitution expressly gives the United States Congress the power to establish a uniform rule of naturalization A US state is any one of the fifty subnational entities of the United States of America that share Sovereignty with the federal government Most of these restrictions were later applied to the states by a series of decisions applying the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, which was ratified in 1868, after the American Civil War. Incorporation (of the Bill of Rights is the American legal doctrine by which portions of the Bill of Rights are applied to the states through the The Fourteenth Amendment ( Amendment XIV) to the United States Constitution is one of the post- Civil War Reconstruction Amendments, first Causes of the war See also Origins of the American Civil War, Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War The coexistence of a slave-owning South

Madison proposed the Bill of Rights while ideological conflict between Federalists and anti-Federalists, dating from the 1787 Philadelphia Convention, threatened the overall ratification of the new national Constitution. Federalism in the United States is the evolving relationship between U The Philadelphia Convention (now also known as the Constitutional Convention, the Federal Convention, or the " Grand Convention at Philadelphia It largely responded to the Constitution's influential opponents, including prominent Founding Fathers, who argued that the Constitution should not be ratified because it failed to protect the basic principles of human liberty. The Founding Fathers of the United States are the Political leaders who signed the Declaration of Independence or otherwise participated in the Liberty, the freedom to act or believe without being stopped by unnecessary force The Bill was influenced by George Mason's 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights, the 1689 English Bill of Rights, works of the Age of Enlightenment pertaining to natural rights, and earlier English political documents such as Magna Carta (1215). George Mason IV ( December 11, 1725 &ndash October 7, 1792) was a United States patriot, statesman and delegate from The Virginia Declaration of Rights is a document drafted in 1776 to proclaim the inherent Natural rights of men including the right to rebel against "inadequate" government The Bill of Rights (or Declaration of Rights) is an act of the Parliament of England, with the Long title An Act Declaring the Rights and Liberties The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century The Kingdom of England was a State (927-1707 located in Western Europe dating from the ninth or tenth century to the early eighteenth century when it was legally Magna Carta ( Latin for Great Charter, literally " Great Paper " also called Magna Carta Libertatum ( Great Charter of Freedoms

Two additional articles were proposed to the States; only the final ten articles were ratified quickly and correspond to the First through Tenth Amendments to the Constitution. The first Article, dealing with the number and apportionment of U.S. Representatives, never became part of the Constitution. Article the First (also referred to as the Congressional Apportionment Amendment) is the first proposed amendment to the United States Constitution though The United States House of Representatives is one of the two chambers of the United States Congress; the other is the Senate. The second Article, limiting the ability of Congress to increase the salaries of its members, was ratified two centuries later as the 27th Amendment. The Twenty-seventh Amendment ( Amendment XXVII) is the most recent Amendment to the United States Constitution, having been ratified in 1992, Though they are incorporated into the document known as the "Bill of Rights", neither article establishes a right as that term is used today. A right is a legal or moral Entitlement or Permission. Rights are of vital importance in theories of Justice and deontological ethics For that reason, and also because the term had been applied to the first ten amendments long before the 27th Amendment was ratified, the term "Bill of Rights" in modern U. S. usage means only the ten amendments ratified in 1791.

The Bill of Rights plays a central role in American law and government, and remains a fundamental symbol of the freedoms and culture of the nation. The law of the United States was originally largely derived from the Common law system of English law, which was in force at the time of the Revolutionary The development of the culture of the United States of America — music, cinema, dance, architecture, literature, poetry One of the original fourteen copies of the Bill of Rights is on public display at the National Archives in Washington, D.C.

Contents

Background

See also: Articles of Confederation and History of the United States Constitution

The Philadelphia Convention set out to correct weaknesses inherent in the Articles of Confederation that had been apparent even before the American Revolutionary War had been successfully concluded. The United States National Archives and Records Administration ( NARA) is an independent agency of the United States federal government charged Washington DC ( formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, also the Articles of Confederation was the governing Constitution of the alliance of thirteen independent and The United States Constitution was written in 1787 and it was then ratified and took effect all in 1788 which then replaced the Articles of Confederation. The Philadelphia Convention (now also known as the Constitutional Convention, the Federal Convention, or the " Grand Convention at Philadelphia The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, also the Articles of Confederation was the governing Constitution of the alliance of thirteen independent and In this article the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies that supported the American Revolution are primarily referred to as "Americans" with occasional references to "Patriots" [3] The newly constituted Federal government included a strong executive branch, a stronger legislative branch and an independent judiciary. In Political science and Constitutional law, the executive is the branch of government responsible for the day-to-day management of the State. A legislature is a type of representative Deliberative assembly with the power to create amend and change Laws The law created by a legislature is called Legislation In Law, the judiciary or judicial system is the system of Courts which administer Justice in the name of the sovereign or State

Arguments against the Bill of Rights

See also: Federalist Papers. The Federalist Papers are a series of 85 articles advocating the ratification of the United States Constitution.
A portrait of Alexander Hamilton by John Trumbull, 1792
A portrait of Alexander Hamilton by John Trumbull, 1792

