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François-Dominique Toussaint Louverture
François-Dominique Toussaint Louverture

François-Dominique Toussaint Louverture pronunciation (help·info), also Toussaint Bréda, Toussaint-Louverture (born 20 May 1743 - died April 8, 1803) was an important leader of the Haitian Revolution. Events 325 - The First Council of Nicaea &ndash the first Ecumenical Council of the Christian Church is held Year 1743 ( MDCCXLIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Events 217 - Roman Emperor Caracalla is Assassinated (and succeeded by his Praetorian 1803 ( MDCCCIII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a The Revolution (1791–1804 was the most successful of African Slave rebellions in the Western Hemisphere Born a slave in Saint-Domingue, in a long struggle for independence, he led enslaved Africans to victory over Europeans, abolished slavery, and secured native control over the colony in 1797 while nominally governor of the colony. This article is about a type of political territory For other uses see Colony (disambiguation. He expelled the French commissioner Léger-Félicité Sonthonax, as well as the British armies; invaded Santo Domingo to free the slaves there; and wrote a constitution naming himself governor for life that established a new polity for the colony. Léger-Félicité Sonthonax (1763 – 1813 was a French Jacobin and abolitionist during the French Revolution who controlled the 7000 French Santo Domingo de Guzmán (known as Santo Domingo population 2084852 (Metro (2003 estimated 2253437 (Metro in 2006 is the Capital and largest city in the Polity ( Greek: Πολιτεία or Πολίτευμα transliterated as Politeía or Políteuma) was originally a term used in Ancient Greece

Between the years 1800 and 1802, Toussaint Louverture tried to rebuild the collapsed economy of Haiti and reestablish commercial contacts with the United States and Great Britain. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the See also Kingdom of Great Britain Great Britain (Breatainn Mhòr Prydain Fawr Breten Veur Graet Breetain is the larger of the two main islands His rule permitted the colony a taste of freedom which, after his death in exile, was gradually destroyed during the successive reigns of a series of despots. His name, translated from French, would mean "all the saints awakening. " [1]


Contents

Overview

Toussaint Louverture was born a slave in the Plaine du Nord of what was then Saint-Domingue. Nord (North Nò is one of the ten departments ( French: Départements ' of Haiti. He was born on the Bréda plantation of Bayon de Libertat, near Cap Français. Cap-Haïtien ( Okap or Kapayisyen in Kréyòl) is a city of about 130000 people on the north coast of Haiti. Tradition says that his father was an African named Gaou-Guinou and probably a member of the Arrada tribe. Toussaint Breda was lucky enough to be educated and read widely in French literature of the Enlightenment. He worked as a domestic and carriage driver on the plantation. His master freed him at age 33, when Toussaint married. [2] He was a fervent Catholic, and a member of high degree of the Masonic Lodge of Saint-Domingue. A Masonic Lodge, often termed a Private Lodge or Constituent Lodge in Books of Constitutions is the basic organisation of Freemasonry. Saint-Domingue was a French Colony on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola from 1659 to 1804 when it became the independent nation of [3][4] As unrest shook Saint-Domingue's institutions, Toussaint joined the Spanish army of Santo Domingo. He was able to organize 4,000 blacks into a band of loyal guerrilla troops, as he was a gifted, although untrained, military leader. Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc When the French Legislative Assembly decreed full equality to all Haitians on April 4, 1792, Toussaint switched his loyalty to the French and fought against the Spanish. Events 1581 - Francis Drake completes a circumnavigation of the world and is knighted by Elizabeth I. Year 1792 ( MDCCXCII) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year

