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Unfree labour is a generic or collective term for those work relations, especially in modern or early modern history, in which people are employed against their will by the threat of destitution, detention, violence (including death), or other extreme hardship to themselves, or to members of their families. As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another The history of slavery uncovers many different forms of human exploitation across many cultures throughout history Slavery as an institution in Mediterranean cultures of the ancient world comprised a mixture of Debt-slavery, slavery as a punishment for crime and The issue of religion and slavery is an area of historical research into the relationship between the world's major Religions and the practice of Slavery. The Bible contains several references to slavery. The Hebrew Bible does not promote Slavery, but neither does it condemn it Christianity does not have a clear position regarding slavery, in favour or against The major juristic schools of Islam traditionally accepted the institution of Slavery. Judaism has been influenced by the experience of slavery of the Hebrews in the land of Egypt, as narrated in the biblical story of The Exodus The Atlantic Slave trade, also known as the transatlantic slave trade, was the trade of African people supplied to the Colonies of the New World This article discusses systems of slavery within Africa the history and effects of the slavery trade upon Africa The Arab Slave trade was the practice of Slavery in West Asia, North Africa, East Africa, and certain parts of Europe (such The history of slavery uncovers many different forms of human exploitation across many cultures throughout history Human trafficking is the recruitment transportation harbouring or receipt of people for the purposes of slavery forced labor (including bonded labor or debt bondage and servitude Sexual slavery refers to the organised coercion of persons into various different sexual practices forced Prostitution single-owner sexual slavery Abolitionism was a political movement of the 18th and 19th century which sought to make Slavery illegal particularly in the United States and British West Indies Involuntary servitude is a United States legal and Constitutional term for a person laboring against that person's will to benefit another under some form The Gulag was the government agency that administered the penal labor camps of the Soviet Union. Debt bondage or bonded labor is a means of paying off loans with direct labor instead of currency or goods An indentured servant is a form of Debt bondage worker The Laborer is under Contract of an Employer for some period of time usually three to Slavery is a social-economic system under which certain persons — known as slaves — are deprived of personal freedom and compelled to perform labour or services In Law legal status refers to the concept of individuals having a particular place in society relative to the law as it determines the laws which affect them The early modern period is a term used by historians to refer to the period in Western '''Europe''' and its first colonies which spans the three centuries between
Many of these forms of work may be covered by the term forced labour, although this tends to imply forms based on violence. Unfree labour includes all forms of slavery. As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another (Although serfdom is technically a form of unfree labour, the term "serf" is usually used only in relation to pre-modern societies, under feudal political systems. Feudalism, a term first used in the early modern period (17th century in its most classic sense refers to a Medieval Europe Political system composed )
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Payment for unfree labour
If payment occurs, it may be in one or more of the following forms: it does not exceed subsistence or barely exceeds it; is in goods which are not desirable and/or cannot be exchanged or are difficult to exchange; or the payment wholly or mostly consists of cancellation of a debt or liability that was itself coerced, or belongs to someone else. Subsistence is the food necessary to sustain life The following is a list of subsistence techniques: Hunting and Gathering Unfree labour is often more easily instituted and enforced on migrant workers, who have travelled far from their homelands and who are easily identified because of their physical, ethnic, or cultural differences from the general population, since they are unable or unlikely to report their conditions to the authorities.
