Citizendia

Tusharas (alias Tukharas, Tocharians) were a Mlechcha tribe, with their kingdom located in the north west of India as per the epic Mahabharata. The Tocharians were the Tocharian -speaking inhabitants of the Tarim basin, making them the easternmost speakers of an Indo-European language in antiquity Mleccha (from Vedic Sanskrit म्लेच्छ mleccha, meaning "non- Aryan, Barbarian " is a derogatory term for people who did An account in Mahabharata (Mbh 1:85) depicts Mlechchas as the descendants of Anu, one of the cursed sons of king Yayati. In Sumerian mythology and later for Assyrians and Babylonians Anu (also An; (from Sumerian *An = sky heaven was a sky-god Yayati (ययाति was a Puranic king and the son of king Nahusha. Yayati's eldest son Yadu, gave rise to the Yadavas and youngest son Puru to the Pauravas that includes the Kurus and Panchalas. Yadu (यदु is the name of one of the five Aryan clans mentioned in the Rig Veda. The Pūrus are a tribe or a confederation of tribes mentioned many times in the Rigveda. The Pauravas ( Sanskrit: पौरव was the name given to the many petty kingdoms and tribes of ancient northwestern India (including modern Pakistan) Kurus may refer to Kuruş, the Turkish currency Kuru (kingdom, the Indian kingdom For the Genus of Gossamer-winged butterflies, see Panchala (butterfly. Only the fifth son of Puru's line was considered to be the successors of Yayati's throne, as he cursed the other four sons and denied them kingship. Pauravas inherited the Yayati's original empire and stayed in the Gangatic plain who later created the Kuru and Panchala Kingdoms. The Indo-Gangetic Plain also known as the Northern plains and the North Indian River Plain is a large and fertile plain encompassing most of northern and eastern India, The Kuru kingdom was ruled by the Kuru clan of kings The Pandavas and Kauravas were Kurus Other than these Kurus of India, there was another For the Genus of Gossamer-winged butterflies, see Panchala (butterfly. They were the followers of proper Vedic culture. The Vedic Period (or Vedic Age) is the period in the History of India during which the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism, were being Yadavas made central and western India their stronghold. The descendands of Anu, also called Anavas migrated to Iran, of which the Tusharas settled in Turkmenistan, Turkistan (in Afghanistan) and Turkey. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. Turkmenistan ( Türkmenistan; also known as Turkmenia) is a Turkic country in Central Asia. Turkestan (literally meaning "Land of the Turks" is a region in Central Asia, which today is largely inhabited by Turkic peoples. Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches The Tushara country mentioned in the epic could be Turkmenistan, a Central Asian Republic or the Turkistan of Afghanistan. Turkmenistan ( Türkmenistan; also known as Turkmenia) is a Turkic country in Central Asia. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Turkestan (literally meaning "Land of the Turks" is a region in Central Asia, which today is largely inhabited by Turkic peoples. Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت,

The Atharavaveda-Parishishta[1] associates the Tusharas with the Sakas, Yavanas and the Bahlikas. Kalpa is one of the six disciplines of Vedanga, treating Ritual. The Sakas ( English form of Old Iranian Sakā, Nominative plural masculine case; Ancient Greek Σάκαι, "Yona" is a Pali word used in ancient India to designate Greek speakers Bahlika (बाह्लिक finds mention in Atharvaveda, Mahabharata, Ramayana, Puranas Vartikka of Katyayana, Brhatsamhita (Saka. Yavana. Tushara. Bahlikashcha). It also juxtaposes the Kambojas with the Bahlikas (Kamboja-Bahlika. The Kambojas were a Kshatriya Tribe of Iron Age India, frequently mentioned in ( post-Vedic) Sanskrit and Pali literature . . ). [2] This shows the Tusharas probably were neighbors to the Shakas, Bahlikas (Bactrians), Yavanas or Yonas (Greeks) and the Kambojas, possibly in Transoxiana. The Sakas ( English form of Old Iranian Sakā, Nominative plural masculine case; Ancient Greek Σάκαι, The Bactrians were an Indo-European people originally of Bactria, situated in what is now modern northern Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and southern "Yona" is a Pali word used in ancient India to designate Greek speakers The Kambojas were a Kshatriya Tribe of Iron Age India, frequently mentioned in ( post-Vedic) Sanskrit and Pali literature Transoxiana (sometimes spelled Transoxania "河中“Chinese / Ma Wara'un-Nahr ( Arabic: ما وراء النهر / Farārood (فرارود

Contents

References in Mahabharata

The Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata associates the Tusharas with the Yavanas, Kiratas, Gandharas, Chinas, Kambojas, Pahlavas, Kankas, Sabaras, Barbaras, Ramathas etc. The Kirata ( Sanskrit: किराट is a generic term in Sanskrit literature for people who lived in the mountains particularly in the Himalayas and Gandhāra ( Sanskrit: गन्धार Urdu: گندھارا Gandḥārā; also known as Waihind in Persian is the name of an ancient The Chinas or Ciñas ( Sanskrit चीन are a people mentioned in ancient Indian literature from the first millennium BC, such as the The Kambojas were a Kshatriya Tribe of Iron Age India, frequently mentioned in ( post-Vedic) Sanskrit and Pali literature The Pahlavas are a people mentioned in ancient Indian texts like the Manu Smriti, various Puranas the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and the Brhatsamhita , and brands them all as barbaric tribes of Uttarapatha, leading lives of Dasyus. "Barbarian" is a pejorative term for an uncivilized person either in a general reference to a member of a nation or Ethnos perceived A tribe, viewed historically or developmentally consists of a Social group existing before the development of or outside of States Many anthropologists use Ancient Buddhist and Hindu texts use Uttarapatha as the name of the northern part of Jambudvipa of ancient Indian traditions [3]

The Tusharas along with numerous other tribes from northwest including the Bahlikas, Kiratas, Pahlavas, Paradas, Daradas, Kambojas, Shakas, Kankas, Romakas, Yavanas, Trigartas, Kshudrakas, Malavas, Angas, Vangas etc had joined Yudhishtra at his Rajasuya ceremony and brought him numerous gifts such as camels, horses, cows, elephants and gold[4]

Later the Tusharas, Sakas and Yavanas had joined the military division of the Kambojas and participated in the Mahabharata war on the side of the Kauravas. [5] Karna Parva of Mahabharata describes the Tusharas as very ferocious and wrathful warriors.