He was also successful in leading his relatively small band of guerrilla troops against an army of 10,000 strong British soldiers. By 1795, Toussaint controlled most of two provinces. His two lieutenants Jean-Jacques Dessalines and Henry Christophe were extremely effective. Jean-Jacques Dessalines ( September 20, 1758 – 17 October 1806 was a leader of the Haitian Revolution and the first ruler of an independent Henri Christophe ( October 6, 1767 – October 8, 1820) became a career officer and general in the military forces that became the Haïtian Army Toussaint's success drove André Rigaud, a man of color, to renew his attacks from the southern part of the island, where free people of color were concentrated in Port au Prince. André Rigaud (1761-1811 was the leading mulatto military leader during the Haïtian Revolution. Rigaud controlled a force of officers of color and black troops, who contained the South. [5]

By June 1795, the British had been driven back to the coast. In July the Spanish officially withdrew and ceded the eastern two-thirds of the island to the French. This included their former colony of Santo Domingo. Although the British continued to fight, Toussaint maintained his control over the North and West of Saint-Domingue.

In 1798, the British made a last-ditch attempt to oust Louverture from the South, sending General Thomas Maitland. Thomas Maitland may refer to Thomas Maitland Lord Dundrennan (1792–1851 Scottish judge Sir Thomas Maitland (1759–1824 British general Maitland failed and signed a secret treaty to make Toussaint an independent ruler. The British left Saint-Domingue completely in October 1798, leaving Rigaud, Alexandre Pétion, and Toussaint to fight against each other for control. Alexandre Sabès Pétion ( April 2, 1770 &ndash March 29, 1818) was President of the southern Republic of Haiti from 1806 until [5] Toussaint appointed Jean-Jacques Dessalines to govern the South and dismantle the opposing colored forces. Jean-Jacques Dessalines ( September 20, 1758 – 17 October 1806 was a leader of the Haitian Revolution and the first ruler of an independent Dessalines killed thousands and crushed the resistance. His brutality left bitterness among people of color. [5] By 1799, Toussaint had subordinated all remaining colored forces. [1]

French Revolution and rebellion in Saint-Domingue

News of the French Revolution of 1789 and the message of Liberté, égalité, fraternité reached Saint-Domingue by 1790, and had a powerful impact on the island. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an Liberté égalité fraternité, French for " Liberty, equality, fraternity ( Brotherhood)" is the motto Saint-Domingue was a French Colony on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola from 1659 to 1804 when it became the independent nation of French soldiers landing at Port-au-Prince joined blacks and people of color in brotherly union. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. PortAuPrinceTapTapjpg|right|thumb|270px|A taptap (shared taxi in central Port-au-Prince They announced that the National Assembly in France had declared all men free and equal. The French National Assembly. The other is the Senate ( “Sénat”) It did not take long for the ideas of Enlightenment philosophy to spread through the island. The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century When white planters failed to honor the promises made by the Declaration of the Rights of Man, widespread slave uprisings took place. ---- Planters is an American snack food company under Kraft Foods manufacturing best known for its nuts and the Mr The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (Déclaration des droits de l'Homme et du citoyen is a fundamental document of the French Revolution, defining

Toussaint did not participate in the ill-fated campaign organized by Vincent Ogé, a wealthy and free man of color. Vincent Ogé (c1755 - 1791 was a wealthy free man of color and the instigator of a revolt against white colonial authority in French Saint-Domingue that lasted from October The revolt took place in October 1790 and tried to assert the voting rights of free people of color but it was brutally crushed. Once a slave revolt broke out in the Northern Province in August 1791, Toussaint found himself wavering. He worked as a servant and carriage driver on the plantation where he had grown up.