The idea of adding a bill of rights to the Constitution was originally controversial. John Trumbull ( June 6, 1756 &ndash November 10, 1843) was an American artist during the period of the American Revolutionary Alexander Hamilton, in Federalist No. 84, argued against a "Bill of Rights," asserting that ratification of the Constitution did not mean the American people were surrendering their rights, and therefore that protections were unnecessary: "Here, in strictness, the people surrender nothing, and as they retain every thing, they have no need of particular reservations. The Federalist Papers are a series of 85 articles advocating the ratification of the United States Constitution. Federalist No 84 ( Federalist Number 84) an Essay entitled "Certain General and Miscellaneous Objections to the Constitution Considered and Answered" is " Critics pointed out that earlier political documents had protected specific rights, but Hamilton argued that the Constitution was inherently different:

Bills of rights are in their origin, stipulations between kings and their subjects, abridgments of prerogative in favor of privilege, reservations of rights not surrendered to the prince. A Prerogative is an exclusive Legal right given from a Government or State and invested in an individual or group the content of which is separate Such was "Magna Charta", obtained by the Barons, swords in hand, from King John. Magna Carta ( Latin for Great Charter, literally " Great Paper " also called Magna Carta Libertatum ( Great Charter of Freedoms John (24 December 1167 &ndash 19 October 1216 reigned as a King of England from 6 April 1199 until his death [4]

Finally, Hamilton expressed the fear that protecting specific rights might imply that any unmentioned rights would not be protected:

I go further, and affirm that bills of rights, in the sense and in the extent in which they are contended for, are not only unnecessary in the proposed constitution, but would even be dangerous. They would contain various exceptions to powers which are not granted; and on this very account, would afford a colorable pretext to claim more than were granted. For why declare that things shall not be done which there is no power to do?[5]

Essentially, Hamilton and other Federalists believed in the British system of common law which did not define or quantify natural rights. Common law refers to law and the corresponding legal system developed through decisions of courts and similar tribunals rather than through legislative statutes or executive They believed that adding a Bill of Rights to the Constitution would limit their rights to those listed in the Constitution. This is the primary reason the Ninth Amendment was included. Amendment IX (the Ninth Amendment) to the United States Constitution, which is part of the Bill of Rights, addresses rights of the people that are

The Anti-Federalists

On June 5, 1788, Patrick Henry spoke before Virginia's ratification convention in opposition to the Constitution: "Is it necessary for your liberty that you should abandon those great rights by the adoption of this system? Is the relinquishment of the trial by jury and the liberty of the press necessary for your liberty? Will the abandonment of your most sacred rights tend to the security of your liberty? Liberty, the greatest of all earthly blessings—give us that precious jewel, and you may take every thing else!"
On June 5, 1788, Patrick Henry spoke before Virginia's ratification convention in opposition to the Constitution: "Is it necessary for your liberty that you should abandon those great rights by the adoption of this system? Is the relinquishment of the trial by jury and the liberty of the press necessary for your liberty? Will the abandonment of your most sacred rights tend to the security of your liberty? Liberty, the greatest of all earthly blessings—give us that precious jewel, and you may take every thing else!"

See also: Anti-Federalism, Anti-Federalist Papers. Patrick Henry ( May 29, 1736 June 6, 1799) was a prominent figure in the American Revolution, known and remembered for his " The Virginia Ratifying Convention was a convention of 168 delegates from Virginia who met in 1788 to ratify or reject the United States Constitution, which The Anti-Federalist Papers are a collection of articles written in opposition to the ratification of the 1787 United States Constitution.

Following the Philadelphia Convention, some famous revolutionary figures and statesmen, such as Patrick Henry, publicly argued against the Constitution. In this article the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies that supported the American Revolution are primarily referred to as "Americans" with occasional references to "Patriots" Patrick Henry ( May 29, 1736 June 6, 1799) was a prominent figure in the American Revolution, known and remembered for his " [6] Many were concerned that the strong national government proposed by the Federalists was a threat to individual rights and that the President would become a king, and objected to the federal court system in the proposed Constitution. Individual rights refer to the Rights of Individuals in contrast with Group rights. The President of the United States is the Head of state and Head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in United States by

Thomas Jefferson, at the time serving as Ambassador to France, wrote to Madison advocating a Bill of Rights: "Half a loaf is better than no bread. Thomas Jefferson (April 13 1743 – July 4 1826 was the third President of the United States (1801–1809 the principal author of the Declaration of Independence Early Modern France is the Early modern period of French history from the end of the 15th century to the end of the 18th century (or from the French Renaissance If we cannot secure all our rights, let us secure what we can. "[7] George Mason refused to sign the proposed Constitution, in part to protest its lack of a Bill of Rights. George Mason IV ( December 11, 1725 &ndash October 7, 1792) was a United States patriot, statesman and delegate from [8]

In a paper later collected into the Anti-Federalist papers, the pseudonymous "Brutus" (probably Robert Yates) wrote,