At one place in the Mahabharata, the Tusharas are mentioned along with the Shakas and the Kankas. [6] At another place they are in a list with the Shakas, Kankas and Pahlavas. [7] And at other places are mentioned along with the Shakas, Yavanas and the Kambojas[8] etc.

Tushara kingdom is mentioned in the traves of Pandavas in the northern regions beyond the Himalayas:- Crossing the difficult Himalayan regions, and the countries of China, Tukhara, Darada and all the climes of Kulinda, rich in heaps of jewels, those warlike men reached the capital of Suvahu (3:176). In the Hindu epic Mahābhārata, the Pandava (or Pandawa brothers ( Sanskrit: पाण्‍डव pāṇḍavaḥ are the five acknowledged sons of China in the Mahābhārata refers to an ancient Chinese people who lived across the Himalayas north of India in the first millennium Daradas were a people who lived north to the Kashmir valley This kingdom is identified to be the Gilgit region in Kashmir along the river Sindhu Himalaya kingdom was a mountainous country in Himalayas mentioned in the Puranas.

Cultural differences with Vedic culture

The ancient Vedic people could not understand the real oringins of the Mlechcha tribes who were highly skilled in weapons, warfare and material sciences but never followed the Vedic rites properly. Mleccha (from Vedic Sanskrit म्लेच्छ mleccha, meaning "non- Aryan, Barbarian " is a derogatory term for people who did

The confusion of ancient Vedic people in dealing with the unfamilier tribes is evidient in the following passage from Mahabharata. At (12:35) is mentioned:- What duties should be performed by the Yavanas, the Kiratas, the Gandharvas, the Chinas, the Savaras, the Barbaras, the Sakas, the Tusharas, the Kankas, the Pathavas, the Andhras, the Madrakas, the Paundras, the Pulindas, the Ramathas, the Kambojas, the several castes that have sprung up from Brahmanas and Kshatriyas, the Vaisyas, and the Sudras, that reside in the dominions of (Arya) kings?. This article is about the kingdom of Yavana in Indian epic literature Kirata Kingdom in Sanskrit literature and Hindu mythology refers to any kingdom of the Kirata people who were dwellers mostly in the Himalayas Gandhara is a kingdom grouped among the western kingdoms in the epic Mahabharata. China in the Mahābhārata refers to an ancient Chinese people who lived across the Himalayas north of India in the first millennium Sakas were a Mlechcha tribe grouped along with the Yavanas, Tusharas and Barbaras. Andhra was a kingdom mentioned in the epic Mahabharata, ruled by non-Vedic kings Madra Kingdom was a kingdom grouped among the western kingdoms in the epic Mahabharata. This article is about the kingdom of Pundra in Indian epic literature The Brāhmaṇa s ( Devanagari: sa ब्राह्मणं are part of the Hindu śruti literature Kshatriya (क्षत्रिय kṣatriya from क्षत्र kṣatra) is one of the four varnas (social orders in Hinduism The Hindu varna (class System, a Vaishya ( Sanskrit वैश्य vaiśya) is a member of the third of the four classes of traditional Shudra ( IAST: Śūdra is the fourth Varna in the traditional four-section division in historic Hindu society

Tribute to Yudhisthira

The kings of the Pahlavas and the Daradas and the various tribes of the Kiratas and Yavanas and Sakras and the Harahunas and Chinas and Tukharas and the Sindhavas and the Jagudas and the Ramathas and the Mundas and the inhabitants of the kingdom of women and the Tanganas and the Kekayas and the Malavas and the inhabitants of Kasmira, were present in the Rajasuya sacrifice of Yudhisthira the king of the Pandavas (3:51). Pahlava Kingdom is identified to be a kingdom of an Iranian tribe Daradas were a people who lived north to the Kashmir valley This kingdom is identified to be the Gilgit region in Kashmir along the river Sindhu Kirata Kingdom in Sanskrit literature and Hindu mythology refers to any kingdom of the Kirata people who were dwellers mostly in the Himalayas This article is about the kingdom of Yavana in Indian epic literature Sakas were a Mlechcha tribe grouped along with the Yavanas, Tusharas and Barbaras. Hara-Hunas were a Chinese tribe close to Himalayas so that they had limited interaction with Indian kingdoms thus they mentioned in the epic Mahabharata China in the Mahābhārata refers to an ancient Chinese people who lived across the Himalayas north of India in the first millennium Sindhu was a kingdom mentioned in the epic Mahabharata. It strached along the banks of river Sindhu in Pakistan Kekeya (also known as Kekaya Kaikaya Kaikeya etc is a kingdom grouped among the western kingdoms in the epic Mahabharata. Malava kingdom was one among the many kingdoms ruled by the Yadava kings in the central and western India corresponding to the Malwa region Kasmira was a kingdom grouped under the northern kingdoms as per the epic Rajasuya was a sacrifice described in detail in the Mahabharata, performed by the ancient kings of India who considered themselves powerful enough to be an Emperor In the great Hindu epic Mahabharata, Yudhisthira ( Sanskrit: युधिष्ठिर yudhiṣṭhira) the eldest son of King In the Hindu epic Mahābhārata, the Pandava (or Pandawa brothers ( Sanskrit: पाण्‍डव pāṇḍavaḥ are the five acknowledged sons of The Sakas and Tukhatas and Tukharas and Kankas and Romakas and men with horns bringing with them as tribute numerous large elephants and ten thousand horses, and hundreds and hundreds of millions of gold (2:50). Sakas were a Mlechcha tribe grouped along with the Yavanas, Tusharas and Barbaras.

