Choctaw, Seminole, Muscogee, Chickasaw, and Cherokee routes of southern removals.

The Trail of Tears was the forced relocation of Native Americans from their homelands to Indian Territory (present day Oklahoma) in the Western United States. Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples from the regions of North America now encompassed by the continental United States The phrase originated from a description of the removal of the Choctaw Nation in 1831. See also Choctaw The Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma is a semi- autonomous Native American homeland that maintains a special relationship with ^[1] The removals were motivated by U. S. desire for expansion, the desire to "save" Native Americans from extinction, and to profit from the acquisition of their assets and resources. Many Native Americans suffered from exposure, disease, starvation while enroute to their destinations.

In 1830, the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muscogee (Creek), and Seminole (sometimes collectively referred to as the Five Civilized Tribes) were living as autonomous nations in what would be called the American Deep South. The Cherokee (ᎠᏂᏴᏫᏯ a-ni-yv-wi-ya, in the Cherokee language) are a people native to North America, who at the time of European contact The Chickasaw' are Native American people originally from the Southeastern United States (Mississippi Alabama Tennessee The Choctaw are a Native American people originally from the Southeastern United States ( Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana) The Seminole are a Native American people originally of Florida and now residing in Florida and Oklahoma. The Five Civilized Tribes is the term applied to five Native American nations the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Autonomy ( Greek: Auto- Nomos - nomos meaning "law" one who gives oneself his/her own Law) is the right to Self-government The Deep South is a descriptive category of cultural and geographic subregions in the American South. The process of cultural transformation (proposed by George Washington and Henry Knox) was gaining momentum, especially among the Cherokee and Choctaw. George Washington (February 22 1732 December 14 1799 served as the first President of the United States of America (1789&ndash1797 and led the Henry Knox ( July 25, 1750 &ndash October 25, 1806) was an American Bookseller from Boston who became the chief ^[2] Indian removal was first proposed by Thomas Jefferson. Thomas Jefferson (April 13 1743 – July 4 1826 was the third President of the United States (1801–1809 the principal author of the Declaration of Independence Andrew Jackson was the first U. Andrew Jackson (March 15 1767 June 8 1845 was the seventh President of the United States (1829&ndash1837 S. President to implement removal with the passage of the Indian Removal Act of 1830. The Indian Removal Act, part of a United States government policy known as Indian removal, was signed into law by President Andrew Jackson on May 26 In 1831 the Choctaw were the first to be removed, and they became the model for all other removals. After the Choctaw removal went the Seminole in 1832, then the Creek in 1834, then the Chickasaw in 1837, and then finally the Cherokee in 1838. Removals (from various parts of North America) continued to Indian Territory (and other regions not traditionally held by the tribe) well into the latter half of the nineteenth century. The Indian Territory, also known as The Indian Country, The Indian territory or the Indian territories, was land set aside within the United States

Choctaw voluntary removal

Main article: Choctaw Trail of Tears

Choctaw Chief/U. See also Choctaw The Choctaw Trail of Tears was the relocation of the Choctaw Nation from their country referred to now as the Deep South ( Alabama S. General Pushmataha, 1824. ^[3]

The Choctaw nation was in what are now the U. S. states of Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana. Alabama (formally the State of Alabama;) is a State located in the southern region of the United States of America. Mississippi ( is a state located in the Deep South of the United States The State of Louisiana ( or, État de Louisiane, pronounced) is a state located in the southern region of the United States of America After a series of treaties starting in 1801, the Choctaw nation was reduced to 11,000,000 acres (45,000 km²). The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek ceded the remaining country to the United States and was ratified in early 1831. See also Choctaw The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek was a Treaty signed on September 27, 1830 (and proclaimed on 24 February The removals were only agreed to after a provision in the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek allowed some Choctaw to remain. George W. Harkins would write to the American people before the removals were to commence,