We find they have, in the ninth section of the first article declared, that the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless in cases of rebellion — that no bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, shall be passed — that no title of nobility shall be granted by the United States, etc. The Anti-Federalist Papers are a collection of articles written in opposition to the ratification of the 1787 United States Constitution. A pseudonym is a fictitious alternative to a person's legal name (see Alias) Robert Yates (1738-1801 was a United States Politician well known for his Anti-Federalist stances Article One of the United States Constitution describes the powers of the legislative branch of the United States government, known as Congress Habeas corpus (ˈheɪbiəs ˈkɔɹpəs ( Latin: command that you have the body is the name of a legal action or Writ, through which a person can seek relief A bill of attainder (also known as an act or writ of Attainder) is an act of Legislature declaring a person or group of persons guilty of Nobility is a government-privileged title which may be either hereditary (see Hereditary titles) or for a lifetime If every thing which is not given is reserved, what propriety is there in these exceptions? Does this Constitution any where grant the power of suspending the habeas corpus, to make ex post facto laws, pass bills of attainder, or grant titles of nobility? It certainly does not in express terms. The only answer that can be given is, that these are implied in the general powers granted. With equal truth it may be said, that all the powers which the bills of rights guard against the abuse of, are contained or implied in the general ones granted by this Constitution. [9]

Brutus continued with an implication directed against the Framers:

Ought not a government, vested with such extensive and indefinite authority, to have been restricted by a declaration of rights? It certainly ought. The Founding Fathers of the United States are the Political leaders who signed the Declaration of Independence or otherwise participated in the So clear a point is this, that I cannot help suspecting that persons who attempt to persuade people that such reservations were less necessary under this Constitution than under those of the States, are wilfully endeavoring to deceive, and to lead you into an absolute state of vassalage. [10]

Ratification and the Massachusetts Compromise

George Washington's 1788 letter to the Marquis de Lafayette observed, "the Convention of Massachusetts adopted the Constitution in toto; but recommended a number of specific alterations and quieting explanations." Source: Library of Congress
George Washington's 1788 letter to the Marquis de Lafayette observed, "the Convention of Massachusetts adopted the Constitution in toto; but recommended a number of specific alterations and quieting explanations. George Washington (February 22 1732 December 14 1799 served as the first President of the United States of America (1789&ndash1797 and led the " Source: Library of Congress

Individualism was the strongest element of opposition; the necessity, or at least the desirability, of a bill of rights was almost universally felt, and the Anti-Federalists were able to play on these feelings in the ratification convention in Massachusetts. The Library of Congress is the De facto National library of the United States and the research arm of the United States Congress The Commonwealth of Massachusetts ( is a state located in the New England region of the northeastern United States. By this stage, five of the states had ratified the Constitution with relative ease; however, the Massachusetts convention was bitter and contentious:

In Massachusetts, the Constitution ran into serious, organized opposition. Only after two leading Anti-federalists, Adams and Hancock, negotiated a far-reaching compromise did the convention vote for ratification on February 6, 1788 (187–168). Samuel Adams ( – October 2 1803 was an American Statesman, Politician, Writer and political philosopher, brewer John Hancock ( October 8 1793 was a Massachusetts merchant and prominent patriot of the American Revolution. Anti-federalists had demanded that the Constitution be amended before they would consider it or that amendments be a condition of ratification; Federalists had retorted that it had to be accepted or rejected as it was. Under the Massachusetts compromise, the delegates recommended amendments to be considered by the new Congress, should the Constitution go into effect. The Massachusetts compromise determined the fate of the Constitution, as it permitted delegates with doubts to vote for it in the hope that it would be amended. [11]

Four of the next five states to ratify, including New Hampshire, Virginia, and New York, included similar language in their ratification instruments. New Hampshire ( is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. The Commonwealth of Virginia ( is an American state New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous They all sent recommendations for amendments with their ratification documents to the new Congress. Since many of these recommendations pertained to safeguarding personal rights, this pressured Congress to add a Bill of Rights after Constitutional ratification. Additionally, North Carolina refused to ratify the Constitution until progress was made on the issue of the Bill of Rights. North Carolina ( is a state located on the Atlantic Seaboard in the southeastern United States Thus, while the Anti-Federalists were unsuccessful in their quest to prevent the adoption of the Constitution, their efforts were not totally in vain.

James Madison, "Father of the Constitution" and first author of the Bill of Rights
James Madison, "Father of the Constitution" and first author of the Bill of Rights

After the Constitution was ratified in 1789, the 1st United States Congress met in Federal Hall in New York City. James Madison Jr (March 16 1751 – June 28 1836 was an American Politician, the fourth President of the United States (1809–1817 and one of the Founding The First United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government consisting of the United States Senate and the Federal Hall, located at 26 Wall Street in New York City, was the first capitol of the United States of America and the site of George Washington The City of New York Most of the delegates agreed that a "bill of rights" was needed and most of them agreed on the rights they believed should be enumerated.