In Kurukshetra War

They were a very ferocious warriors. The Tusharas, the Yavanas and the Sakas, along with the Chulikas, stood in the right wing of the Kaurava battle-array (6:75). This article is about the kingdom of Yavana in Indian epic literature Sakas were a Mlechcha tribe grouped along with the Yavanas, Tusharas and Barbaras. The term Kaurava ( Sanskrit:कौरव is a Sanskrit term that means a descendant of Kuru, a legendary king who is the ancestor of many of the characters The Tusharas, the Yavanas, the Khasas, the Darvabhisaras, the Daradas, the Sakas, the Kamathas, the Ramathas, the Tanganas the Andhrakas, the Pulindas, the Kiratas of fierce prowess, the Mlecchas, the Mountaineers, and the races hailing from the sea-side, all endued with great wrath and great might, delighting in battle and armed with maces, these all—united with the Kurus and fought wrathfully for Duryodhana’s sake (8:73). This article is about the kingdom of Yavana in Indian epic literature Khasas were a north western tribe mentioned in the epic Mahabharata. Daradas were a people who lived north to the Kashmir valley This kingdom is identified to be the Gilgit region in Kashmir along the river Sindhu Sakas were a Mlechcha tribe grouped along with the Yavanas, Tusharas and Barbaras. Andhra was a kingdom mentioned in the epic Mahabharata, ruled by non-Vedic kings Kirata Kingdom in Sanskrit literature and Hindu mythology refers to any kingdom of the Kirata people who were dwellers mostly in the Himalayas Mleccha (from Vedic Sanskrit म्लेच्छ mleccha, meaning "non- Aryan, Barbarian " is a derogatory term for people who did Parvatas Kingdom refers to the territory of a tribe known as Parvatas (Mountaineers mentioned in the epic Mahabharata. The Kuru kingdom was ruled by the Kuru clan of kings The Pandavas and Kauravas were Kurus Other than these Kurus of India, there was another In the Hindu epic the Mahābhārata, Duryodhana (दुर्योधन is the eldest son of the blind king Dhritarashtra by Queen Gandhari A number of Saka and Tukhara and Yavana horsemen, accompanied by some of the foremost combatants among the Kambojas, quickly rushed against Arjuna (8:88). Sakas were a Mlechcha tribe grouped along with the Yavanas, Tusharas and Barbaras. This article is about the kingdom of Yavana in Indian epic literature Kamboja or Kamvoja is one of the western kingdoms in the epic Mahabharata. Arjuna or Arjun ( Sanskrit: अर्जुन arjuna) is one of the heroes of the Hindu epic Mahābhārata, whose name F. E Pargiter writes that the Tusharas, along with the Yavanas, Shakas, Khasas and Daradas had collectively joined the Kamboja army of Sudakshina Kamboj and had fought in Kurukshetra war under latter's supreme command. Sudakshina Kamboja (सुदक्षिण is the third king of the Kambojas referred to in the Mahābhārata. [9]

Tushara in Puranas and other Indian texts

Puranic texts like Vayu Purana, Brahmanda Purana and Vamana Purana, etc. For other meanings see Purana (disambiguation. The Puranas ( Sanskrit: sa पुराण purāṇa, "of ancient times" The Vayu Purana ( Hindi: वायु पुराण is a Shaiva Purana, a Hindu religious text dedicated to the god Vayu (the wind Brahmanda Purana, one of the major eighteen Puranas, a Hindu religious text is considered as the eighteenth Purana in almost all the lists of the Puranas and it Vamana Purana, one of the major eighteen Puranas, a Hindu religious text is devoted to the Vamana Avatar of Vishnu. , associate the Tusharas with the Shakas, Barbaras, Kambojas, Daradas, Viprendras, Anglaukas, Yavanas, Pahlavas etc and refer to them all as the tribes of Udichya i. Daradas were a people who lived north and north-east to the Kashmir valley Ancient Buddhist and Hindu texts use Uttarapatha as the name of the northern part of Jambudvipa of ancient Indian traditions e. north or north-west. [10] The Kambojas, Daradas, Barbaras, Harsavardhanas, Cinas and the Tusharas are described as the populous races of men outside. [11]

Puranic literature further states that the Tusharas and other tribes like the Gandharas, Shakas, Pahlavas, Kambojas, Paradas, Yavanas, Barbaras, Khasa, and Lampakas, etc. A tribe, viewed historically or developmentally consists of a Social group existing before the development of or outside of States Many anthropologists use The Khasas are an ancient people believed to be a section of the Indo-Iranians who originally belonged to Central Asia from where they had penetrated in remote , would be invaded and annihilated by King Kalki at the end of Kaliyuga. Kali Yuga ( Devanāgarī: sa कलियुग lit "Age of Kali " "age of vice" is one of the four stages of development that the world goes And they were annihilated by king Pramiti at the end of Kaliyuga. [12]

According to Vayu Purana and Matsya Purana, river Chakshu (Oxus or Amu Darya) flowed through the countries of Tusharas, Lampakas, Pahlavas, Paradas and the Shakas, etc. The Matsya Purana is the first and oldest of all the Puranas and Hindu scriptures and texts The Amu Darya (formerly Oxus River the Greeks (Ptolemeus called it Oxiana palus) is the longest river in Central Asia. [13]

The Brihat-Katha-Manjari[14] of Pt Kshemendra relates that around 400 CE, Gupta king Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II) (r. Chandragupta II (very often referred to as Vikramaditya or Chandragupta Vikramaditya) was one of the most powerful emperors of the Gupta empire 375-413/15 CE), had "unburdened the sacred earth by destroying the barbarians" like the Tusharas, Shakas, Mlecchas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Parasikas, Hunas etc. The Sakas ( English form of Old Iranian Sakā, Nominative plural masculine case; Ancient Greek Σάκαι, The Kambojas were a Kshatriya Tribe of Iron Age India, frequently mentioned in ( post-Vedic) Sanskrit and Pali literature "Yona" is a Pali word used in ancient India to designate Greek speakers The Pahlavas are a people mentioned in ancient Indian texts like the Manu Smriti, various Puranas the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and the Brhatsamhita For the Indian Hunas see Huna (people. For the Talmud Rabbi, see Rav Huna.