Initially, Toussaint was against the destruction and bloodshed that was being unleashed by the rebels. Toussaint spent many months keeping his master’s slaves in order and preventing revolutionary laborers from setting fire to the plantation. When it became clear that all white people were threatened, and as the insurrection grew, Toussaint helped his master’s family to escape, sent his own family away to a safe spot in Spanish Santo Domingo, and made his way to the camp of rebel slaves. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Santo Domingo de Guzmán (known as Santo Domingo population 2084852 (Metro (2003 estimated 2253437 (Metro in 2006 is the Capital and largest city in the As a mature man near 50, he soon discerned the ineptitude of the rebel leaders and their willingness to compromise with white radicals. Scorning these and using his ample experience in administration and leadership, Toussaint quickly gathered a following and trained his followers in the tactics of guerrilla warfare. In 1793, he became an aide to Georges Biassou. Georges Biassou was an early leader of the 1791 slave rising in Saint-Domingue that began the Haïtian Revolution. He rose rapidly in rank. The army of blacks proved successful against the yellow fever-ravaged and poorly led European troops.

After the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars, when France and Spain went to war in 1793, the black commanders joined the Spanish-led army of Santo Domingo against the French. The French Revolutionary Wars were a series of major conflicts from 1792 until 1802 fought between the French Revolutionary government and several European states This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Santo Domingo de Guzmán (known as Santo Domingo population 2084852 (Metro (2003 estimated 2253437 (Metro in 2006 is the Capital and largest city in the Knighted and recognized as a general, Toussaint demonstrated extraordinary military ability and attracted renowned warriors such as his nephew Moïse and two future monarchs of Haiti, Jean-Jacques Dessalines and Henry Christophe. Haiti ( English: ˈheɪ·tiː or haɪ·ˈjiː·tiː French Haïti a·i·ti Haitian Creole: Jean-Jacques Dessalines ( September 20, 1758 – 17 October 1806 was a leader of the Haitian Revolution and the first ruler of an independent Henri Christophe ( October 6, 1767 – October 8, 1820) became a career officer and general in the military forces that became the Haïtian Army It was then that he gained the nickname L'Ouverture ("opening"), which he adopted but always spelled Louverture[6]. A nickname is a Name of an entity or thing that is not its Proper name. He exploited openings in the defenses of the opposition. Later that year, the British gained control of most of the coastal settlements of Saint-Domingue, including Port-au-Prince. The Kingdom of Great Britain, also known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain, was a State in northwest Europe, in existence from 1707 to 1800 PortAuPrinceTapTapjpg|right|thumb|270px|A taptap (shared taxi in central Port-au-Prince

Toussaint Louverture's victories in the North of Saint-Domingue, together with independent successes by people of color in the South and British occupation of the coasts, brought the French close to disaster. In 1793, Léger-Félicité Sonthonax and Étienne Polverel, representatives of the French revolutionary government in Paris, offered freedom to slaves who would join them as they struggled to defeat counter-revolutionaries and fight the foreign invaders. Léger-Félicité Sonthonax (1763 – 1813 was a French Jacobin and abolitionist during the French Revolution who controlled the 7000 French Étienne Polverel (1740&mdash1795 was one of two French Revolutionary Civil Commissioners who ended slavery in Saint-Domingue in 1793 during the Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city On February 4, 1794, the largely Jacobin National Convention in Paris confirmed the orders of emancipation, which abolished slavery in all territories of the French Republic. Events 211 - Roman Emperor Septimius Severus dies leaving the Roman Empire in the hands of his two quarrelsome sons Year 1794 ( MDCCXCIV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a The Jacobin Club was the largest and most powerful political club of the French Revolution. During the French Revolution, the National Convention or Convention, in France, comprised the Constitutional and legislative assembly Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. In May of 1794, Toussaint Louverture decided to ally with the French, justifying his decision by the failures of Spain and Britain to free the slaves. He declared that he had become a republican.

Toussaint Louverture has been criticized for such treatment of his former allies, as well as for mass slaughter of Spaniards. Toussaint Louverture’s switch was decisive. The governor of Saint-Domingue, Étienne Laveaux, made Toussaint Louverture Général de Brigade; the British suffered severe reverses; and the Spaniards were expelled. Saint-Domingue was a French Colony on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola from 1659 to 1804 when it became the independent nation of Brigadier General is the lowest ranking General Officer in some countries usually sitting between the ranks of Colonel and Major General. Under Toussaint Louverture's increasingly influential leadership, the French army of black, mixed-race, and white soldiers defeated the British and Spanish forces. Toussaint Louverture's army won seven battles in one week against the British forces in January of 1794. He also fought against the uprising of Pinchinat, a leader of color.