Madison, at the head of the Virginia delegation of the 1st Congress, had opposed a Bill of Rights but hoped to pre-empt a second Constitutional Convention that might have undone the difficult compromises of 1787: a second convention would open the entire Constitution to reconsideration and could undermine the work he and so many others had done in establishing the structure of the United States Government. Alternative meaning Constitutional convention (political custom A constitutional convention is a gathering for the purpose of writing a new Writing to Jefferson, he stated, "The friends of the Constitution. . . wish the revisal to be carried no farther than to supply additional guards for liberty. . . and are fixed in opposition to the risk of another Convention. . . . It is equally certain that there are others who urge a second Convention with the insidious hope of throwing all things into Confusion, and of subverting the fabric just established, if not the Union itself. "[12]

Madison based much of the Bill of Rights on George Mason's Virginia Declaration of Rights (1776),[13] which itself had been written with Madison's input. George Mason IV ( December 11, 1725 &ndash October 7, 1792) was a United States patriot, statesman and delegate from The Virginia Declaration of Rights is a document drafted in 1776 to proclaim the inherent Natural rights of men including the right to rebel against "inadequate" government He carefully considered the state amendment recommendations as well. He looked for recommendations shared by many states to avoid controversy and reduce opposition to the ratification of the future amendments. [14] Additionally, Madison's work on the Bill of Rights reflected centuries of English law and philosophy, further modified by the principles of the American Revolution. In this article the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies that supported the American Revolution are primarily referred to as "Americans" with occasional references to "Patriots"

Antecedents

Locke

Main article: John Locke
Madison's "Notes for speech on Constitutional amendments, June 8, 1791, in which he underlined the concept of "natural rights retained"
Madison's "Notes for speech on Constitutional amendments, June 8, 1791, in which he underlined the concept of "natural rights retained"

To some degree, the Bill of Rights (and the American Revolution) incorporated the ideas of John Locke, who argued in his 1689 work Two Treatises of Government that civil society was created for the protection of property (Latin proprius, or that which is one's own, meaning "life, liberty, and estate"). John Locke (29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704 was an English Philosopher. The Two Treatises of Government (or " Two Treatises of Government In the Former The False Principles and Foundation of Sir Robert Filmer And His Followers are Detected Civil society is composed of the totality of voluntary civic and social organizations and institutions that form the basis of a functioning Society as opposed to the force-backed Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Locke also advanced the notion that each individual is free and equal in the state of nature. State of nature is a term in Political philosophy used in Social contract theories to describe the hypothetical condition of humanity before the State 's Locke expounded on the idea of natural rights that are inherent to all individuals, a concept Madison mentioned in his speech presenting the Bill of Rights to the 1st Congress. Locke's argument for protecting economic rights against government may have been most salient to the framers of the Amendments; quartering and cruel punishments were not the current abuses of 1791. [15]

Virginia Declaration of Rights

Main article: Virginia Declaration of Rights

The Virginia Declaration of Rights, well-known to Madison, had already been a strong influence on the American Revolution ("all power is vested in, and consequently derived from, the people …";[16] also "a majority of the community hath an indubitable, unalienable, and indefeasible right to reform, alter or abolish [the government]"). The Virginia Declaration of Rights is a document drafted in 1776 to proclaim the inherent Natural rights of men including the right to rebel against "inadequate" government It had shaped the drafting of the United States Declaration of Independence a decade before the drafting of the Constitution, proclaiming that "all men are by nature equally free and independent, and have certain inherent rights of which … [they cannot divest;] namely, the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the means of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety. The United States Declaration of Independence is a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4 1776 announcing that the thirteen American colonies then "[17] On a practical level, its recommendations of a government with a separation of powers (Articles 5–6) and "frequent, certain, and regular"[18] elections of executives and legislators were incorporated into the United States Constitution — but the bulk of this work addresses the rights of the people and restrictions on the powers of government, and is recognizable in the modern Bill of Rights:

The government should not have the power of suspending or executing laws, "without consent of the representatives of the people,". Separation of powers, a term ascribed to French Enlightenment Political philosopher Baron de Montesquieu, is a model for the Governance The United States has a federal government, with elected officials at federal (national state and local level [19] A legal defendant has the right to be "confronted with the accusers and witnesses, to call for evidence in his favor, and to a speedy trial by an impartial jury of his vicinage," and may not be "compelled to give evidence against himself. "[20] Individuals should be protected against "cruel and unusual punishments",[21] baseless search and seizure,[22] and be guaranteed a trial by jury. Search and seizure is a legal procedure used in many civil law and Common law legal systems whereby Police or other authorities and their agents who suspect [23] The government should not abridge freedom of the press,[24] or freedom of religion ("all men are equally entitled to the free exercise of religion"). Freedom Constitutional or statutory protections pertaining to freedom of the press Freedom of religion is the freedom of an individual or community in public or private to manifest religion or belief in teaching practice worship and observance [25] The government should be enjoined against maintaining a standing army rather than a "well regulated militia". A standing army is an Army composed of full time career Soldiers who 'stand over' in other words who do not disband during times of peace The term militia is commonly used today to refer to a military force composed of ordinary Citizens to provide defense emergency law enforcement or Paramilitary service [26]

English Bill of Rights

Main article: English Bill of Rights

The English Bill of Rights (1689), one of the fundamental documents of English constitutional law, differed substantially in form and intent from the American Bill of Rights, because it was intended to address the rights of citizens as represented by Parliament against the Crown. The Bill of Rights (or Declaration of Rights) is an act of the Parliament of England, with the Long title An Act Declaring the Rights and Liberties The Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the supreme legislative body in the United Kingdom and British overseas territories Throughout the Commonwealth realms The Crown is an abstract metonymic concept which represents the legal authority for the existence of any government However, some of its basic tenets are adopted and extended to the general public by the U. S. Bill of Rights, including