The Rajatarangini of Kalhana records that king Laliditya Muktapida, the eighth century ruler of Kashmir had invaded the tribes of the north and after defeating the Kambojas, he immediately faced the Tusharas. Kalhana ( कल्हण) (c 12th century) a Kashmiri Brahmin was the celebrated author of Rajatarangini, Kashmir 's history This article is about the geographical region of greater Kashmir A tribe, viewed historically or developmentally consists of a Social group existing before the development of or outside of States Many anthropologists use The Kambojas were a Kshatriya Tribe of Iron Age India, frequently mentioned in ( post-Vedic) Sanskrit and Pali literature The Tusharas did not give a fight but fled to the mountain ranges leaving their horses in the battle field. [15] This shows that during 8th century CE, a section of the Tusharas were living as neighbors of the Kambojas near the Oxus valley. The Amu Darya (formerly Oxus River the Greeks (Ptolemeus called it Oxiana palus) is the longest river in Central Asia.

By the 6th century CE, the Brihat Samhita of Varahamihira also locates the Tusharas with Barukachcha (Bhroach) and Barbaricum (on the Indus Delta) near the sea in western India. The Bṛhat Saṃhitā is a 6th century Sanskrit encyclopedia by Varahamihira of wide ranging subjects of human interest including Astrology Daivajna Varāhamihira ( Devanagari: वराहमिहिर 505 &ndash 587 also called Varaha or Mihira was an Indian Astronomer, Mathematician The Indus River { Sanskrit: सिन्धु Sindhu; Urdu: urd {{Nastaliq سندھ}} Sindh; Sindhi: snd [16] The Romakas formed a colony of the Romans near the port of Barbaricum in Sindhu Delta. [17] This shows that a section of the Tusharas had also moved to western India and was living there around Vrahamihira's time.

There is also a mention of Tushara-Giri (Tushara mountain) in the Mahabharata, Harshacharita of Bana Bhata and Kavyamimansa of Rajshekhar. Tusharas (alias Tukharas Tocharians) were a Mlechcha tribe with their kingdom located in the north west of India as per the epic Mahabharata. Harshacharita ( IAST:Harṣacarita Sanskrit: हर्षचरित "The Deeds of Harṣa" is the Biography of Indian Emperor Harsha ÷

Chinese sources

Exiting the Iron Pass in the 7th century CE, the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang entered 覩貨羅 (Pinyin: Duhuoluo; W-G: Tu-huo-lu) or the "Tukhāra" country, which lay to the north of the great snow mountains (Hindukush), to the south of Iron Pass, and to the east of Persia, with the Oxus "flowing westward through the middle of it. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National A pilgrim is one who undertakes a Pilgrimage, literally 'far afield' See also Xuanzang (fictional character Xuanzang ( pronounced Shwan-dzang) was a famous Chinese Buddhist Monk, scholar traveler Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use Wade-Giles (ˌweɪdˈʤaɪlz) sometimes abbreviated Wade, is a Romanization system (phonetic notation and Transcription) for the Mandarin The Hindu Kush is a Mountain range located between Afghanistan and Pakistan. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia "[18] During the time of Xuanzang, the country of Tukhāra was divided into 27 administrative units, each having its separate chieftain. [19][20]

Tibetan Chronicles

The Tukharas (Tho-gar) are mentioned in the Tibetan chronicle Dpag-bsam-ljon-bzah (The Excellent Kalpa-Vrksa), along with people like the Yavanas, Kambojas, Daradas, Hunas, Khasas etc. Definitions of Tibet See also Definitions of Tibet Name In English The English word Tibet, like the word for Tibet in most European "Yona" is a Pali word used in ancient India to designate Greek speakers The Kambojas were a Kshatriya Tribe of Iron Age India, frequently mentioned in ( post-Vedic) Sanskrit and Pali literature Daradas were a people who lived north and north-east to the Kashmir valley The Huna (also known as Indo-Hephthalites or Alchon) as they were known in South Asia, seem to have been part of the Hephthalite group who The Khasas are an ancient people believed to be a section of the Indo-Iranians who originally belonged to Central Asia from where they had penetrated in remote [21]

Tusharas and Kambojas

The Komedai of Ptolemy,[22], the Kiumito or Kumituo of Xuanzang's accounts, Kiumizhi of Wu'kong,[23] Kumi of the Tang Annals,[24] Kumed or Kumadh of some Muslim writers, Cambothi, Kambuson and Komedon of the Greek writers (or the Kumijis of Al-Maqidisi, Al-Baihaki, Nasir Khusau etc)[25][26] who lived in Buttamen Mountains (now in Tajikstan) in the upper Oxus[27] are believed by many scholars to be the Kambojas who were living neighbors to the Tusharas north of the Hindukush in the Oxus valley. Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca The Hindu Kush is a Mountain range located between Afghanistan and Pakistan. The Amu Darya (formerly Oxus River the Greeks (Ptolemeus called it Oxiana palus) is the longest river in Central Asia. [28] The region was also known as Kumudadvipa of the Puranic texts, which the scholars identify with Sanskrit Kamboja. [29]

Before its occupation by the Tukharas, Badakshan formed a part of ancient Kamboja i. Badakhshan ( Tajik: Бадахшон is a region comprising parts of northeastern Afghanistan and southeastern Tajikistan. e. Parama Kamboja country but, after its occupation by the Tukharas in second century BCE, Badakshan and some other territories of the Kamboja became part of Tukharistan. Tokharistan is a name which was given to Bactria, following its settlement by various Central Asian people in the 2nd century BC. [30]

Around the 4th to 5th century CE, when the fortunes of the Tukharas finally waned, the original population of Kambojas re-asserted itself, and the region again started to be called by its ancient name, i. e. "Kamboja",[31] though north western parts still retained the name of Duhuoluo or Tukharistan in Chinese at least until the time of the Tang Dynasty. [32]