Secretary of War Lewis Cass appointed George Gaines to manage the removals. Lewis Cass ( October 9, 1782 – June 17, 1866) was an American military officer and Politician. Gaines decided to remove Choctaws in three phases starting in 1831 and ending in 1833. The first was to begin on November 1, 1831 with groups meeting at Memphis and Vicksburg. A harsh winter would batter the emigrants with flash floods, sleet, and snow. Initially the Choctaws were to be transported by wagon but floods halted them. With food running out, the residents of Vicksburg and Memphis were concerned. Five steamboats (the Walter Scott, the Brandywine, the Reindeer, the Talma, and the Cleopatra) would ferry Choctaws to their river-based destinations. The Memphis group traveled up the Arkansas for about 60 miles (97 km) to Arkansas Post. There the temperature stayed below freezing for almost a week with the rivers clogged with ice there would be no travel for weeks. Food rationing consisted of a handful of boiled corn, one turnip, and two cups of heated water per day. Forty government wagons were sent to Arkansas Post to transport them to Little Rock. When they reached Little Rock, Choctaw chief (thought to be Thomas Harkins or Nitikechi) quoted to the Arkansas Gazette that the removal was a "trail of tears and death. "^[5] The Vicksburg group was led by an incompetent guide and was lost in the Lake Providence swamps.

Alexis de Tocqueville, French political thinker and historian.

Alexis de Tocqueville, the French philosopher, witnessed the Choctaw removals while in Memphis, Tennessee in 1831,

Nearly 15,000 Choctaws made the move to what would be called Indian Territory and then later Oklahoma. The Indian Territory, also known as The Indian Country, The Indian territory or the Indian territories, was land set aside within the United States Oklahoma ( is a state located in the South Central region of the United States of America. ^[7] About 2,500–6,000 died along the trail of tears. Approximately 5,000–6,000 Choctaws remained in Mississippi in 1831 after the initial removal efforts. ^[8][9] The Choctaws who chose to remain in newly formed Mississippi were subject to legal conflict, harassment, and intimidation. The Choctaws "have had our habitations torn down and burned, our fences destroyed, cattle turned into our fields and we ourselves have been scourged, manacled, fettered and otherwise personally abused, until by such treatment some of our best men have died. "^[9] The Choctaws in Mississippi were later be formed as the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians and the removed Choctaws be called the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma. See also Choctaw The Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians is a Native American tribe composed of Choctaws. See also Choctaw The Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma is a semi- autonomous Native American homeland that maintains a special relationship with

Seminole resistance

Main article: Seminole Wars

Seminole warrior Tuko-see-mathla, 1834. The Seminole Wars, also known as the Florida Wars, were three conflicts in Florida between various groups of Native Americans collectively known as

The United States acquired Florida from Spain via the Adams-Onís Treaty and took possession in 1821. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. The Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819 settled a border dispute in North America between the United States and Spain. In 1832 the Seminoles were called to a meeting at Payne's Landing on the Oklawaha River. The 110 mile long Ocklawaha River flows north from Central Florida until it joins the St The treaty negotiated called for the Seminoles to move west, if the land were found to be suitable. They were to be settled on the Creek reservation and become part of the Creek tribe. The delegation of seven chiefs who were to inspect the new reservation did not leave Florida until October 1832. After touring the area for several months and conferring with the Creeks who had already been settled there, the seven chiefs signed on March 28, 1833 a statement that the new land was acceptable. Events 37 - Roman Emperor Caligula accepts the titles of the Principate, entitled to him by the Senate. Year 1833 ( MDCCCXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common Upon their return to Florida, however, most of the chiefs renounced the statement, claiming that they had not signed it, or that they had been forced to sign it, and in any case, that they did not have the power to decide for all the tribes and bands that resided on the reservation. The villages in the area of the Apalachicola River were more easily persuaded, however, and went west in 1834. ^[10] On December 28, 1835 a group of Seminoles and escaped slaves ambushed a U. S. Army company attempting to forcibly remove the Seminole. Out of 110 army troops only 3 survived, and with that the Second Seminole War had begun.