Madison's preemptive proposal

On June 8, 1789, Madison submitted his proposal to Congress. Events 68 - The Roman Senate accepts emperor Galba. 536 - St Silverius becomes Pope (probable Year 1789 ( MDCCLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common In his speech to Congress on that day, Madison said:

For while we feel all these inducements to go into a revisal of the constitution, we must feel for the constitution itself, and make that revisal a moderate one. I should be unwilling to see a door opened for a re-consideration of the whole structure of the government, for a re-consideration of the principles and the substance of the powers given; because I doubt, if such a door was opened, if we should be very likely to stop at that point which would be safe to the government itself: But I do wish to see a door opened to consider, so far as to incorporate those provisions for the security of rights, against which I believe no serious objection has been made by any class of our constituents. [27]

Prior to listing his proposals for a number of constitutional amendments, Madison acknowledged a major reason for some of the discontent with the Constitution as written:

I believe that the great mass of the people who opposed [the Constitution], disliked it because it did not contain effectual provision against encroachments on particular rights, and those safeguards which they have been long accustomed to have interposed between them and the magistrate who exercised the sovereign power: nor ought we to consider them safe, while a great number of our fellow citizens think these securities necessary. [28]

Ratification process

On November 20, 1789, New Jersey became the first state to ratify these amendments. Events 284 - Diocletian was chosen as Roman Emperor. 762 - Bögü Khan of the Uyghurs, Year 1789 ( MDCCLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common New Jersey ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States. On December 15, 1791, 10 of these proposals became the First through Tenth Amendments — and United States law — when they were ratified by the Virginia legislature. Events 533 - Byzantine general Belisarius defeats the Vandals, commanded by King Gelimer, at the Battle of Year 1791 ( MDCCXCI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common

Articles III to XII were ratified by 11/14 states (> 75%). Article I, rejected by Delaware, was ratified only by 10/14 States (< 75%), and despite later ratification by Kentucky (11/15 states < 75%), the article has never since received the approval of enough states for it to become part of the Constitution. Article the First (also referred to as the Congressional Apportionment Amendment) is the first proposed amendment to the United States Constitution though Delaware ( is a state located on the Atlantic Coast in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States. The Commonwealth of Kentucky ( is a state located in the East Central United States of America. Article II was ratified by 6/14, later 7/15 states, but did not receive the 3/4 majority of States needed for ratification until 1992 when it became the 27th Amendment.

Ratification dates

Later consideration

Lawmakers in Kentucky, which became the 15th state to join the Union in June 1792, ratified the entire set of twelve proposals during that commonwealth's initial month of statehood, perhaps unaware — given the nature of long-distance communications in the 1700s — that Virginia's approval six months earlier had already made ten of the package of twelve part of the Constitution. New Jersey ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States. Events 284 - Diocletian was chosen as Roman Emperor. 762 - Bögü Khan of the Uyghurs, Year 1789 ( MDCCLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 324 - Licinius abdicates his position as Roman Emperor. Year 1789 ( MDCCLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common North Carolina ( is a state located on the Atlantic Seaboard in the southeastern United States Events 1790 - The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Suvorov and his Russian armies Year 1789 ( MDCCLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common South Carolina ( is a state in the southern region ( Deep South) of the United States of America. Events 1419 - Hundred Years' War: Rouen surrenders to Henry V of England completing his reconquest of Normandy. Year 1790 ( MDCCXC) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year New Hampshire ( is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. Events 41 - After a night of negotiation Claudius is accepted as Roman Emperor by the Senate Year 1790 ( MDCCXC) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Delaware ( is a state located on the Atlantic Coast in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States. Events 1077 - Walk to Canossa: The Excommunication of Henry IV Holy Roman Emperor is lifted Year 1790 ( MDCCXC) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous Events 1560 - The Treaty of Berwick, which would expel the French from Scotland, is signed by England and the Congregation Year 1790 ( MDCCXC) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania ( often colloquially referred to as PA (its abbreviation by natives and Northeasterners is a state located in the Northeastern Events 241 BC - First Punic War: Battle of the Aegates Islands - The Romans sink the Carthaginian fleet bringing Year 1790 ( MDCCXC) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Rhode Island ( officially named the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, is a state in the New England region of the United States Events 1099 - The First Crusade: The Siege of Jerusalem begins Year 1790 ( MDCCXC) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Vermont ( is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. Events 644 - Umar ibn al-Khattab, the second Muslim Caliph, is killed by a Persian slave in Medina. Year 1791 ( MDCCXCI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The Commonwealth of Virginia ( is an American state Events 533 - Byzantine general Belisarius defeats the Vandals, commanded by King Gelimer, at the Battle of Year 1791 ( MDCCXCI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Wikipedia_talkFeatured_lists#Proposed_change_to_all_featured_lists for an explanation of this and other inclusion tags below -->This is a list of U Four of the constituent states of the United States officially designate themselves Commonwealths: Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania

Although ratification made the Bill of Rights effective in 1791, three of the original thirteen states — Connecticut, Georgia, and Massachusetts — did not "ratify" the first ten amendments until 1939, when they were urged to do so in a celebration of the 150th anniversary of their passage by Congress. Connecticut ( is a state located in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. The State of Georgia ( is a state in the United States and was one of the original Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule The Commonwealth of Massachusetts ( is a state located in the New England region of the northeastern United States. [29]

Copies of the Bill of Rights to the States

Fourteen copies of the Bill of Rights were made-one for the Federal Government and one for each of the thirteen states.

