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"Tolerance" redirects here. For other uses, see Tolerance (disambiguation).
The cross of the war memorial and a hanukiah coexist in Oxford.
The cross of the war memorial and a hanukiah coexist in Oxford. The Christian cross is the best-known Religious symbol of Christianity. A war memorial is a building monument statue or other edifice to celebrate a War or victory or (predominating in modern times to commemorate those who died or were injured Hanukkah Menorah ( Hebrew: מנורה menorah) (also חַנֻכִּיָּה Hanukiah, or Chanukkiyah, pl Oxford is currently bidding for the 2010 Wikimania Conference Oxford () is a city, and the County town of Oxfordshire,
Early Bible translator William Tyndale, just before being burnt at the stake, from this woodcut from an early edition of Foxe's Book of Martyrs.
Early Bible translator William Tyndale, just before being burnt at the stake, from this woodcut from an early edition of Foxe's Book of Martyrs. Tyndale redirects here For the English family see Tyndall. For other uses see Tyndale (disambiguation.

Toleration and tolerance are terms used in social, cultural and religious contexts to describe attitudes and practices that prohibit discrimination against those practices or group memberships that may be disapproved of by those in the majority. Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge" Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos Unlike most discrimination policies discrimination between, which is the discernment of qualities and recognition of the differences focused here discrimination against is Conversely, intolerance may be used to refer to the discriminatory practices sought to be prohibited. Though developed to refer to the religious toleration of minority religious sects following the Protestant Reformation, these terms are increasingly used to refer to a wider range of tolerated practices and groups, such as the toleration of sexual practices and orientations, or of political parties or ideas widely considered objectionable. Religious toleration is the condition of accepting or permitting others' religious beliefs and practices which disagree with one's own The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time

The principle of toleration is controversial. Liberal critics may see in it an inappropriate implication that the "tolerated" custom or behavior is an aberration or that authorities have a right to punish difference; such critics may instead emphasize notions such as civility or pluralism. Liberalism is a broad array of related ideas and theories of Government that consider individual Liberty to be the most important political goal Punishment is the practice of imposing something unpleasant or aversive on a person or animal usually in response to disobedient or morally wrong behavior Civic virtue is the cultivation of habits of personal living that are claimed to be important for the success of the community Pluralism is in the general sense the acknowledgment of diversity Other critics, some sympathetic to traditional fundamentalism, condemn toleration as a form of moral relativism. Fundamentalism refers to a "deep and totalistic commitment" to a belief in and strict adherence to a set of basic principles (often Religious in nature a reaction This article attempts to confine itself to discussion of relativism in morals and ethics On the other hand, defenders of toleration may define it as involving positive regard for difference or, alternately, may regard a narrow definition of the term as more specific and useful than its proposed alternatives, since it does not require false expression of enthusiasm for groups or practices that are genuinely disapproved of.

Contents

Historical development

As a practical matter, governments have always had to consider the question of which groups and practices to tolerate and which to persecute. The earliest known example of ethnic and religious tolerance is found in the Cyrus cylinder, which was declared by Cyrus the Great after he founded the Persian Empire. The Cyrus cylinder, also known as the Cyrus the Great cylinder, is a document issued by the Persian emperor Cyrus the Great in the form of a clay The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Similarly, the Edicts of Ashoka issued by Ashoka the Great in the Maurya Empire also declared ethnic and religious tolerance. The Edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka, as well as boulders and cave walls made by the Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Ashoka ( Devanāgarī: अशोकः IAST: Aśokaḥ, aɕoːkə(hə Prakrit Imperial title Devanampriya Priyadarsi The Maurya Empire ( 322 – 185 BCE) ruled by the Mauryan dynasty was a geographically extensive and powerful political and military The later expanding Roman Empire faced the question of whether or to what extent they should permit or persecute the local beliefs and practices of groups inhabiting annexed territories. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Jewish or Christian practices or beliefs could be tolerated or vigorously persecuted. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth Likewise, during the Middle Ages, the rulers of Christian Europe or the Muslim Middle East sometimes extended toleration to minority religious groups, and sometimes did not. Christendom usually refers to Christianity as a territorial phenomenon Jews in particular suffered under anti-Semitic persecutions in medieval Europe. Antisemitism (alternatively spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism; also rarely known as judeophobia) is the Prejudice against or hostility [1][2]