Campaign in support of the French Revolution

By 1795, Toussaint Louverture was widely renowned. He was revered by the blacks and appreciated by most whites and people of color for helping restore the economy of Saint-Domingue. He allowed many émigré planters to return and used military discipline to force former slaves to work as laborers. He believed that people were naturally corrupt and that compulsion was needed to prevent idleness. He no longer permitted the laborers to be whipped. They were legally free and equal, and they shared the profits of the restored plantations. Racial tensions eased because Toussaint preached reconciliation and believed that for the blacks, a majority of whom were native Africans, there were lessons to be learned from whites and Europeanized people of color.

The French governor Laveaux left Saint-Domingue in 1796. He was succeeded by Léger-Félicité Sonthonax, an extremist French commissioner, who allowed Toussaint Louverture to effectively rule and promoted him to Général de Division. Léger-Félicité Sonthonax (1763 – 1813 was a French Jacobin and abolitionist during the French Revolution who controlled the 7000 French Général is the French word for General. In France, Army generals are named after the type of unit they command But Toussaint was repelled by this radical's proposals to exterminate the Europeans. He found Sonthonax's atheism, coarseness, and immorality offensive. After some maneuvering, Toussaint Louverture forced Sonthonax out in 1797.

Next to go were the British, whose losses caused them to negotiate secretly with Toussaint Louverture. Treaties in 1798 and 1799 secured their complete withdrawal. Toussaint Louverture promoted lucrative trade with Great Britain and the United States. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the In return for arms and goods, Toussaint Louverture sold sugar and promised not to invade Jamaica and the American South. Jamaica (ˈdʒəˈmeɪkə} is an Island nation of the Greater Antilles, in length and as much as in width situated in the Caribbean Sea. The Southern United States &mdashcommonly referred to as the American South, Dixie, or simply the South &mdashconstitutes a large distinctive The British offered to recognize him as king of an independent Saint-Domingue. Distrusting the British because they maintained slavery, he refused. The British withdrew from Saint-Domingue in 1798.

Toussaint Louverture soon rid himself of another nominal French superior, Gabriel Hédouville, who arrived in 1798 as representative of the Directoire government of France. Gabriel-Marie-Théodore-Joseph comte d'Hédouville (1755 — 1825 (also Thomas Hedouville) was a French diplomat Aware that France had no chance of restoring colonialism as long as the war with Great Britain continued, Hédouville tried to pit Toussaint Louverture against André Rigaud, the leader of color who ruled a semi-independent state in the South. André Rigaud (1761-1811 was the leading mulatto military leader during the Haïtian Revolution. Toussaint Louverture, however, figured out his purpose and forced Hédouville to flee. Hédouville was succeeded by Philippe Roume, who deferred to the black governor. Toussaint Louverture eliminated Rigaud by a bloody campaign in October 1799 that forced him to flee to France. His state led by people of color was conquered. Jean-Jacques Dessalines carried out a purge in the South so brutal that reconciliation with people of color was impossible. Jean-Jacques Dessalines ( September 20, 1758 – 17 October 1806 was a leader of the Haitian Revolution and the first ruler of an independent

On May 22, 1799, Toussaint Louverture signed a trading treaty with the British and the Americans. Events 334 BC - The Greek army of Alexander the Great defeats Darius III of Persia in the Battle of the Granicus. Year 1799 ( MDCCXCIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a In the United States, Alexander Hamilton was a strong supporter. However, after Thomas Jefferson became President in 1801, he reversed the friendly American policy. Thomas Jefferson (April 13 1743 – July 4 1826 was the third President of the United States (1801–1809 the principal author of the Declaration of Independence