The copies for New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Georgia are missing. The New York Copy is thought to have been lost in a fire while the Pennsylvania copy reportedly disappeared in the later 18th century. Two unidentified copies survive; one is in the Library of Congress[1] and the other is in the New York Public Library. The Library of Congress is the De facto National library of the United States and the research arm of the United States Congress The New York Public Library ( NYPL) is one of the leading public libraries of the world and is one of America's most significant Research libraries. [35]

Incorporation extends to States

Main article: Incorporation (Bill of Rights)

Originally, the Bill of Rights applied only to the federal government and not to the several state governments. Incorporation (of the Bill of Rights is the American legal doctrine by which portions of the Bill of Rights are applied to the states through the Parts of the amendments initially proposed by Madison that would have limited state governments ("No state shall violate the equal rights of conscience, or the freedom of the press, or the trial by jury in criminal cases. ") were not approved by Congress, and therefore the Bill of Rights did not appear to apply to the powers of state governments. [36]

Thus, states had established state churches up until the 1820s, and Southern states, beginning in the 1830s, could ban abolitionist literature. A state religion (also called an official religion, established church or state church) is a religious body or Creed officially The Southern United States &mdashcommonly referred to as the American South, Dixie, or simply the South &mdashconstitutes a large distinctive Abolitionism was a political movement of the 18th and 19th century which sought to make Slavery illegal particularly in the United States and British West Indies In the 1833 case Barron v. Baltimore, the Supreme Court specifically ruled that the Bill of Rights provided "security against the apprehended encroachments of the general government—not against those of local governments. Barron v Mayor of Baltimore, 32 US (7 Pet 243 (1833 established a precedent on whether the United States Bill of Rights could be applied to state The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest judicial body in the United States and leads the federal judiciary. " However, in the 1925 judgment on Gitlow v. New York, the Supreme Court ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment, which had been adopted in 1868, made certain applications of the Bill of Rights applicable to the states. Gitlow v New York,, was a historically important case argued before the United States Supreme Court in which the Court ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment The Fourteenth Amendment ( Amendment XIV) to the United States Constitution is one of the post- Civil War Reconstruction Amendments, first The Supreme Court then cited the Gitlow case as precedent for a series of decisions that made most, but not all, of the provisions of the Bill of Rights applicable to the states under the doctrine of selective incorporation.

Display and honoring of the Bill of Rights

In 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt declared December 15 to be Bill of Rights Day, commemorating the 150th anniversary of the ratification of the Bill of Rights. Events 533 - Byzantine general Belisarius defeats the Vandals, commanded by King Gelimer, at the Battle of

The Bill of Rights is on display at the National Archives and Records Administration,[37] in the Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom. The United States National Archives and Records Administration ( NARA) is an independent agency of the United States federal government charged

The Rotunda itself was constructed in the 1950s and dedicated in 1952 by President Harry S Truman, who said, "Only as these documents are reflected in the thoughts and acts of Americans, can they remain symbols of power that can move the world. That power is our faith in human liberty …. "[38]

After fifty years, signs of deterioration in the casing were noted, while the documents themselves appeared to be well-preserved: "But if the ink of 1787 was holding its own, the encasements of 1951 were not … minute crystals and microdroplets of liquid were found on surfaces of the two glass sheets over each document. . . . The CMS scans confirmed evidence of progressive glass deterioration, which was a major impetus in deciding to re-encase the Charters of Freedom. "[39]

Accordingly, the casing was updated and the Rotunda rededicated on September 17, 2003. Events 1176 - The Battle of Myriokephalon is fought 1462 - The Battle of Świecino (or Battle of Żarnowiec Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. In his dedicatory remarks, two hundred and sixteen years after the close of the Constitutional Convention, President George W. Bush stated, "The true [American] revolution was not to defy one earthly power, but to declare principles that stand above every earthly power—the equality of each person before God, and the responsibility of government to secure the rights of all. George Walker Bush ( born July 6 1946 is the forty-third and current President of the United States. "[40]

In 1991, the Bill of Rights toured the country in honor of its bicentennial, visiting the capitals of all fifty states.

