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Turkification is a term used to describe a cultural change in which something or someone who is not a Turk becomes one, voluntarily or by force. The Turkish people (Türk Halkı also known as " Turks " ( Türkler) are defined mainly as being speakers of Turkish as a First language It can be used in contexts in connection with Albanians, Arabs, Armenians, Assyrians, Greeks, Jews, Roma, various Slavic peoples (Bosniaks, Bulgarians), Iranian peoples (mainly Kurds), as well as Lazs and various ethnicities of the Black Sea basin and the North Caucasus. } Albanians (Shqiptarët are an Ethnic group and a Nation, in the sense of sharing a common Albanian culture speaking the Albanian language The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding The Armenians (Հայեր Hayer) are a Nation and Ethnic group originating in the Caucasus and in the Armenian Highlands A large The Assyrians are an Ethnic group whose origins lie in what is today Iraq, Iran, Turkey and Syria. The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ The Romani people (singular Rom, plural Roma as a Noun; also known as Romanies or Roma people) are an ethnic group with origins The Bosniaks or Bosniacs (Bošnjak pl Bošnjaci bɔ'ʃɲaːt͡si are a South Slavic people living mainly in Bosnia and Herzegovina ("Bosnia" The Bulgarians (българи balgari) are a South Slavic people generally associated with the Republic of Bulgaria and the Bulgarian language The Iranian people are a collection of Ethnic groups defined along linguistic lines as speaking Iranian languages. The Laz ( Lazi (ლაზი or Lazepe (ლაზეფე in Laz, Lazlar in Turkish, Lazi (ლაზი or The Black Sea is an inland Sea bounded by southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and the Anatolian peninsula ( Turkey The North Caucasus, also Ciscaucasus, Ciscaucasia or Forecaucasia, is the northern part of the Caucasus region between Europe The use of the term does not assert a denial of the existence of individuals who feel pride or are comfortable in their Turkishness, nor a questioning of their identity.

Contents

Appearance of Turks in Anatolia

Anatolia was home to many different peoples in ancient times, including the Carians, Lydians, Lycians, Cappadocians, Cilicians, and scores of others. The Carian language was the language of the Carians. It was an Anatolian language, apparently closer to Lycian than to Lydian. Cappadocia (or Capadocia, Turkish Kapadokya, from Greek: Καππαδοκία / Kappadokía which in turn is from the Persian: Geography Cilicia extended along the Aegean coast east from Pamphylia, to Mount Amanus ( Gavurdağı Mount) which separated it from Syria Hellenization gradually caused many of these peoples to abandon their own languages in favor of Greek, especially in cities and along the western and southern coasts, a process reinforced by Romanization. Hellenization (or Hellenisation) is a term used to describe the spread of Greek culture. Romanization may also refer to linguistics see Romanization. Romanization was a gradual process of Cultural assimilation, in which Nevertheless, in the north and east, especially in rural areas, many of the native languages continued to survive. [1] Even by the eleventh century, when Turkish invaders first appeared, "Greek culture was little more than a veneer so far as the mass of the people were concerned. "[2] Especially along the frontiers, the Byzantines persecuted local populations for heretical religious beliefs, causing these areas to have little sympathy for Greek culture. [3] Byzantine authorities routinely conducted large-scale population transfers in an effort to impose religious uniformity and the Greek language. They were particularly keen to assimilate the large Armenian population. To that end, in the eleventh century, the Armenian nobility were removed from their lands and resettled throughout western Anatolia. An unintended consequence of this resettlement was the loss of local military leadership along the eastern frontier, opening the path for the inroads of Turkish invaders. [4]

Beginning in the eleventh century, war with Turkish invaders led to the deaths of many in the native population, while others were enslaved and removed. [5] As areas became depopulated, Turkic nomads moved in with their herds. [6] Once an area had been conquered, and hostilities had ceased, agricultural villagers may have felt little inconvenience with the arrival of these pastoralists, since they occupied different ecological zones within the same territory. [7] Turkic pastoralists, however, made up only a small minority of the population, and the gradual Turkification of Anatolia was due to the conversion of Christians to Islam, and their adoption of the Turkish language. The reasons for this conversion were first, the weak hold Greek culture had on much of the population, and second, the desire by the conquered population to "retain its property or else to avoid being at a disadvantage in other ways. "[8] One mark of the progress of Turkification was that by the 1330s, place names in Anatolia had changed from Greek to Turkish. [9]

The imprecise meaning of Türk

The word Türk was a derogatory term until the late 19th century, referring to backwards Anatolian nomads or peasants. The Ottoman elite identified themselves as Sunni Muslims and Ottomans, never as Turks. [10] In the late 19th century, as European ideas of nationalism were adopted by the Ottoman elite, and as it became clear that the Turkish-speakers of Anatolia were the most loyal supporters of Ottoman rule, the term Türk took on a much more positive connotation. [11]

During Ottoman times, the millet system defined communities on a religious basis, and a residue of this remains in that Turkish villagers will commonly consider as Turks only those who profess the Sunni faith, and will consider Turkish-speaking Jews, Christians, or even Alevi Muslims to be non-Turks. Millet is an Ottoman Turkish term for a Confessional community in the Ottoman Empire. Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic Alevis (Aleviler Elewî are a religious sub-ethnic and cultural community in Turkey, numbering in the millions [12] On the other hand, Kurdish-speaking or Arabic-speaking Sunnis of eastern Anatolia are often considered to be Turks. [13] The imprecision of the appelation Türk can also be seen with other ethnic names, such as Kürt, which is often applied by western Anatolians to anyone east of Adana, even those who speak only Turkish. [14] Thus, the category Türk, like other ethnic categories popularly used in Turkey, does not have a uniform usage.

In recent years, centrist Turkish politicians have attempted to redefine this category in a more multi-cultural way, emphasizing that a Türk is anyone who is a citizen of the Republic of Turkey. [15]

Kurds

Main article: Kurds in Turkey

During the 1930s and 1940s, the Turkish government had statistically categorized Kurds "Mountain Turks". The Kurds in Turkey ( Kurdish: Kurdên li Tirkiye, Turkish: Türkiye'deki Kürtler) are an Indo-European people first mentioned The 1930s were described as an abrupt shift to more radical and conservative lifestyles as countries were struggling to find a solution to the Great Depression. The 1940s decade ran from 1940 to 1949 Events and trends The 1940s was a period between the radical 1930s and the conservative 1950s which also leads the period to be [16] According to CNN TÜRK, today there are media events as well as privately-sponsored education in the Kurdish language, although the general interest shown is rather limited. CNN Türk is the Turkish version of the popular cable news channel CNN. [17]

See also

References

  1. ^ (Mitchell 1993: 172-176)
  2. ^ (Langer and Blake 1932: 481)
  3. ^ (Langer and Blake 1932: 481)
  4. ^ (Charnis 1961)
  5. ^ (Vryonis 1971: 172)
  6. ^ (Vryonis 1971: 184-194)
  7. ^ (Langer and Blake 1932: 479-480)
  8. ^ (Langer and Blake 1932: 481-483)
  9. ^ (Langer and Blake 1932: 485)
  10. ^ (Kushner 1997: 219; Meeker 1971: 322)
  11. ^ (Kushner 1997: 220-221)
  12. ^ (Meeker 1971: 322)
  13. ^ (Meeker 1971: 323)
  14. ^ (Meeker 1971: 322)
  15. ^ (Kushner 1997: 230)
  16. ^ Turkey - Linguistic and Ethnic Groups - U.S. Library of Congress
  17. ^ Kurdish courses close one after the other because of lack of interest, July 2005

Sources


° Contextualising ‘Turkification’: nation-building in the late Ottoman Empire, 1908–18 Author: Ülker, Erol, Nations and Nationalism, Volume 11, Number 4, October 2005 , pp. 613-636(24)

° Arabs and Young Turks. Ottomanism, Arabism, and Islamism in the Ottoman Empire, 1908-1918 by Hasan Kayali, Author of Review: Christoph Herzog, Die Welt des Islams, New Ser., Vol. 39, Issue 2 (Jul., 1999), pp. 249-251

° International Library of Twentieth Century History v. 8, Turkey Beyond Nationalism towards Post-Nationalist Identities EDITED BY: Hans-Lukas Kieser

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