There are several later references to this Kamboja of the Pamirs/Badakshan. Raghuvamsha - a 5th century Sanskrit play by Kalidasa, attests their presence on river Vamkshu (Oxus) as neighbors to the Hunas (Raghu: 4. This article is about Kalidasa's maha-kavya epic poetic work For the dynasty see Raghuvamsa. Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical "Kalidasa" redirects here For the true bug Genus, see Kalidasa (insect. The Amu Darya (formerly Oxus River the Greeks (Ptolemeus called it Oxiana palus) is the longest river in Central Asia. The Huna (also known as Indo-Hephthalites or Alchon) as they were known in South Asia, seem to have been part of the Hephthalite group who 68-70). As seen above, the 7th century Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang mentions the Kiumito/Kumito living to the north of the Oxus,[33] which may refer to Komedai of Ptolemy. The Amu Darya (formerly Oxus River the Greeks (Ptolemeus called it Oxiana palus) is the longest river in Central Asia. Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca [34] which, as noted above, has been been equated to Kamboja mentioned in Sanskrit texts.

The 8th century king of Kashmir, King Lalitadiya, invaded the Kambojas of the "far-spreading northern region" (uttarāpatha) as mentioned in the Rajatarangini of Kalhana. This article is about the geographical region of greater Kashmir The Rājatarangiṇī ( The River of Kings) is a metrical chronicle of the kings of Kashmir from earliest time written in Sanskrit by Kalhaṇa. Kalhana ( कल्हण) (c 12th century) a Kashmiri Brahmin was the celebrated author of Rajatarangini, Kashmir 's history After encountering the Kambojas, Lalitadiya's army approached the Tuhkhāras who "fled to the mountain ranges leaving behind their horses. "[35] According to D. C. Sircar, the Kambojas here are bracketted with the Tukharas and are shown as living in the eastern parts of the Oxus valley as neighbors of the Tukharas who were living in the western parts of that Valley. The Amu Darya (formerly Oxus River the Greeks (Ptolemeus called it Oxiana palus) is the longest river in Central Asia. [36][37][38]

The tenth century CE Kavyamimamsa of Rajshekhar lists the Tusharas with several other tribes of the Uttarapatha viz: the Shakas, Kekeyas, Vokkanas, Hunas, Kambojas, Bahlikas, Pahlavas, Limpakas, Kulutas, Tanganas, Turusakas, Barbaras, Ramathas etc. Ancient Buddhist and Hindu texts use Uttarapatha as the name of the northern part of Jambudvipa of ancient Indian traditions [39]. This mediaeval era evidence shows that the Tusharas were different from the Turushakas with whom they are often confused by some writers.

Asii, Tukhara, Rishika, Yuezhi, Kamboja equation

Pompeius Trogus remarks that the Asii were lords of the Tochari. Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus, known as Pompeius Trogus, Pompey Trogue, or Trogue Pompey, was a 1st century BC Roman historian of the Celtic It is generally believed that they are same as the Rishikas of the Mahabharata which people are equivalent to Asii (in Prakrit]. Asii, also written Asio Osii Asiani etc is the name of a people believed to be followers of Scythian culture a section of whom had moved out from Alai [40] V. S. Aggarwala also equates the Rishikas with the Asii or Asioi. [41] In 1870, George Rawlinson commented that "The Asii or Asiani were closely connected with the Tochari and the Sakarauli (Saracucse?) who are found connected with both the Tochari and the Asiani". Asii, also written Asio Osii Asiani etc is the name of a people believed to be followers of Scythian culture a section of whom had moved out from Alai Asii, also written Asio Osii Asiani etc is the name of a people believed to be followers of Scythian culture a section of whom had moved out from Alai [42].

If the Rishikas of the Mahabharata were same as the Tukharas, then the observation from George Rawlinson is in line with the Mahabharata[43] statement which also closely allies the Rishikas with the Parama Kambojas[44] and places them both in the Sakadvipa. Ancient Sanskrit literature reveals that like the Madras Uttara Madras and the Kurus / Uttara Kurus the ancient Kambojas also had [45] The Kambojas (i. The Kambojas were a Kshatriya Tribe of Iron Age India, frequently mentioned in ( post-Vedic) Sanskrit and Pali literature e. the southern branch of the Parama Kambojas), are the same as the classical Assaceni/Assacani (Aspasio/Assakenoi of Arrian) and the Aśvayana and Aśvakayana of Panini. The Ashvakas or Ashvayanas, classically called the Asenes (Aseni are a very ancient people of north-east Afghanistan ( Nuristan) and the entire The Ashvakas or Ashvayanas, classically called the Asenes (Aseni are a very ancient people of north-east Afghanistan ( Nuristan) and the entire The Ashvakas or Ashvayanas, classically called the Asenes (Aseni are a very ancient people of north-east Afghanistan ( Nuristan) and the entire The Ashvakas or Ashvayanas, classically called the Asenes (Aseni are a very ancient people of north-east Afghanistan ( Nuristan) and the entire For others with this name see Arrianus (disambiguation. Lucius Flavius Arrianus 'Xenophon' (ca The Ashvakas or Ashvayanas, classically called the Asenes (Aseni are a very ancient people of north-east Afghanistan ( Nuristan) and the entire The Ashvakas or Ashvayanas, classically called the Asenes (Aseni are a very ancient people of north-east Afghanistan ( Nuristan) and the entire [46]. They are also mentioned by Megasthenes who refers to them as Osii (= Asii), Asoi, Aseni etc. Megasthenes (Μεγασθένης ca 350 BC - 290 BC was a Greek traveller and Geographer. [47], all living on upper Indus in eastern Afghanistan. The Indus River { Sanskrit: सिन्धु Sindhu; Urdu: urd {{Nastaliq سندھ}} Sindh; Sindhi: snd Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, The names indicate their connection with horses and horse culture. [48][49] These Osii, Asoi/Aseni clans represent earlier migration from the Parama Kamboja (furthest Kamboja) land, lying between Oxus and Jaxartes, which happened prior to Achamenid rule. Ancient Sanskrit literature reveals that like the Madras Uttara Madras and the Kurus / Uttara Kurus the ancient Kambojas also had The Amu Darya (formerly Oxus River the Greeks (Ptolemeus called it Oxiana palus) is the longest river in Central Asia. Syr Darya (Сырдария Сирдарё Sirdaryoسيردريا also transliterated Syrdarya or Sirdaryo) is a River in Central Asia Per epic evidence, Parama Kamboja was the land of the Loha-Kamboja-Rishikas. [50]