Once he had control over all of Saint-Domingue, Toussaint Louverture turned to Spanish Santo Domingo, where slavery persisted. Ignoring the commands of Napoleon Bonaparte, who had become first consul of France, Toussaint Louverture overran the Spanish settlement in January 1801, officially took control on the 24th, and freed the slaves. Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. Toussaint Louverture drafted a committee to write a constitution for the colony. This took effect on July 7, 1801 and established his own authority across the whole island of Hispaniola. Events 1456 - A retrial verdict acquits Joan of Arc of heresy 25 years after her death Year 1801 ( MDCCCI) was a Common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting on Tuesday

Leclerc's campaign and Louverture's captivity

In command of the entire island, Toussaint Louverture dictated a constitution that made him governor-general for life with near absolute powers. Catholicism was made the state religion, and many revolutionary principles received ostensible sanction. There was no provision for officials from France; however, as Toussaint Louverture professed himself a Frenchman and strove to convince Bonaparte of his loyalty. He wrote to Napoleon, "From the First of the Blacks to the First of the Whites. "[7] Bonaparte confirmed Toussaint Louverture’s position but considered him an obstacle to the restoration of Saint-Domingue as a profitable colony.

Denying that he was trying to reinstate slavery, Napoleon sent his brother-in-law Charles Leclerc to regain French control of the island in 1802. Charles Victor Emmanuel Leclerc ( Pontoise, Val-d'Oise, France, March 17, 1772 - Saint Domingue, November 2, Leclerc landed on the island on January 20 and moved against Toussaint Louverture. Events 250 - Emperor Decius begins a widespread persecution of Christians in Rome. Over the following months, Toussaint Louverture's troops fought against the French; but some of his officers defected to join Leclerc, and others joined chief black leaders like Dessalines and Christophe. Henri Christophe ( October 6, 1767 – October 8, 1820) became a career officer and general in the military forces that became the Haïtian Army On May 7, 1802, Toussaint Louverture signed a treaty with the French in Cap-Haïtien, with the condition that there would be no return to slavery. Events 558 - In Constantinople, the dome of the Hagia Sophia collapses Year 1802 ( MDCCCII) was a Common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar or a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Cap-Haïtien ( Okap or Kapayisyen in Kréyòl) is a city of about 130000 people on the north coast of Haiti.

He retired to his farm in Ennery. Ennery is the name or part of the name of the following communes in France Ennery Moselle, in the Moselle department Ennery Val-d'Oise After three weeks, Leclerc sent troops to seize Toussaint Louverture and his family and shipped them to France on a warship, as he suspected the former leader of plotting an uprising. They reached France on July 2. Events 310 - Pope Miltiades is elected 626 - In fear of assassination Li Shimin ambushes and kills his rival On August 25, 1802, Toussaint Louverture was sent to the castle Fort-de-Joux in Doubs. Events 1248 - The Dutch city of Ommen receives city rights and fortification rights from Otto III the Year 1802 ( MDCCCII) was a Common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar or a Common year starting on Wednesday of the The Fort de Joux or Château de Joux is a Castle, transformed into a Fort, located in La Cluse-et-Mijoux, in the Doubs département He was confined there and interrogated repeatedly. He died of pneumonia in April of 1803. Pneumonia is an inflammatory illness of the Lung. Frequently it is described as lung Parenchyma / alveolar inflammation and abnormal A plaque in his memory can be found in the Panthéon in Paris. The Panthéon ( Latin Pantheon, from Greek Pantheon meaning "All the gods" is a building in the Latin Quarter Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city

Historical significance

Monument of Toussaint Louverture in Santiago de Cuba
Monument of Toussaint Louverture in Santiago de Cuba

Toussaint Louverture played a key role in what was the first successful attempt by a subject slave population to throw off the yoke of Western colonialism. Santiago de Cuba is the capital city of Santiago de Cuba Province in the south-eastern area of the island nation of Cuba See Colony and Colonization for examples of colonialism which do not refer to Western colonialism He defeated armies of three imperial powers: Spain, France, and Great Britain. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom from 1 January 1801 until 12 April 1927 The success of the Haitian Revolution had enduring effects on the institution of slavery throughout the New World. The New World is one of the names used for the non-Eurasian/non-African parts of the Earth specifically the Americas and Australia. Haiti became the second independent republic in the Western Hemisphere.