Text of the Bill of Rights

Preamble

The Preamble to the Bill of Rights:

Congress of the United States begun and held at the City of New-York, on Wednesday the fourth of March, one thousand seven hundred and eighty nine.
THE Conventions of a number of the States, having at the time of their adopting the Constitution, expressed a desire, in order to prevent misconstruction or abuse of its powers, that further declaratory and restrictive clauses should be added: And as extending the ground of public confidence in the Government, will best ensure the beneficent ends of its institution.
RESOLVED by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America, in Congress assembled, two thirds of both Houses concurring, that the following Articles be proposed to the Legislatures of the several States, as amendments to the Constitution of the United States, all, or any of which Articles, when ratified by three fourths of the said Legislatures, to be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of the said Constitution; viz.
ARTICLES in addition to, and Amendment of the Constitution of the United States of America, proposed by Congress, and ratified by the Legislatures of the several States, pursuant to the fifth Article of the original Constitution. [41]

Amendments

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. The First Amendment to the United States Constitution is part of the United States Bill of Rights that expressly prohibits the United States Congress The Establishment Clause of the First Amendment refers to the first of several pronouncements in the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, stating that " The Free Exercise Clause is the accompanying clause with the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. Freedom of speech is the freedom to speak freely without Censorship or Limitation. Freedom Constitutional or statutory protections pertaining to freedom of the press Freedom of assembly, sometimes used interchangeably with the Freedom of association, is the Individual right to come together with other individuals and collectively The Right to petition in the United States is guaranteed by the First Amendment to the Constitution, and specifically prohibits Congress from
A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the People to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.
No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.
The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. Most often the term warrant refers to a specific type of Authorization; a Writ issued by a competent officer usually a Judge or Magistrate
No person shall be held to answer for any capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.
In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district where in the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defense. The Sixth Amendment of the United States Constitution sets forth rights related to criminal prosecutions in federal courts The rights of the accused is a class of rights that apply to a person in the time period between when they are formally accused of a crime and when they are either convicted or acquitted The Confrontation Clause of the Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution provides that "in all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right Speedy trial refers to one of the rights guaranteed by the United States Constitution to defendants in criminal proceedings Public trial or open trial is a trial open to public as opposed to the Secret trial. Right to counsel is nowadays generally regarded as a constituent of the Right to a fair trial, allowing for the defendant to be assisted by counsel (i
In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.
Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.
The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.
The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people.

Proposed amendments not passed with Bill of Rights

After the first enumeration required by the first article of the Constitution, there shall be one representative for every thirty thousand, until the number shall amount to one hundred, after which the proportion shall be so regulated by Congress, that there shall be not less than one hundred representatives, nor less than one representative for every forty thousand persons, until the number of representatives shall amount to two hundred; after which the proportion shall be so regulated by Congress, that there shall be not less than two hundred representatives, nor more than one representative for every fifty thousand persons.
No law varying the compensation for the services of the Senators and Representatives, shall take effect, until an election of Representatives shall have intervened.