The Rishikas are said by some scholars to be the same people as the Yuezhi. Rshikas were an ancient Tribe living in the northern division of ancient India The Yuezhi or Rouzhi ( Chinese: 月支 Pinyin: yuè zhī or ròu zhī; also 月氏 Pinyin: yuè shì [51] The Kushanas are also said by some to be the same people. The Kushan Empire (c 1st &ndash 3rd centuries) was a Bactrian state that at its cultural zenith Circa 105 &ndash 250 [52] Kalhana (c. 1148-1149 CE) claims that the three kings he calls Huṣka, Juṣka and Kaniṣka (commonly interpreted to refer to Huvishka, Vāsishka and Kanishka I) were "descended from the Turuṣka race". Huvishka (Kushan Οοηϸκι, "Ooishki" was a Kushan emperor from the death of Kanishka (assumed on the best evidence available to be in 140 Vāsishka was a Kushan emperor who seems to have had a short reign following Kanishka II. Kanishka (Kushan language Κανηϸκι, Middle Chinese: 迦腻色伽 was a king of the Kushan Empire in Central Asia, ruling an empire extending [53] Aurel Stein says that the Tukharas (Tokharoi/Tokarai) were a branch of the Yuezhi. [54] P. C. Bagchi holds that the Yuezhi, Tocharioi and Tushara were identical. [55] If he is correct, the Rishikas, Tusharas/Tukharas (Tokharoi/Tokaroi), the Kushanas and the Yuezhi, were probably either a single people, or members of a confederacy.

Sabha Parva of Mahabharata states that the Parama Kambojas, Lohas and the Rishikas were allied tribes. [56] Like the "Parama Kambojas", the Rishikas of the Transoxian region are similarly styled as "Parama Rishikas". Transoxiana (sometimes spelled Transoxania "河中“Chinese / Ma Wara'un-Nahr ( Arabic: ما وراء النهر / Farārood (فرارود [57] Based on the syntactical construction of the Mahabharata verse 5. 5. 15[58] and verse 2. 27. 25,[59] Ishwa Mishra believe that the Rishikas were a section of the Kambojas i. The Kambojas were a Kshatriya Tribe of Iron Age India, frequently mentioned in ( post-Vedic) Sanskrit and Pali literature e. Parama Kambojas. Ancient Sanskrit literature reveals that like the Madras Uttara Madras and the Kurus / Uttara Kurus the ancient Kambojas also had V. S. Aggarwala too, relates the Parama Kambojas of the Trans-Pamirs to the Rishikas of the Mahabharata[60] and also places them in the Sakadvipa (or Scythia). Rshikas were an ancient Tribe living in the northern division of ancient India In Classical Antiquity, Scythia ( Greek Skuthia) was the area in Eurasia inhabited by the Scythians, from the 8th [61] According to B. N. Puri, the Kambojas were a branch of the Tukharas. [62] Some scholars state that the Kambojas were a branch of the Yuezhi themselves. [63]

Modern scholars are still debating the details of these connections without coming to any firm consensus. [64][65]