As the realization that the Seminoles would resist relocation sank in, Florida began preparing for war. The St. Augustine Militia asked the War Department for the loan of 500 muskets. The United States Department of War, sometimes also called the War Office, was the department of the United States government 's executive branch Five hundred volunteers were mobilized under Brig. Gen. Richard K. Call. Richard Keith Call ( October 24, 1792 - September 14, 1862) was the third and fifth territorial governor of Florida Indian war parties raided farms and settlements, and families fled to forts, large towns, or out of the territory altogether. A war party led by Osceola captured a Florida militia supply train, killing eight of its guards and wounding six others. Most of the goods taken were recovered by the militia in another fight a few days later. Sugar plantations along the Atlantic coast south of St. Augustine were destroyed, with many of the slaves on the plantations joining the Seminoles. ^[11]

Other warchiefs such as Halleck Tustenuggee, Jumper, and Black Seminoles Abraham and John Horse continued the Seminole resistance against the army. Halleck Tustenuggee (also spelled Halek Tustenuggee and Hallock Tustenuggee) ( about 1807 – ?) was a 19th century Seminole warchief The Black Seminoles are descendants of free Africans and some Runaway slaves who escaped from coastal South Carolina and Georgia into the Florida wilderness The war ended, after a full decade of fighting, in 1842. The U. S. government is estimated to have spent about $20,000,000 on the war, at the time an astronomical sum. Many Indians were forcibly exiled to Creek lands west of the Mississippi; others retreated into the Everglades. In the end, the government gave up trying to subjugate the Seminole in their Everglades redoubts and left less than 100 Seminoles in peace. ^[12]

Creek dissolution

Main article: Creek (American Indians)

Selocta (or Shelocta) was a Muscogee chief who appealed to Andrew Jackson to reduce the demands for Creek lands at the signing of the Treaty of Fort Jackson. ^[13]

After the War of 1812, some Muscogee leaders such as William McIntosh signed treaties that ceded more land to Georgia. William McIntosh (1775 &ndash April 30, 1825) also known as "White Warrior" was the son of Captain William McIntosh a member of a prominent Savannah The 1814 signing of the Treaty of Fort Jackson signaled the end for the Creek Nation and for all Indians in the South. The Treaty of Fort Jackson (also known as the Treaty with the Creeks 1814) was signed on August 9, 1814 at Fort Jackson near Wetumpka ^[14] Friendly Creek leaders, like Selocta and Big Warrior, addressed Sharp Knife (the Indian nickname for Andrew Jackson) and reminded him that they keep the peace. Nevertheless, Jackson retorted that they did not "cut (Tecumseh's) throat" when they had the chance, so they must now cede Creek lands. Tecumseh (March 1768 – October 5, 1813) also Tecumtha or Tekamthi, was a famous Native American leader of the Shawnee Jackson also ignored Article 9 of the Treaty of Ghent that restored sovereignty to Indians and their nations. The Treaty of Ghent ( signed on December 24 1814, in Ghent, currently in Belgium, was the peace treaty that ended the War of 1812

Eventually, the Creek Confederacy enacted a law that made further land cessions a capital offense. Capital punishment, the death penalty or execution, is the Killing of a person by judicial process as Punishment. Nevertheless, on February 12, 1825, McIntosh and other chiefs signed the Treaty of Indian Springs, which gave up most of the remaining Creek lands in Georgia. Events 1429 - English Forces under Sir John Fastolf defend a supply convoy carrying rations to the army besieging Orleans from attack by the Year 1825 ( MDCCCXXV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common There are two Treaties of Indian Springs with the Creek Indians. [1] After the U.S. Senate ratified the treaty, McIntosh was assassinated on May 13, 1825, by Creeks led by Menawa. The United States Senate is the Upper house of the bicameral United States Congress, the Lower house being the House of Representatives Events 1497 - Pope Alexander VI excommunicates Girolamo Savonarola. Year 1825 ( MDCCCXXV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common

The Creek National Council, led by Opothle Yohola, protested to the United States that the Treaty of Indian Springs was fraudulent. Opothleyahola also spelled Opothle Yohola, Opothleyoholo, Hu-pui-hilth Yahola, and Hopoeitheyohola ( about 1798 &ndash President John Quincy Adams was sympathetic, and eventually the treaty was nullified in a new agreement, the Treaty of Washington (1826). John Quincy Adams (July 11 1767 &ndash February 23 1848 was an American diplomat and politician who served as the sixth President of the United States The 1826 Treaty of Washington was a settlement between the United States government and the Creek National Council of Native Americans, led by their spokesman [2] Writes historian R. Douglas Hurt: "The Creeks had accomplished what no Indian nation had ever done or would do again — achieve the annulment of a ratified treaty. "^[16] However, Governor Troup of Georgia ignored the new treaty and began to forcibly remove the Indians under the terms of the earlier treaty. At first, President Adams attempted to intervene with federal troops, but Troup called out the militia, and Adams, fearful of a civil war, conceded. As he explained to his intimates, "The Indians are not worth going to war over. "