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Primary Documents in American History: The Bill of Rights. A Bill of Rights is a list or summary of rights that are considered important and essential by a group of people The national Bill of Rights Defense Committee ( BORDC) is a nonpartisan nonprofit organization which encourages local communities to take an active role in the ongoing national The GI Bill (officially titled Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944 PL346 58 Statutes at Large 284 provided for college or vocational education for returning The Taxpayer Bill of Rights (abbreviated TABOR) is a concept advocated by certain conservative and libertarian groups primarily in the United States A Patient's Bill of Rights is a statement of the Rights to which patients are entitled as recipients of medical care The United States Declaration of Independence is a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4 1776 announcing that the thirteen American colonies then The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme Law of the United States. The Library of Congress.
  2. ^ See: Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution
  3. ^ Lloyd, Gordon. Amendment IX (the Ninth Amendment) to the United States Constitution, which is part of the Bill of Rights, addresses rights of the people that are Introduction to the Constitutional Convention (English). Retrieved on October 6, 2007. Events 105 BC - Battle of Arausio: The Cimbri inflict the heaviest defeat on the Roman army of Gnaeus Mallius Maximus
  4. ^ Hamilton, Alexander. The Federalist Papers, #84. "On opposition to a Bill of Rights.". Retrieved on 2006-02-28. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 202 BC - coronation ceremony of Liu Bang as Emperor Gaozu of Han takes place initiating four centuries of the Han Dynasty 's rule
  5. ^ Ibid.
  6. ^ Henry, Patrick. "Against the Federal Constitution." June 5, 1788. (2006-03-10). Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 241 BC - First Punic War: Battle of the Aegates Islands - The Romans sink the Carthaginian fleet bringing
  7. ^ Jefferson's letter to Madison, March 15, 1789. (2006-03-09). Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 590 - Bahram Chobin is crowned as king Barham VI of Persia.
  8. ^ Delegates to the Constitutional Convention - National Constitution Center
  9. ^ "On the lack of a Bill of Rights," also known as "Anti-Federalist #84". Retrieved on 2006-02-28. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 202 BC - coronation ceremony of Liu Bang as Emperor Gaozu of Han takes place initiating four centuries of the Han Dynasty 's rule Also see: "The Federalist with Letters of Brutus", edited by Terence Ball, Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought, pp. 447–453. Excerpt from the writings of "Brutus" probably in the New York Journal, November 1, 1787.
  10. ^ Ibid.
  11. ^ Bernstein, Richard B. "Ratification of the Constitution. " The Reader's Companion to American History. Retrieved on 2006-02-28. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 202 BC - coronation ceremony of Liu Bang as Emperor Gaozu of Han takes place initiating four centuries of the Han Dynasty 's rule
  12. ^ Letter from James Madison to Thomas Jefferson (December 8, 1788) (Source: 14 The Papers of Thomas Jefferson 339-42 (J. Boyd, ed. 1958)), at [1]
  13. ^ "This uniquely influential document was also used by James Madison in drawing up the Bill of Rights (1789) and by the Marquis de Lafayette in drafting the French Declaration of the Rights of Man (1789). "[2]
  14. ^ Madison introduced "amendments culled mainly from state constitutions and state ratifying convention proposals, especially Virginia's. " Levy, Leonard W. Origins of the Bill of Rights. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-300-08901-5, p. 35
  15. ^ see Jerome Huyler, Locke in America : the moral philosophy of the founding era, Lawrence : University Press of Kansas, (1995), Chapter 8, pp. The University Press of Kansas is a publisher that represents the state universities in Kansas ( Emporia State University, Fort Hays State University, 218-250; also pp. 275-9. For "many scholars"' discussion of economic rights and the Amendments, see p. 277.
  16. ^ Virginia Declaration of Rights, Article 2
  17. ^ Article 1, later paraphrased in the opening sentences of the United States Declaration of Independence. The Virginia Declaration of Rights is a document drafted in 1776 to proclaim the inherent Natural rights of men including the right to rebel against "inadequate" government The United States Declaration of Independence is a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4 1776 announcing that the thirteen American colonies then
  18. ^ Article 5
  19. ^ Article 7
  20. ^ Article 8
  21. ^ Article 9
  22. ^ Article 10
  23. ^ Article 11
  24. ^ Article 12
  25. ^ Article 16
  26. ^ Article 13
  27. ^ Text of Madison's speech, at the James Madison Center. Retrieved on 2006-02-28. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 202 BC - coronation ceremony of Liu Bang as Emperor Gaozu of Han takes place initiating four centuries of the Han Dynasty 's rule
  28. ^ Ibid.
  29. ^ Order and Dates of Ratification of the Bill of Rights..
  30. ^ a b c d e Frieden, Terry. "FBI recovers original copy of Bill of Rights", CNN, March 19, 2003. Events 1279 - A Mongolian victory in the Battle of Yamen ends the Song Dynasty in China. Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved on 2008-04-25. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1607 - Eighty Years' War: The Dutch fleet destroys the anchored Spanish fleet at Gibraltar.  
  31. ^ Bill of Rights. The State of Delaware. Retrieved on 2008-04-25. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1607 - Eighty Years' War: The Dutch fleet destroys the anchored Spanish fleet at Gibraltar.
  32. ^ [http://www.msa.md.gov/msa/stagser/s1259/121/7989/html/amend01.html The Bill of Rights signed by Thomas Jefferson (1791)]. Maryland State Archives (December 9, 2004). Events 536 - Byzantine General Belisarius enters Rome while the Ostrogothic garrison peacefully leaves the city "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " Retrieved on 2008-04-25. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1607 - Eighty Years' War: The Dutch fleet destroys the anchored Spanish fleet at Gibraltar.
  33. ^ Documentary treasures: Bill of Rights. State of New Jersey (2003-2004). Retrieved on 2008-04-25. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1607 - Eighty Years' War: The Dutch fleet destroys the anchored Spanish fleet at Gibraltar.
  34. ^ The New York Ratification of the Bill of Rights. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved on 2008-04-25. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1607 - Eighty Years' War: The Dutch fleet destroys the anchored Spanish fleet at Gibraltar.
  35. ^ a b c Bill of Rights Returns Home. North Carolina Office of Archives and History (2005). Retrieved on 2008-04-25. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1607 - Eighty Years' War: The Dutch fleet destroys the anchored Spanish fleet at Gibraltar.
  36. ^ Bent, Devin. "James Madison proposes Bill of Rights.". Retrieved on 2006-02-28. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 202 BC - coronation ceremony of Liu Bang as Emperor Gaozu of Han takes place initiating four centuries of the Han Dynasty 's rule
  37. ^ American Treasures of the Library of Congress (2006-03-13). Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1138 - Cardinal Gregorio Conti is elected Antipope as Victor IV, succeeding Anacletus II.
  38. ^ "Truman's Remarks in the Rotunda, December 1952" (2006-03-14). Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1489 - The Queen of Cyprus, Catherine Cornaro, sells her kingdom to Venice.
  39. ^ Mary Lynn Ritzenthaler and Catherine Nicholson, "A New Era Begins for the Charters of Freedom." (2006-03-14). Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1489 - The Queen of Cyprus, Catherine Cornaro, sells her kingdom to Venice. Prologue, Fall 2003.
  40. ^ "Remarks by President George W. Bush at the Rededication of the National Archives." (2006-03-14). Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1489 - The Queen of Cyprus, Catherine Cornaro, sells her kingdom to Venice.
  41. ^ Preamble to the Bill of Rights (2006-03-10). Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 241 BC - First Punic War: Battle of the Aegates Islands - The Romans sink the Carthaginian fleet bringing

Bibliography

External links

U. S Government sites

Related documents

History and analysis


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