See also

References

  1. ^ Ed Bolling & Negelein, 41. This article is about the kingdoms as reflected in Sanskrit literature 3. 3.
  2. ^ AV-Par, 57. 2. 5; cf Persica-9, 1980, p. 106, Michael Witzel
  3. ^ MBH 12. 65. 13-15
  4. ^ Mahabharata 2. 51-2. 53; 3. 51 .
  5. ^ MBH 6. 66. 17-21; MBH 8. 88. 17
  6. ^ Shakas. Tusharah. Kankascha
  7. ^ Shakas Tusharah Kankashch. Pahlavashcha
  8. ^ Shaka. Tushara. Yavanashcha sadinah sahaiva. Kambojavaraijidhansavah OR Kritavarma tu sahitah Kambojarvarai. Bahlikaih. . . Tushara. Yavanashchaiva. Shakashcha saha Chulikaih
  9. ^ The Nations of India at the Battle Between the Pandavas and Kauravas, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1908, pp 313, 331, Dr F. E. Pargiter, (Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland).
  10. ^ Brahmanda Purana 27. 46-48.
  11. ^ Markandeya Purana, LVII. 39, The Markandeya Purana, F. E. Pargiter, Trans. Varanasi Reprint, 1969, pp 307-44; A Sourcebook of Indian Civilization, 2000, p 39, Niharranjan Ray, Brajadulal Chattopadhyaya.
  12. ^ Vayu I. 58. 78-83; cf: Matsya 144. 51-58
  13. ^ Vayu Purana I. 58. 78-83
  14. ^ 10/1/285-86
  15. ^ RT IV. 165-166
  16. ^ bharukaccha. samudra. romaka. tushrah. .  :Brhatsamhita XVI. 6
  17. ^ See comments: M. R. Singh in The Geographical Data of Early Purana, 1972, p. 26
  18. ^ Li, Rongxi (translator). 1995. The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions, p. 31. Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research. Berkeley, California. ISBN 1-886439-02-8.
  19. ^ On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India, 629-645 A. D. , Edition: 1904, pp. 102, 327. Thomas Watters - Buddhism; Publications, 1904. Oriental Translation Fund - Oriental literature.
  20. ^ Li, Rongxi (translator). 1995. The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions, p. 32. Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research. Berkeley, California. ISBN 1-886439-02-8. See also: E. J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936, Edition 1935, p. 807; M. Th. Houtsma, E. van Donzel; Geographical Data in the Early Purāṇas: A Critical Study, 1972, p. 174, M. R. Singh.
  21. ^ Tho-gar yul dań yabana dań Kambodza dań Khasa dań Huna dań Darta dań. . . (See: Pag-Sam-Jon-Zang (1908), I. 9, Sarat Chandra Das; Ancient Kamboja, 1971, p 66, H. W. Bailey. Sir Harold Walter Bailey (December 16 1899 - January 11 1996 who published as H
  22. ^ Ronca, Italo. (1971). Ptolemaios: Geographie 6,9-21 Ostiran und Zentalasien. Teil I. IsMEO, Rome p. 108.
  23. ^ Lévi, Sylvain and Chavannes, Éd. (1895). "L'itinéraire d'Ou-k'ong. Journal Asiatique, Sept. -Oct. 1895, p. 362.
  24. ^ Chavannes, Éd. (1900). Documents sur les Tou-kiue (Turcs) occidentaux. Paris, Librairie d’Amérique et d’Orient. Reprint: Taipei. Reprint: Cheng Wen Publishing Co. , pp. 164, 339.
  25. ^ See: (Author?) Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 1940, p 850, University of London School of Oriental and African Studies - Oriental philology Periodicals; Bagchi, P. C. India and Central Asia, p. 25; Prācīna Kamboja, jana aura janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, pp 401, Jiyālāla Kāmboja, Satyavrat Śāstrī - Kamboja (Pakistan); Turkestan Down to Mongol Invasion, 1968, pp. 293-6, Barthold; The Ghaznavids, p 108, C. E. Bosworth. In: History of Civilizations of Central Asia, 1999, Ahmad Hasan Dani, Vadim Mikhaĭlovich Masson, János Harmatta, Boris Abramovich Litvinovskiĭ, Clifford Edmund Bosworth, Unesco - Central Asia; The Cambridge History of Iran, 1975, pp 173, 192, Richard Nelson Frye - History; On the Kumijis see also article 26,10, Hudud Al'alam: The Regions of the World: a Persian Geography, 327 A. H. -982 A. D. See p 209.
  26. ^ See: THE ETHNIC OF THE SAKAS (SCYTHIANS. See link: [1].
  27. ^ The Cambridge History of Iran, 1975, p. 192, Richard Nelson Frye; cf. also: Li, Rongxi (translator). 1995. The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions, p. 33. Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research. Berkeley, California. ISBN 1-886439-02-8.
  28. ^ Op. cit. Bagchi, p 25; op cit. J. L. Kamboj, p 401; Studies in Indian History and Civilization, Agra, p 351; cf: India and Central Asia, p 25, Dr P. C. Bagchi; Prācīna Kamboja, jana aura janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, pp 401, Dr Jiyālāla Kāmboja, Dr Satyavrat Śāstrī - Kamboja (Pakistan).
  29. ^ Dr Buddha Prakash maintains that, based on the evidence of Kalidasa's Raghuvamsha, Raghu defeated the Hunas on river Vamkshu (Raghu vamsha 4. 68), and immediately after them he marched against the Kambojas (4. 69-70). These Kambojas were of Iranian affinities who lived in Pamirs and Badakshan. Hiun Tsang calls this region Kiu. mi. to which is thought to be Komdei of Ptolemy and Kumadh or Kumedh of Muslim writers (See: Studies in Indian History and Civilization, Agra, p 351; India and the World, 1964, p 71, Dr Buddha Prakash; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 300, Dr J. L. Kamboj). . . Kirpal Singh identify Kumudadvipa with Parama Kamboja and also locates it between the Oxus and Jaxartes (The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 59).
  30. ^ Proceedings and Transactions of the All-India Oriental Conference, 1930, p 108, Dr J. C. Vidyalankara; Bhartya Itihaas ki Ruprekha, p 534, Dr J. C. Vidyalankar; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 129, 300 Dr J. L. Kamboj; Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 159, S Kirpal Singh.
  31. ^ Bhartya Itihaas ki Ruprekha, p. 534, J. C. Vidyalankar; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp. 129, 300. J. L. Kamboj; Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p. 159, S. Kirpal Singh.
  32. ^ See, for example, the references to Xuanzang's account above.
  33. ^ Li, Rongxi (translator). 1995. The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions, p. 33. Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research. Berkeley, California. ISBN 1-886439-02-8.
  34. ^ Beal, Samuel. 1884. Si-Yu-Ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World, by Hiuen Tsiang. 2 vols. Translated by Samuel Beal. London. 1884. Reprint: Delhi. Oriental Books Reprint Corporation. 1969. vol. I, p. 41, n. 131.
  35. ^ Kalhaṇa's Rājataraṅgiṇī: A Chronicle of the Kings of Kaśmīr. (1900). Translated and annotated by M. A. Stein. Reprint (1979): Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi. Vol. I, Bk. 4, 163-165, p. 136.
  36. ^ Sircar, D. C. "The Land of the Kambojas", Purana, Vol V, No ?, July 1962, p. 250.