According to the labour theory of value (as used by the classical economists), under capitalism, workers never keep all of the wealth they create, as some of it goes to the profit of capitalists. The labor theories of value (LTV are theories in Economics according to which the values of Commodities are related to the labor needed to Classical economics is widely regarded as the first modern school of economic thought. Capitalism is the Economic system in which the Means of production are owned by private Persons and operated for Profit and where Capitalism is the Economic system in which the Means of production are owned by private Persons and operated for Profit and where By contrast, according to the subjective theory of value (as used by neoclassical economists), the wages offered necessarily represent the marginal wealth generated by the labour, and any profit (or loss) is due to other inputs provided, such as arbitrage, time value of money, or risk. The subjective theory of value (or theory of subjective value) is an economic theory of value that holds that "to possess value an object must be both useful Neoclassical economics is a term variously used for approaches to Economics focusing on the determination of prices outputs and income distributions in markets In Economics, the marginal utility of a good or of a service is the Utility of the specific use to which an agent would put a given increase In Economics and Finance, arbitrage is the practice of taking advantage of a price differential between two or more Markets striking a combination of matching Interest is a fee paid on borrowed capital Assets lent include Money, Shares, Consumer goods through Hire purchase, major assets It is argued by supporters of certain theories of distributive justice that any occasion on which a worker is able to turn down employment and look elsewhere is "free labour". Distributive justice concerns what is just or right with respect to the allocation of goods in a society
Forms of unfree labour
Slavery
The archetypal and best-known form of unfree labour is chattel slavery, in which individual workers are legally owned throughout their lives, and may be bought, sold or otherwise exchanged by owners, while never or rarely receiving any personal benefit from their labour. As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another An archetype ( pronounced: /ˈɑːkɪtaɪp/ (Brit or /ˈɑrkɪtaɪp/ (Amer As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another Slavery was common in many ancient societies, including ancient Greece, ancient Rome, ancient Israel, ancient China, as well as many societies in Africa and the Americas. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC The history of Ancient Israel and Judah is known to us from classical sources including Judaism 's Tanakh or Hebrew Bible (known Chinese civilization originated in various city-states along the Yellow River ( valley in the Neolithic era Being sold into slavery was a common fate of populations conquered in wars. War is an international relations Dispute, characterized by organized Violence between National Military units Perhaps the most prominent example of chattel slavery was the enslavement of many millions of black people in Africa, as well as their enforced transplantation to the Americas, Asia or Europe where their status as slaves was usually inherited by their descendants. The term black people usually refers to a racial group of Humans with dark Skin color, but the term has also been used to categorise a number of diverse
The term slavery is often applied to situations which do not meet the above definitions, but which are other, closely-related forms of unfree labour, such as debt slavery or debt-bondage (although not all repayment of debts through labour constitutes unfree labour), or the work of Indigenous Australians in northern Australia on sheep or cattle stations (ranches), from the mid-19th to the mid-20th century. Debt bondage or bonded labor is a means of paying off loans with direct labor instead of currency or goods Indigenous Australians are descendants of the first known human inhabitants of the Australian continent and its nearby islands. The term northern Australia is generally considered to include the States and territories of Australia of Queensland and the Northern Territory. A ranch is an area of landscape including various structures given primarily to the practice of ranching the practice of raising grazing livestock such as Cattle In the latter case, workers were rarely or never paid, and were restricted by regulations and/or police intervention to regions around their places of work.
In late 16th century Japan, "unfree labor" or slavery was officially banned; but forms of contract and indentured labor persisted alongside the period penal codes' forced labor. As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another Somewhat later, the Edo period penal laws prescribed "non-free labor" for the immediate family of executed criminals in Article 17 of the Gotōke reijō (Tokugawa House Laws), but the practice never became common. The 1711 Gotōke reijō was compiled from over 600 statutes promulgated between 1597 and 1696. [1]
According to Kevin Bales, in Disposable People: New Slavery in the Global Economy (1999), there are now an estimated 27 Million slaves in the world. Dr Kevin Bales is the world's leading expert on modern Slavery and President of Free the Slaves, the US Sister organization of Anti-Slavery International Disposable People New Slavery in the Global Economy is a book on modern Slavery by Kevin Bales, the head of Free the Slaves. [2][3]
Bonded labour
- See also: Black Codes in the USA