After being captured by the French general Leclerc, on the ship to France, Toussaint Louverture warned his captors that the rebels would not not make his mistake in the following words:" [B]y overthrowing me you have killed only the trunk of the tree of liberty of the black people, it will grow back by the roots cause they are deep and numerous. "

Marriages and children

Toussaint Louverture was married to Suzanne Simone Baptiste Louverture with whom he had two sons, Isaac and Saint-Jean. Toussaint adopted Seraphin (later know as Placide Louverture), who was the son of Suzanne Louverture.

Seraphin, or Placide Louverture was Suzanne Louverture first child, whom she had with the mulatto Seraphim Le Clerc (some sources give the name of Placide's father as Séraphin Clère). Mulatto is a term used to describe a person with one white parent and one black parent or a person whose Ancestry is a mixture of black and white Placide was adopted by Toussaint, who always treated him as his own child.

Placide and Isaac Louverture were sent to France in 1797 to study and be educated. Year 1797 ( MDCCXCVII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common They came back to Saint-Domingue in February 1802, with the troops of the French General Charles Leclerc. Saint-Domingue was a French Colony on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola from 1659 to 1804 when it became the independent nation of Year 1802 ( MDCCCII) was a Common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar or a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Charles Victor Emmanuel Leclerc ( Pontoise, Val-d'Oise, France, March 17, 1772 - Saint Domingue, November 2, Napoleon Bonaparte had given orders to expel the Louverture brothers from France and bring them back to Saint-Domingue. Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Saint-Domingue was a French Colony on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola from 1659 to 1804 when it became the independent nation of

Toussaint Louverture and his entire direct familly were deported to France in 1802.

Cultural references


Footnotes

  1. ^ a b Knight, Franklin W. (1990). The Caribbean: The Genesis of a Fragmented Nationalism, 2nd, New York: Oxford University Press, pp 206-209. ISBN 0-19-505441-5.  
  2. ^ "Toussaint L’Ouverture", HyperHistory, accessed 27 Apr 2008
  3. ^ David Brion Davis, "He changed the New World", Review of Madison Smartt Bell's "Toussaint Louverture: A Biography", The New York Review of Books, May 31, 2007, p. Events 1279 BC - Rameses II (The Great (19th dynasty becomes pharaoh of Ancient Egypt. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. 55
  4. ^ Toussaint Louverture: A Biography and Autobiography: Electronic Edition.. University of North Carolina. Retrieved on 2007-08-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 392 - Arbogast has Eugenius elected Western Roman Emperor.
  5. ^ a b c Rogozinski, Jan (1999). A Brief History of the Caribbean, Revised, New York: Facts on File, Inc. , pp 170-173. ISBN 0-8160-3811-2.  
  6. ^ Harry Hamilton Johnston, The Negro in the New World, 1910 p. 157
  7. ^ R. Po-chia Hsia, Lynn Hunt, Thomas R. Martin, Barbara H. Rosenwein, and Bonnie G. Smith, The Making of the West, Peoples and Culture, A Concise History, Volume II: Since 1340, Second Edition (New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 669.
  8. ^ McLemee, Scott. "C. L. R. James: A Biographical Introduction. " American Visions, April/May 1996. http://www.mclemee.com/id84.html
  9. ^ Lydia Bailey (1952)
  10. ^ Toussaint (2009)

References

External links

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