  37. ^ These Kambojas, apparently were descendants of that section of the Kambojas who, instead of leaving their ancestral land during second century BCE under assault from the Da Yuezhi, had compromised with the invaders and decided to stay put in their ancestral land instead of moving to the Helmand or Kabul valley. } Kābul ( Persian and Pashto: کابل, IPA:) is the Capital and largest city of Afghanistan, with
  38. ^ There are other references which also equate Kamboja with Tokhara. A Buddhist Sanskrit Vinaya text translated by N. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical Dutt, Gilgit Manuscripts, III, 3, 136, (quoted in B. S. O. A. S. XIII, p. 404) has the expression satam Kambojikanam kanyanam i. e. 'a hundred maidens from Kamboja'. This has been rendered as Tho-gar yul-gyi bu-mo brgya in the Tibetan and as Togar ulus-un yagun ükin in Mongolian. Tibetan refers to a group of languages spoken primarily by Tibetan peoples who live across a wide area of eastern Central Asia bordering South Asia as well as by overseas Thus, Kamboja has been rendered as Tho-gar or Togar. And Tho-gar/Togar are Tibetan or Mongolian forms of Tokhar/Tukhar (See: H. W. Bailey, Irano-Indica III, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 13, No. 2, 1950, pp. 389-409; see also: Ancient Kamboja, Iran and Islam, 1971, p. 66, H. W. Bailey.
  39. ^ Kavyamimamsa, Chapter 17.
  40. ^ Note - name of author and article needed here - Indian Historical Quarterly, 1963, p. 227 (v. 30-31 1954-1955).
  41. ^ Aggarwala, V. S. India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī, 1953, p 68, Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala - India; A Grammatical Dictionary of Sanskrit (Vedic): 700 Complete Reviews of the . . . - Page 68, Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala, Surya Kanta, Jacob Wackernagel, Arthur Anthony Macdonell, Peggy Melcher - India.
  42. ^ Rawlinson, George. The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Seven Great Monarchies Of The Ancient Eastern World, Vol 6. (of 7): Parthia. ) [2].
  43. ^ Mahabharata 2. 27. 25-26.
  44. ^ The Mahabharata, Book 2: Sabha Parva: Jarasandhta-badha Parva: Section XXVI
  45. ^ Agrawala, Vasudeva Sharana India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī, 1953, p 64: Agrawala, Vasudeva Sharana. India; A Grammatical Dictionary of Sanskrit (Vedic): 700 Complete Reviews of the . . . , 1953, p 62, Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala, Surya Kanta, Jacob Wackernagel, Arthur Anthony Macdonell, Peggy Melcher - India.
  46. ^ See: Ashtadhyayi Sutra IV. 1. 110 & Ganapatha, Nadadigana IV. 1. 99 respectively.
  47. ^ FRAGM. LVI. , Plin. Hist. Nat. VI. 21. 8-23. 11. ,List of the Indian Races [3]. .
  48. ^ "In Aswa, we have ancient race peopled on both sides of Indus and probable etymon of Asia. The Assaceni, the Ari-aspii, the Aspasians and (the Asii) whom Strabo describes as Scythic race have same origin. Hence Asi-gurh (Hasi/Hansi) and Asii-gard, the first settlements of Scythic Asii in Scandinavia" (see: Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1826, p 318, Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland - Great Britain; Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, Reprint (2002), Vol I, p 64. Also see: pp 51-54, 87, 95; Vol-2, P 2, James Tod; The Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia: Commercial . . . , 1885, p 196, Edward Balfour - India.
  49. ^ For Asii = Assi = Asvaka - a tribe connected with Asvas or horses, See also : The Racial History of India - 1944, pp 815, 122, Chandra Chakraberty. For Aspasii, Hipasii, see: Olaf Caroe, The Pathans, 1958, pp. 37, 55-56,
  50. ^ Mahabharata 2. 27. 25-26.
  51. ^ Aggarwala, V. S. India as Known to Panini, p. 64
  52. ^ Vidyalnkara, J. C. (1941). Bhartya Itihaas ki Ruprekha.
  53. ^ But as noted above, tenth century CE Kavyamimamsa of Rajshekhar lists the Tusharas with several other tribes of the Uttarapatha viz: the Shakas, Kekeyas, Vokkanas, Hunas, Kambojas, Bahlikas, Pahlavas, Limpakas, Kulutas, Tanganas, Turusakas, Barbaras, Ramathas etc. Ancient Buddhist and Hindu texts use Uttarapatha as the name of the northern part of Jambudvipa of ancient Indian traditions (Kavyamimamsa, Chapter 17), which clearly differentiates the Tukharas from the Turusakas.
  54. ^ Kalhaṇa's Rājataraṅgiṇī: A Chronicle of the Kings of Kaśmīr. (1900). Translated and annotated by M. A. Stein. Reprint (1979): Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi. Vol. I, Bk. I, 169-170, pp. 30-31.
  55. ^ Bagchi, P. C. India and Central Asia, 1955, p 24.
  56. ^ Mahabharata 2. 26. 25: See: The Mahabharata, Book 2: Sabha Parva, section XXVI, p 58, Kisari Mohan Ganguli, trans. [1883-1896] [4]; The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa: Translated Into English Prose, 1962, p 66, Pratap Chandra Roy; Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahābhārata: Upāyana Parva, 1945, p 13, Moti Chandra - India.
  57. ^ taraka maya sankashah Parama Rishika parthayoh || 26 ||.
  58. ^
    Shakanam Pahlavana. n cha Daradanam cha ye nripah |
    Kamboja Rishika ye cha pashchim. anupakash cha ye ||5. 5. 15||
    Trans: The kings of the Shakas, Pahlavas and the Daradas, and the Kamboja-Rishikas live in the west in the Anupa region. Anupa was a kingdom mentioned in the epic Mahabharata. It lay to the north west of Vidarbha, in Maharashtra state of India
  59. ^ LohanParamaKambojanRishikanuttaran api ||v 2. 27. 25||
  60. ^ The Deeds of Harsha: Being a Cultural Study of Bāṇa's Harshacharita, 1969, p 199, Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala.
  61. ^ India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī, 1953, p 64, Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala - India; A Grammatical Dictionary of Sanskrit (Vedic): 700 Complete Reviews of the . . . , 1953, p 62, Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala, Surya Kanta, Jacob Wackernagel, Arthur Anthony Macdonell, Peggy Melcher - India.
  62. ^ Puri, B. N. Buddhism in Central Asia, p. 90.
  63. ^ Note: Author's and article name needed here - Journal of Tamil Studies, 1969, pp. 86, 87, International Institute of Tamil Studies - Tamil philology.
  64. ^ Mallory, J. P. and Mair, Victor H. (2000). The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West, pp. 91-99. Thames & Hudson, London. ISBN 0-500-05101-1.
  65. ^ Lebedynsky, Iaroslav (2006). Les Saces: Les "Scythes" d'Asie, VIIIe siècle av, J. -C. — IVe siècle apr. J. -C. , p. 63. Edition Errance. Paris. ISBN 2-87772-337-2.
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