A more common form in modern society is indenture, or bonded labour, under which workers sign contracts to work for a specific period of time, for which they are paid only with accommodation and sustenance, or these essentials in addition to limited benefits such as cancellation of a debt, or transportation to a desired country. An indentured servant is a form of Debt bondage worker The Laborer is under Contract of an Employer for some period of time usually three to (Debt bondage or debt slavery is a well-known form of indenture; this is sometimes known as peonage in the USA. Debt bondage or bonded labor is a means of paying off loans with direct labor instead of currency or goods The United States of America —commonly referred to as the However, the word peon is used more generally in Latin American history, and may in some cases imply free labour. The words peon and peonage are derived from the Spanish peón (pe'on ) In some cases, indentured workers may receive small cash payments or other benefits. Indenture is still common in developing countries and was perhaps the dominant formal and official form of labour in early modern colonial societies, during the 17th century and 18th century. Developing countries are countries that haven't reached Western-style standards of democratic government free market economy industrialization social programs and human rights guaranties This article is about a type of political territory For other uses see Colony (disambiguation. However, it should be stressed that indenture is often only a formal legal category, and in practice employers sometimes find it difficult or impossible to coerce indentured workers, unless the letter of the law is reinforced by law enforcement systems, threats by crime syndicates (snakeheads) that supply workers (usually illegal aliens), and/or by full acceptance by workers, as a traditional practice. The word tradition comes from the Latin traditionem acc of traditio which means "a giving up delivering up surrendering" and is used in a number of There are also some traditional forms of bonded labour such as the Chukri System in India and Bangladesh that are illegal, yet nonetheless still practised widely. The Chukri System, is a type of Debt bondage or Forced labour system found in the Indian sub-continent India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country ( Bengali: বাংলাদেশ inc-Latn Bangladesh) officially
Penal labour
- See also: Convictism in Australia, Katorga, and Devil's Island
Prison labour
Convict or prison labour is another classic form of unfree labour. Penal labour or penal servitude is a form of Unfree labour. The term may refer to two different notions labour as a form of punishment and labour as a form of occupation During the late 18th and 19th centuries large numbers of Convicts were transported to the various Australian penal colonies by the British government Katorga (ка́торга from medieval Greek: katergon κάτεργον Galley) was the precursor to the Gulag system For other uses see Devils Island. Devil's Island (Île du Diable is the smallest and northernmost island of the three Îles du Salut A convict is "a person found guilty of a Crime and sentenced by a court" or "a person serving a sentence in prison" sometimes referred to in Slang The forced labour of convicts has often been regarded with lack of sympathy, because of the social stigma attached to people regarded as "common criminals". Social stigma is severe social disapproval of personal characteristics or Beliefs that are against cultural norms. In some countries and historical periods, however, prison labour has been forced upon people who have been: victims of prejudice, convicted of political crimes, convicted of "victimless crimes", or people who committed theft or related offences because they lacked any other means of subsistence — categories of people who typically call for compassion. Compassion is a profound human Emotion prompted by the pain of others The British colonies in Australia between 1788 and 1868 are probably the best examples of convict labour, as described above: during that period, Australia received thousands of convict labourers, many of whom had received harsh sentences for minor misdemeanours in Britain or Ireland. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located This article is about a type of political territory For other uses see Colony (disambiguation. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world
Labour camps
- See also: The Holocaust, Japanese war crimes, Gulag, Laogai, Arbeitslager, Nazi concentration camps, Forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union, and Eisenhower and German POWs
Another historically significant example of forced labour was that of political prisoners, people from conquered or occupied countries, members of persecuted minorities, and prisoners of war, especially during the 20th century. The White Sea-Baltic Sea Canal (Belomorsko-Baltiyskiy Kanal BBK) is a Ship canal that joins the White Sea and the Baltic Sea near A labor camp is a simplified detention facility where inmates are engaged in Penal labor. The Holocaust (from the Greek el ''ὁλόκαυστον'' (el-Latn holókauston holos, "completely" and kaustos, "burnt" also known as Japanese war crimes occurred during the period of Japanese imperialism. The Gulag was the government agency that administered the penal labor camps of the Soviet Union. Laogai ( the abbreviation for Láo dòng Gǎi zào (勞動改造 which means "reform through labor" is a slogan of the Chinese criminal Arbeitslager is a German language word which means Labor camp. See also List of Nazi-German concentration camps, Extermination camp Prior to and during World War II, Nazi Germany under Hitler maintained Forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union was considered by the Soviet Union to be part of German War reparations for the damage inflicted by Nazi Germany Canadian Novelist James Bacque has alleged that US General Dwight '''Eisenhower''' oversaw the deaths by starvation or exposure of one million German A political prisoner is someone held in Prison or otherwise detained perhaps under House arrest, for his or her involvement in political activity The best-known example of this are the concentration camp system run by Nazi Germany in Europe during World War II, the Gulag camps run by the Soviet Union,[4] and the forced labour used by the military of the Empire of Japan, especially during the Pacific War (such as the Death Railway). Internment is the imprisonment or confinement of people commonly in large groups without trial Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The Gulag was the government agency that administered the penal labor camps of the Soviet Union. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The Empire of Japan ( {{unicode|Kyūjitai}}: ja 大日本帝國 Shinjitai: ja 大日本帝国 pronounced Dai Nippon Teikoku The Pacific War was the part of World War II —and preceding conflicts—that took place in the Pacific Ocean, its islands and in East Asia, between The Burma Railway, also known also as the Death Railway, the Thailand-Burma Railway and similar names is a 415 km (258 mile railway between Less well known are the roughly 4,000,000 German POW's used as "reparations labor" by the Allies for several years after the German surrender. The Allies of World War II were the countries officially opposed to the Axis powers during the Second World War. China's Laogai ("labour reform") system is a current example. Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES Laogai ( the abbreviation for Láo dòng Gǎi zào (勞動改造 which means "reform through labor" is a slogan of the Chinese criminal
About 12 million forced laborers, most of whom were Eastern workers and Poles, were employed in the German war economy inside Nazi Germany. OST-Arbeiter (Ostarbeiter Eastern Workers was a designation for Slave workers gathered from Eastern Europe to do Forced labor in Nazi Germany Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers [5][6] More than 2000 German companies profited from slave labor during the Nazi era, including DaimlerChrysler, Deutsche Bank, Siemens, Volkswagen, Hoechst, Dresdner Bank, Krupp, Allianz, BASF, Bayer, BMW and Degussa. [7][8]
In Asia, according to a joint study of historians featuring Zhifen Ju, Mark Peattie, Toru Kubo, and Mitsuyoshi Himeta, more than 10 million Chinese were mobilized by the Japanese army and enslaved by the Kōa-in for slave labor in Manchukuo and north China. The history of slavery uncovers many different forms of human exploitation across many cultures throughout history The Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere ( Kyūjitai: 大東亞共榮圈 Shinjitai: ja 大東亜共栄圏 Dai-tō-a Kyōeiken) was a concept As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another Manchukuo (ja [[wikt満州国 満州国]] Manshūkoku lit "State of Manchuria " was a Puppet state in Manchuria and eastern China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National [9] The U. S. Library of Congress estimates that in Java, between 4 and 10 million romusha (Japanese: "manual laborer"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. Java (Jawa is an Island of Indonesia and the site of its Capital city Jakarta. were Forced laborers during the Japanese occupation of Indonesia in World War II. About 270,000 of these Javanese laborers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in South East Asia. Only 52,000 were repatriated to Java, meaning that there was a death rate of 80%. [10] According to Mitsuyoshi Himeta, at least 2. 7 million died during the Sankō Sakusen implemented in Heipei and Shantung by General Yasuji Okamura. The Three Alls Policy (三光作戦 Sankō Sakusen;) was a Japanese Scorched earth policy adopted in China during World War II, the three alls ( is a coastal province of eastern People's Republic of China. was a general of the Imperial Japanese Army, and commander-in-chief of the China Expeditionary Army from November 1944 to the end of World War II.
Truck system
A truck system, in the specific sense in which the term is used by labour historians, refers to an unpopular or even exploitative form of payment associated with small, isolated and/or rural communities, in which workers or self-employed small producers are paid in either: goods, a form of payment known as truck wages, or; tokens, private currency or direct credit, to be used at a company store, owned by their employers. A truck system is an arrangement in which employees are paid in commodities or in lieu of wages for work performed thereby limiting their ability to choose how to spend their earnings Self-employment is the individual pursuit of Capitalism. To be self-employed an individual is normally highly skilled in a trade or has a niche product or service See also PIK loan Payment in kind refers to payment for Goods or services with a medium other than Legal tender (anything can be Scrip is any Substitute for Currency which is not Legal tender and is often a form of credit. A specific kind of truck system, in which credit advances are made against future work is known in the U. S. as debt bondage. Debt bondage or bonded labor is a means of paying off loans with direct labor instead of currency or goods
Many scholars have suggested that employers use such systems to exploit workers and/or indebt them. This could occur, for example, if employers were able to pay workers with goods which had a market value below the level of subsistence, or by selling items to workers at inflated prices. Subsistence is the food necessary to sustain life The following is a list of subsistence techniques: Hunting and Gathering In economics inflation or price inflation is a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services over a period of time Others argue that truck wages, at least in some cases, were a convenient way for isolated communities to operate, when official currency was scarce.