Although the Creeks had been forced from Georgia, with many Lower Creeks moving to the Indian Territory, there were still about 20,000 Upper Creeks living in Alabama. The Indian Territory, also known as The Indian Country, The Indian territory or the Indian territories, was land set aside within the United States However, the state moved to abolish tribal governments and extend state laws over the Creeks. Opothle Yohola appealed to the administration of President Andrew Jackson for protection from Alabama; when none was forthcoming, the Treaty of Cusseta was signed on March 24, 1832, which divided up Creek lands into individual allotments. Opothleyahola also spelled Opothle Yohola, Opothleyoholo, Hu-pui-hilth Yahola, and Hopoeitheyohola ( about 1798 &ndash Treaty of Cusseta was a Treaty between the government of the United States and the Creek Nation signed March 24, 1832. Events 1401 - Mongol emperor Timur sacks Damascus. 1603 - James VI of Scotland Year 1832 ( MDCCCXXXII) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian [3] Creeks could either sell their allotments and received funds to remove to the west, or stay in Alabama and submit to state laws. Land speculators and squatters began to defraud Creeks out of their allotments, and violence broke out, leading to the so-called "Creek War of 1836. The Creek War of 1836 Although the Creek people had been forced from Georgia with many Lower Creeks moving to the Indian Territory, there were still about " Secretary of War Lewis Cass dispatched General Winfield Scott to end the violence by forcibly removing the Creeks to the Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River. The Secretary of War was a member of the United States President's Cabinet, beginning with George Washington 's administration Lewis Cass ( October 9, 1782 – June 17, 1866) was an American military officer and Politician. Winfield Scott ( June 13, 1786 &ndash May 29, 1866) was a United States Army general Diplomat, and presidential candidate

Chickasaw monetary removal

Main article: Chickasaw

Holmes Colbert, a developer of the Chickasaw constitution in Oklahoma, 1850s. The Chickasaw' are Native American people originally from the Southeastern United States (Mississippi Alabama Tennessee

Unlike other tribes who exchanged land grants, the Chickasaw received financial compensation from the United States for their lands east of the Mississippi River. In 1836 the Chickasaws had reached an agreement that purchased land from the previously removed Choctaws after a bitter five year debate. They paid the Choctaws $530,000 for the western most part Choctaw land. The first group of Chickasaws moved in 1837 was led by John M. Millard. The Chickasaws gathered at Memphis Tennessee on July 4, 1837 with all for their assets--belongings, livestock, and slaves. Once across the Mississippi River they followed routes previously established by Choctaws and Creeks. Once in Indian Territory the Chickasaws merged with the Choctaw nation. After several decades of mistrust, they regained nationhood and established a Chickasaw nation.

Cherokee forced relocation

Main article: Cherokee trail of tears

Principal Cherokee Chief John Ross by Charles Bird King, 1843. See also Trail of tears The Cherokee Trail of Tears (also called the trail of Indian tears) refers to the forced relocation in 1838 of Charles Bird King (1785–1862 is a United States artist who is best known for his portraiture

In 1838, the Cherokee Nation was removed from their lands in Georgia to the Indian Territory (present day Oklahoma) in the Western United States, which resulted in the deaths of approximately 4,000 Cherokees. The Cherokee (ᎠᏂᏴᏫᏯ a-ni-yv-wi-ya, in the Cherokee language) are a people native to North America, who at the time of European contact The Western United States &mdashcommonly referred to as the American West or simply the West &mdashtraditionally refers to the region comprising the westernmost ^[17] In the Cherokee language, the event is called Nunna daul Isunyi—“the Trail Where They Cried”. Cherokee (ᏣᎳᎩ Tsalagi) is an Iroquoian language spoken by the Cherokee people which uses a unique syllabary writing system The Cherokee Trail of Tears resulted from the enforcement of the Treaty of New Echota, an agreement signed under the provisions of the Indian Removal Act of 1830 which exchanged Native American land in the East for lands west of the Mississippi River, but which was never accepted by the elected tribal leadership or a majority of the Cherokee people. The Treaty of New Echota was a removal treaty signed in New Echota, Georgia by officials of the United States government and several members The Indian Removal Act, part of a United States government policy known as Indian removal, was signed into law by President Andrew Jackson on May 26 The Mississippi River is the second longest River in the United States, with a length of from its source in Lake Itasca in Minnesota to