In Europe, the development of a body of theory on the subject of toleration didn't begin until the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, in response to the Protestant Reformation and the Wars of Religion and persecutions that followed the breaks with the Catholic Church instigated by Martin Luther and Huldrych Zwingli and others. The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time The French Wars of Religion (1562 to 1598 between French Catholics and Protestants ( Huguenots involved both civil infighting Martin Luther (November 10 1483 February 18 1546 was a German Monk, theologian, university professor Father of Protestantism, and church reformer Huldrych (or Ulrich) Zwingli (1 January 1484 &ndash 11 October 1531 was a leader of the Reformation in Switzerland. In response to the theory of persecution that was used to justify wars of religion and the execution of persons convicted of heresy and witchcraft, writers such as Sebastian Castellio and Michel de Montaigne questioned the morality of religious persecution, and offered arguments for toleration. Heresy is an introduced change to some system of belief especially a religion that conflicts with the previously established canon of that belief Witchcraft, in various historical anthropological religious and mythological contexts is the use of certain kinds of Supernatural or magical powers Sebastian Castellio (also spelled Châtaillon Castellión and Castello ( 1515 – December 29, 1563) was a French preacher and theologian and Michel Eyquem de Montaigne (French miʃɛl ekɛm də mɔ̃tɛɲ ( February 28 1533 &ndash September 13 1592) was one of the most influential writers

A detailed and influential body of writing on the question of toleration however, was first produced in Britain in the Seventeenth Century, during and after the destructive English Civil Wars. Several military conflicts are considered English civil wars: The Anarchy ( 1135 &ndash 1154) John Milton and radical Parliamentarians such as Gerrard Winstanley argued that Christian and Jewish worship should be protected, and it was during the period that Oliver Cromwell allowed the return of Jews to England. John Milton ( 9 December, 1608 – 8 November, 1674) was an English Poet, Prose Polemicist and Gerrard Winstanley ( 1609 - September 10, 1676) was an English Protestant religious reformer and political activist during the Oliver Cromwell (25 April 1599 Old Style &ndash 3 September 1658 Old Style) was an English military and political leader best known These early theories of toleration were limited however, and did not extend toleration to Roman Catholics (who were perceived as disloyal to their country) or atheists (who were held to lack any moral basis for action). Atheism John Locke, in his Letter Concerning Toleration and Two Treatises of Government proposed a more detailed and systematic theory of toleration, which included a principle of Separation of Church and State that formed the basis for future constitutional democracies. John Locke (29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704 was an English Philosopher. A Letter Concerning Toleration by John Locke was originally published in 1689. The Two Treatises of Government (or " Two Treatises of Government In the Former The False Principles and Foundation of Sir Robert Filmer And His Followers are Detected Separation of church and state is a Political and Legal Doctrine that Government and religious institutions are to be kept separate The British Toleration Act of 1689 was the political result of seventeenth century theorists and political exigency, which despite the limited scope of the toleration it granted was nevertheless a key development in the history of toleration, which helped produce greater political stability in the British Isles. The Act of Toleration was an act of the English Parliament ( 24 May, 1689, citation 1 Will

The philosophers and writers of the Enlightenment, especially Voltaire and Lessing, promoted and further developed the notion of religious tolerance, which however was not sufficient to prevent the atrocities of the Reign of Terror. The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century François-Marie Arouet ( 21 November 1694 30 May 1778) better known by the Pen name Voltaire, was a French Gotthold Ephraim Lessing ( 22 January, 1729 15 February, 1781) was a German Writer, Philosopher, Dramatist Saint justjpg|thumbnail|200px| Louis Antoine Léon de Saint-Just]] The Reign of Terror' (5 September 1793 &ndash 28 July 1794 or simply The Terror (la Terreur was The incorporation by Thomas Jefferson and others of Locke's theories of toleration into the Constitution of the United States of America was arguably more successful. Thomas Jefferson (April 13 1743 – July 4 1826 was the third President of the United States (1801–1809 the principal author of the Declaration of Independence The Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme Law of the United States.

Recent development

Though developed to refer to the religious toleration of minority religious sects following the Protestant Reformation, the terms "toleration" and "tolerance" are increasingly used to refer to a wider range of tolerated practices and groups, such as the toleration of sexual practices and orientations, or of political parties or ideas widely considered objectionable. Religious toleration is the condition of accepting or permitting others' religious beliefs and practices which disagree with one's own The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time Changing applications and understandings of the term can sometimes make debate on the question difficult.

For example, a distinction is sometimes drawn between mere "Toleration" and a higher notion of "Religious Liberty":

Some philosophers [. . . ] regard toleration and religious freedom as quite distinct things and emphasize the differences between the two. They understand toleration to signify no more than forbearance and the permission given by the adherents of a dominant religion for other religions to exist, even though the latter are looked upon with disapproval as inferior, mistaken, or harmful. In contrast these thinkers recognize religious liberty as as the recognition of equal freedom for all religions and denominations without any kind of discrimination among them [. . . ] in the case of religious liberty, no one is rightfully possessed of the power not to tolerate or to cancel this liberty. [3]

Discussions of toleration therefore often divided between those who view the term as a minimal and perhaps even historical virtue (perhaps today to be replaced by a more positive and robust appreciation of pluralism or diversity), and those who view it as a concept with an important continuing vitality, and who are more likely to use the term in considering contemporary issues regarding discrimination on the basis of race, nationality, gender, sexuality, disability, and other reasons. Pluralism is in the general sense the acknowledgment of diversity The term multiculturalism generally refers to a state of racial, cultural and ethnic diversity within the Demographics of a specified

There are also debates with regard to the historical factors that produced the principle of toleration, as well as to the proper reasons toleration should be exercised, with some arguing that the growth of skepticism was an important or necessary factor in the development of toleration, and others arguing that religious belief or an evolving notion of respect for individual persons was or is the basis on which toleration was or should be practiced. In ordinary usage skepticism or scepticism ( Greek 'σκέπτομαι' skeptomai, to look about to consider see also spelling differences

Tolerance and monotheism

One theory of the origins of religious intolerance, propounded by Sigmund Freud in Moses and Monotheism, links intolerance to monotheism. Sigmund Freud (ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt born Sigismund Shlomo Freud (May 6 1856 &ndash September 23 1939 was an Austrian Psychiatrist who founded More recently, Bernard Lewis and Mark Cohen have argued that the modern understanding of tolerance, involving concepts of national identity and equal citizenship for persons of different religions, was not considered a value by pre-modern Muslims or Christians, due to the implications of monotheism. Bernard Lewis (born May 31, 1916 in London, England) is a British - American [4] The historian G.R. Elton explains that in pre-modern times, monotheists viewed such toleration as a sign of weakness or even wickedness towards God. Sir Geoffrey Rudolph Elton ( 17 August 1921 &ndash 3 December 1994) was a British Historian of the Tudor period. [5] The usual definition of tolerance in pre-modern times as Bernard Lewis puts it was that:

“ I am in charge. I will allow you some though not all of the rights and privileges that I enjoy, provided that you behave yourself according to rules that I will lay down and enforce. "[6] ”

Mark Cohen states that it seems that all the monotheistic religions in power throughout the history have felt it proper, if not obligatory, to persecute nonconforming religions. Mark Cohen may refer to Mark Cohen (''Rent'', fictional character Mark Cohen (cricketer Mark Cohen (comedian [7] Therefore, Cohen concludes, Medieval Islam and Medieval Christianity in power should have persecuted non-believers in their lands and "Judaism, briefly in power during the Hasmonean period (second century BCE) should have persecuted pagan Idumeans". [7] Cohen continues: "When all is said and done, however, the historical evidence indicates that the Jews of Islam, especially during the formative and classical centuries (up to thirteenth century), experienced much less persecution than did the Jews of Christendom. For the period of Spanish cultural flourishing in the 17th century see Spanish Golden Age. Christendom usually refers to Christianity as a territorial phenomenon This begs a more thorough and nuanced explanation than has hitherto been given. "[7]

Tolerating the intolerant

Philosopher Karl Popper's assertion in The Open Society and Its Enemies that we are warranted in refusing to tolerate intolerance illustrates that there are limits to tolerance. Sir Karl Raimund Popper ( July 28 1902  &ndash September 17 1994) was an Austrian and British Philosopher and a professor The Open Society and Its Enemies, is an influential two-volume work by Karl Popper written during World War II.

In particular, should a tolerant society tolerate intolerance? What if by tolerating action "A", society destroys itself? Tolerance of "A" could be used to introduce a new thought system leading to intolerance of vital institution "B". It is difficult to strike a balance and different societies do not always agree on the details, indeed different groups within a single society also often fail to agree. The current suppression of Nazism in Germany is considered intolerant by some countries, for instance, while in Germany itself it is Nazism which is considered intolerably intolerant. Nazism, which was a short name for National Socialism (Nationalsozialismus refers primarily to the Ideology and practices of the National Socialist German Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe.

Philosopher John Rawls devotes a section of his influential and controversial book A Theory of Justice to the problem of whether a just society should or should not tolerate the intolerant, and to the related problem of whether or not, in any society, the intolerant have any right to complain when they are not tolerated. John Rawls ( February 21, 1921  &ndash November 24, 2002) was an American Philosopher, a Professor of A Theory of Justice is a widely-read book of political and Moral philosophy by John Rawls.

Rawls concludes that a just society must be tolerant; therefore, the intolerant must be tolerated, for otherwise, the society would then be intolerant, and so unjust. However, Rawls qualifies this by insisting that society and its social institutions have a reasonable right of self-preservation that supersedes the principle of tolerance. Hence, the intolerant must be tolerated but only insofar as they do not endanger the tolerant society and its institutions.

Similarly, continues Rawls, while the intolerant might forfeit the right to complain when they are themselves not tolerated, other members of society have a right, perhaps even a duty, to complain on their behalf, again, as long as society itself is not endangered by these intolerant members. The ACLU is a good example of a social institution that protects the rights of the intolerant, as it frequently defends the right to free speech of such intolerant organizations as the Ku Klux Klan. The American Civil Liberties Union ( ACLU) consists of two separate Non-profit organizations the ACLU Foundation a 501(c(3 organization which focuses Ku Klux Klan ( KKK) is the name of several past and present secret domestic terrorist organizations in the United States, generally in the southern states that are

Followers of Ayn Rand tend to see tolerance as associated with the institution of objective law. [8] Attempts to increase tolerance by applying different rules to different people would ultimately be self defeating.

Many universities, in attempting to enforce certain political and ideological viewpoints through means other than instruction and debate have been come to be viewed by some as intolerant. [9]

Historically important documents

(Listed chronologically)

References

  1. ^ Vartan Gregorian, "Islam: A Mosaic, Not a Monolith", Brookings Institution Press, 2003, pg 26-38 ISBN 081573283X
  2. ^ Granada by Richard Gottheil, Meyer Kayserling, Jewish Encyclopedia. A Bill of Rights is a list or summary of rights that are considered important and essential by a group of people The United States of America —commonly referred to as the A constitution is a system for government often Codified as a written document that establishes the rules and principles of an autonomous political entity John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 &ndash 8 May 1873 British Philosopher, political economist, civil servant and Member of Parliament, was an influential On Liberty is a philosophical work by 19th century English Philosopher John Stuart Mill, first published in 1859 Dignitatis Humanæ is the Second Vatican Council's Declaration on Religious Freedom. The Jewish Encyclopedia was an Encyclopedia originally published between 1901 and 1906 by Funk and Wagnalls. 1906 ed.
  3. ^ Zagorin, Perez (2003) How the Idea of Religious Toleration Came to the West (Princeton: Princeton University Press).
  4. ^ Lewis (1997), p. 321; (1984) p. 65; Cohen (1995), p. xix
  5. ^ quoted in Cohen (1995), p. xix
  6. ^ Lewis (2006), pp. 25-36
  7. ^ a b c Cohen (1995) p. xix
  8. ^ Ayn Rand’s Q & A on Libertarianism, Ayn Rand Institute
  9. ^ Brave Newark World, Mike S. The Ayn Rand Institute The Center for the Advancement of Objectivism (ARI is a 501(c(3 nonprofit think tank in Irvine California that promotes Ayn Adams, Townhall.com

Further reading

See also

External links

Dictionary

toleration

-noun

  1. the tolerance of the beliefs or the culture of others
  2. the official recognition of an individual's right to hold dissenting opinions, especially in religion
  3. lenience or forbearance
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