By the early 20th century, truck systems were widely seen, in industrialised countries, as exploitative; perhaps the most well-known example of this view was a 1947 U.S. hit song "Sixteen Tons". is a process of social and economic change whereby a human group is transformed from a Pre-industrial society into an industrial one The United States of America —commonly referred to as the " Sixteen Tons " is a song about the misery of Coal mining, first recorded in 1946 by U Many countries have Truck Act legislation that outlaws truck systems and requires payment in cash. Truck Acts is the name given to Legislation that outlaws Truck systems which are also known as "company store" systems or debt bondage
Serfs
Serfs are sometimes referred to as unfree labourers, although they are generally not referenced with this term in academic journals. They meet the definition in that they were bound to the land and required permission to move. They usually fared far better than most other unfree labourers in that they had the exclusive use of some land and/or means of production, legal or strongly traditional human rights, economic security, and free time to a much greater extent than slaves, indenturees, and many wage labourers. Means Of Production is a compilation of Aim 's early 12" and EP releases recorded between 1995 and 1998 In the Middle Ages, some serfs were able to escape to a city, beyond the reach of a feudal lord.
Conscription
Some governments have mandatory military service. Conscription (also known as the draft, the call-up or national service) is a general term for involuntary labor demanded by some established authority Impressment (colloquially " the Press " or " press-ganging " is the act of conscripting people to serve in the military or navy usually Military service in its simplest sense is service by an individual or group in an Army or other military organization whether as a chosen job or as a result of an involuntary While sometimes paid, conscripts are not free to decline enlistment and draft dodging or desertion are often met with severe punishment. A draft dodger, draft evader or draft resister, is a person who avoids ("dodges" or otherwise violates the Conscription policies of the In Military terminology desertion is the Abandonment of a " Duty " or post without permission from one's Government or superior Even in countries which prohibit other forms of unfree labour, conscription is generally justified as being necessary in the national interest. The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation
Trafficking
Trafficking is a term to define the recruiting, harbouring, obtaining and transportation of a person by use of force, fraud, or coercion for the purpose of subjecting them to involuntary acts, such as acts related to commercial sexual exploitation (including prostitution) or involuntary labour. Human trafficking is the recruitment transportation harbouring or receipt of people for the purposes of slavery forced labor (including bonded labor or debt bondage and servitude Prostitution is the act of performing Sexual activity in exchange for Money.
The present situation
The International Labour Organization estimates that:
- At least 12. The International Labour Organization 3 million people are victims of forced labour
- more than 2. 4 million have been trafficked
- 9. 8 million are exploited by private agents
- 2. 5 million are forced to work by the state or by rebel military groups
The profits from forced trafficked labour are estimated to be in excess of $32 billion.
Notes
- ^ Lewis, James Bryant. (2003). Frontier Contact Between Choson Korea and Tokugawa Japan, p. 31-32.
- ^ Slavery in the Twenty-First Century
- ^ Millions 'forced into slavery' - BBC
- ^ The Gulag Collection: Paintings of Nikolai Getman.
- ^ Final Compensation Pending for Former Nazi Forced Laborers
- ^ Forced Labor at Ford Werke AG during the Second World War
- ^ American Jewish Committee (2000). "German Firms That Used Slave Or Forced Labor During the Nazi Era", webpage of Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved October 21, 2007.