Tensions between Georgia and the Cherokee Nation were brought to a crisis by the discovery of gold near Dahlonega, Georgia, in 1829, resulting in the Georgia Gold Rush, the first gold rush in U. Dahlonega is a city in Lumpkin County, Georgia, United States, and is its County seat. The Georgia Gold Rush was the first significant Gold rush in the United States. A gold rush is a period of feverish migration of workers into the area of a dramatic discovery of commercial quantities of Gold. S. history. Hopeful gold speculators began trespassing on Cherokee lands, and pressure began to mount on the Georgia government to fulfill the promises of the Compact of 1802. The Compact of 1802 was a compact made by US president Thomas Jefferson in 1802 to the state of Georgia.

When Georgia moved to extend state laws over Cherokee tribal lands in 1830, the matter went to the U.S. Supreme Court. The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest judicial body in the United States and leads the federal judiciary. In Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831), the Marshall court ruled that the Cherokees were not a sovereign and independent nation, and therefore refused to hear the case. Cherokee Nation v Georgia,, was a United States Supreme Court decision John Marshall (September 24 1755 – July 6 1835 was an American statesman and jurist who shaped American constitutional law and made the Supreme Court a center of power However, in Worcester v. State of Georgia (1832), the Court ruled that Georgia could not impose laws in Cherokee territory, since only the national government — not state governments — had authority in Indian affairs. Worcester v Georgia, 31 US (6 Pet 515 ( 1832) was a case in which the United States Supreme Court held that Cherokee Native Americans

Jackson probably never said this, but he was fully committed to the policy. He had no desire to use the power of the national government to protect the Cherokees from Georgia, since he was already entangled with states’ rights issues in what became known as the nullification crisis. States' rights refers to the idea in US politics and constitutional law, that U The Nullification Crisis was a sectional crisis during the presidency of Andrew Jackson created by the Ordinance of Nullification, an attempt by the With the Indian Removal Act of 1830, the U.S. Congress had given Jackson authority to negotiate removal treaties, exchanging Indian land in the East for land west of the Mississippi River. The Indian Removal Act, part of a United States government policy known as Indian removal, was signed into law by President Andrew Jackson on May 26 The United States Congress is the bicameral Legislature of the federal government of the United States of America, consisting of two houses Jackson used the dispute with Georgia to put pressure on the Cherokees to sign a removal treaty. ^[18]

Nevertheless, the treaty, passed by Congress by a single vote, and signed into law by President Andrew Jackson, was imposed by his successor President Martin Van Buren who allowed Georgia, Tennessee, North Carolina, and Alabama militia to round up about 13,000 Cherokees in concentration camps before being sent to the West. The President of the United States is the Head of state and Head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in United States by Andrew Jackson (March 15 1767 June 8 1845 was the seventh President of the United States (1829&ndash1837 Martin Van Buren (December 5 1782 July 24 1862 was the eighth President of the United States from 1837 to 1841 The State of Georgia ( is a state in the United States and was one of the original Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule Tennessee ( is a state located in the Southern United States. North Carolina ( is a state located on the Atlantic Seaboard in the southeastern United States Alabama (formally the State of Alabama;) is a State located in the southern region of the United States of America. Internment is the imprisonment or confinement of people commonly in large groups without trial Most of the deaths occurred from disease, starvation and cold in these camps. After the initial roundup, the U. S. military still oversaw the emigration until they met the forced destination. ^[19] Private John G. Burnett later wrote "Future generations will read and condemn the act and I do hope posterity will remember that private soldiers like myself, and like the four Cherokees who were forced by General Scott to shoot an Indian Chief and his children, had to execute the orders of our superiors. We had no choice in the matter. " ^[20]