- ^ German Companies Adopt Fund For Slave Laborers Under Nazis
- ^ Zhifen Ju, "Japan's atrocities of conscripting and abusing north China draftees after the outbreak of the Pacific war", 2002
- ^ Library of Congress, 1992, "Indonesia: World War II and the Struggle For Independence, 1942–50; The Japanese Occupation, 1942–45" Access date: February 9, 2007. Events 474 - Zeno crowned as co-emperor of the Byzantine Empire. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
References
- Allen, Theodore W. (1994). The Invention of the White Race: Racial Oppression and Social Control. New York: Verso Books. Verso Books is a Publishing house based in London and New York City, founded in 1970 by the staff of New Left Review. 10-ISBN 0-860-91480-1; 13-ISBN 978-0-860-91480-8 (cloth) -- 10-ISBN 0-860-91660-X; 13-ISBN 978-0-860-91660-4 (paper)
- _________________, (1997). The Invention of the White Race: The Origin of Racial Oppression in Anglo-America, 1997. New York: Verso Books. 10-ISBN-10: 1-859-84981-4; 13-ISBN 978-1-859-84981-1 (cloth) -- 10-ISBN 1-859-84076-0; 13-ISBN 978-1-859-84076-4 (paper)
- Bales, Kevin. (1999). Disposable People: New Slavery in the Global Economy. Berkeley: University of California Press. University of California Press, also known as UC Press, is a Publishing house associated with the University of California that engages in Academic 10-ISBN 0-520-22463-9
- Brass, Tom, Marcel Van Der Linden, and Jan Lucassen. (1993). Free and Unfree Labour. Amsterdam: International Institute for Social History. 13-ISBN 978-3-906756-87-5
- Brass, Tom. (1999). Towards a Comparative Political Economy of Unfree Labour: Case Studies and Debates. London: Routledge. Routledge is a publisher of non-fiction academic books and journals 10-ISBN 0-714-64938-4; 13-ISBN 978-0-714-64938-2 (cloth) -- 10-ISBN 0-714-64498-6; 13-ISBN 978-0-714-64498-1 (paper)
- Brass, Tom and Marcel Van Der Linden. (1997). Free and Unfree Labour: The Debate Continues. New York: Peter Lang. Peter Lang is a major international academic Publisher with its head office in Bern, Switzerland, and other offices in Berlin, Brussels 10-ISBN 0-820-43424-8; 13-ISBN 978-0-820-43424-7 (cloth)
- Blackburn. Robin Blackburn (born 1940 is a British socialist historian a former editor of New Left Review (1981-99 and author of a number of works on Marxism and (1997). The Making of New World Slavery From the Baroque to the Modern, 1492–1800, London: Verso Books. 10-ISBN 1-859-84195-3; 13-ISBN 978-1-859-84195-2 (paper)
- Blackburn, Robin. (1988). The Overthrow of Colonial Slavery, 1776–1848. London: Verso Books. 10-ISBN 0-860-91188-8; 13-ISBN 978-0-860-91188-3 (cloth) -- 10-ISBN 0-860-91901-3; 13-ISBN 978-0-860-91901-8 (paper)
- Hilton, George W. (1960). The Truck System, including a History of the British Truck Acts, 1465-1960. Cambridge: W. Heffer & Sons Ltd. [reprinted by Greenwood Press, London, 1975. Greenwood Press, based in Connecticut, is an Imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group Inc 10-ISBN 0-837-18130-5; 13-ISBN- 978-0-837-18130-1]
- International Labour Office. (2005). A global alliance against forced labour
- Lewis, James Bryant. (2003). Frontier Contact Between Choson Korea and Tokugawa Japan. London: Routledge. Routledge is a publisher of non-fiction academic books and journals 10-ISBN 0-700-71301-8
See also
- Forced labor in Germany during World War II
- Involuntary servitude
- Shanghai (verb)
- Trafficking in human beings
- Wage slavery
- White slavery
- Sexual slavery
External links
- UN.GIFT - Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking
- Slavery in the 21st century - BBC
- Sex trade's reliance on forced labour - BBC
- China's Forced Labour Camps - Laogai Research Foundation
- The ILO Special Action Programme to combat Forced Labour (SAP-FL)
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