Removed Cherokees initially settled near Tahlequah, Oklahoma. Tahlequah (Pronounced " Tal a Kwa " is a city in Cherokee County, Oklahoma, United States located at the foot hills of the Ozark Mountains The political turmoil resulting from the Treaty of New Echota and the Trail of Tears led to the assassinations of Major Ridge, John Ridge, and Elias Boudinot; of the leaders of the Treaty Party, only Stand Watie escaped his assassins. The population of the Cherokee Nation eventually rebounded, and today the Cherokees are the largest American Indian group in the United States. ^[22]

There were some exceptions to removal. Perhaps 100 Cherokees evaded the U. S. soldiers and lived off the land in Georgia and other states. Those Cherokees who lived on private, individually owned lands (rather than communally owned tribal land) were not subject to removal. In North Carolina, about 400 Cherokees, known as the Oconaluftee Cherokee, lived on land in the Great Smoky Mountains owned by a white man named William Holland Thomas (who had been adopted by Cherokees as a boy), and were thus not subject to removal. The Great Smoky Mountains are a major Mountain range in the southern part of the Appalachian Mountains, the second ridge line forming a north-south running mountain William Holland Thomas ( February 5, 1805 &ndash May 10, 1893) was a Cherokee chief and an officer in the Confederate States Added to this were some 200 Cherokee from the Nantahala area allowed to stay after assisting the U. S. Army hunt down and capture the family of the old prophet Tsali (Tsali faced a firing squad). These North Carolina Cherokees became the Eastern Band of the Cherokee Nation. The Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians are a Federally recognized Native American tribe in the United States of America

Other tribes removed

Many tribes from various regions in North America were removed to Indian Territory. They include:

See also

• Indian Removal
• Cherokee Trail of Tears
• Cherokee
• Chickasaw
• Choctaw
• Creek
• Hopkinsville, Kentucky
• Seminole

Notes

1. ^ Len Green. "Huron" redirects here For other uses see Huron (disambiguation. Indian Removal was a nineteenth century policy of the government of the United States to ethnically cleanse Native American tribes living east of the Mississippi See also Trail of tears The Cherokee Trail of Tears (also called the trail of Indian tears) refers to the forced relocation in 1838 of The Cherokee (ᎠᏂᏴᏫᏯ a-ni-yv-wi-ya, in the Cherokee language) are a people native to North America, who at the time of European contact The Chickasaw' are Native American people originally from the Southeastern United States (Mississippi Alabama Tennessee The Choctaw are a Native American people originally from the Southeastern United States ( Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana) Hopkinsville is a city in Christian County, Kentucky, United States. The Seminole are a Native American people originally of Florida and now residing in Florida and Oklahoma. Choctaw Removal was really a "Trail of Tears" (HTML). Bishinik, mboucher, University of Minnesota. Retrieved on 2008-04-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1192 - Assassination of Conrad of Montferrat (Conrad I King of Jerusalem, in Tyre, two days after his title
2. ^ Perdue, Theda [2003]. "Chapter 2 "Both White and Red"", Mixed Blood Indians: Racial Construction in the Early South. The University of Georgia Press, 51. ISBN 082032731X.  
3. ^ Jones, Charlie (1987). Sharing Choctaw History (HTML). Retrieved on 2008-04-30. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 313 - Roman emperor Licinius unifies the entire Eastern Roman Empire under his rule
4. ^ Harkins, George (1831). 1831 - December - George W. Harkins to the American People (HTML). Retrieved on 2008-04-23. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 215 BC - A temple is built on the Capitoline Hill dedicated to Venus Erycina to commemorate the Roman defeat at
5. ^ Chris Watson. The Choctaw Trail of Tears (HTML). Retrieved on 2008-04-29. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1429 - Joan of Arc arrives to relieve the Siege of Orleans.
6. ^ de Tocqueville, Alexis (1835-1840). Tocqueville and Beaumont on Race (HTML). Retrieved on 2008-04-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1192 - Assassination of Conrad of Montferrat (Conrad I King of Jerusalem, in Tyre, two days after his title
7. ^ Satz, Ronald [1986]. "The Mississippi Choctaw: From the Removal Treaty of the Federal Agency", in Samuel J. Wells and Roseanna Tuby: After Removal: The Choctaw in Mississippi. University Press of Mississippi, 7. ISBN 0878052895.  
8. ^ Baird, David [1973]. "The Choctaws Meet the Americans, 1783 to 1843", The Choctaw People. United States: Indian Tribal Series, 36. Library of Congress 73-80708.  
9. ^ ^{a b} Walter, Williams [1979]. "Three Efforts at Development among the Choctaws of Mississippi", Southeastern Indians: Since the Removal Era. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press.  
10. ^ Missall. Pp. 83-85.
11. ^ Missall. Pp. 93-94.
12. ^ Covington, James W. 1993. The Seminoles of Florida. Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-1196-5. Pp. 145-6
13. ^ Remini, Robert [1977, 1998]. "The Creek War: Victory", Andrew Jackson. History Book Club, 228. ISBN 0965063106.  
14. ^ Remini, Robert [1977, 1998]. "The Creek War: Victory", Andrew Jackson. History Book Club, 231. ISBN 0965063106.  
15. ^ Remini, Robert [1977, 1998]. "The Creek War: Victory", Andrew Jackson. History Book Club, 226. ISBN 0965063106.  
16. ^ Hurt, R. Douglas (2002). The Indian Frontier, 1763-1846 (Histories of the American Frontier). Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, p. 148. ISBN 0826319661.  
17. ^ Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma: http://www.cherokee.org/Culture/CulInfo/TOT/58/Default.aspx
18. ^ Remini, Andrew Jackson, p. 257, Prucha, Great Father, p. 212.
19. ^ Myths of the Cherokee and Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees By James Mooney, P. 130
20. ^ "Birthday Story of Private John G. Burnett, Captain Abraham McClellan’s Company, 2nd Regiment, 2nd Brigade, Mounted Infantry, Cherokee Indian Removal, 1838-39", Cherokee Nation official site, http://www.cherokee.org/Culture/CulInfo/TOT/128/Default.aspx
21. ^ Remini, Robert [2000]. "Invasion", The Earth Shall Weep: A History of Native America. Grove Press, 170. ISBN 080213680X.  
22. ^ Top 25 American Indian Tribes for the United States: 1990 and 1980. U. S. Bureau of the Census (August 1995).

References

• Anderson, William L. , ed. Cherokee Removal: Before and After. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 1991.
• Carter, Samuel. Cherokee Sunset: A Nation Betrayed. New York: Doubleday, 1976. ISBN 0-385-06735-6.
• Ehle, John. Trail of Tears: The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation. New York: Doubleday, 1988. ISBN 0-385-23953-X.
• Foreman, Grant. Indian Removal: The Emigration of the Five Civilized Tribes of Indians. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1932, 11th printing 1989. ISBN 0-8061-1172-0.
• Prucha, Francis Paul. The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians. Volume I. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1984. ISBN 0-8032-3668-9.
• Remini, Robert V. Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars. Robert Vincent Remini (born July 17, 1921) is a Historian and a professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago. New York: Viking, 2001. ISBN 0-670-91025-2.
• Wallace, Anthony F. C. The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians. New York: Hill and Wang, 1993. ISBN 0-8090-1552-8 (paperback); ISBN 0-8090-6631-9 (hardback).

Documents

• Cherokee Indian Removal Debate U.S. Senate, April 15-17, 1830
• Winfield Scott's Address to the Cherokee Nation, May 10, 1838
• Gen. Winfield Scott's Order to U.S. Troops

Documentary

• The Trail of Tears: Cherokee Legacy (2006) -directed by Chip Richie; na by James Earl Jones

External links

• Remote Sensing Technology to Understanding the Choctaw Removals
• Trail of Tears National Historic Trail (U.S. National Park Service)
• The North Little Rock Site: Interpretive Contexts Chickasaw
• Seminole Tribe of Florida History: Indian Resistance and Removal
• Muscogee (Creek) Removal
• The Trail of Tears and the Forced Relocation of the Cherokee Nation, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan