Tobacco smoking is the inhalation of smoke from burned dried or cured leaves of the tobacco plant, most often in the form of a cigarette. Smoking is a practice where a substance most commonly Tobacco, is burned and the Smoke tasted or inhaled Tobacco is an Agricultural product recognized as an addictive drug processed from the fresh Leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana. A cigarette ( French "small Cigar " from cigar + -ette) is a product consumed through Smoking and manufactured People may smoke casually for pleasure, habitually to satisfy an addiction to the nicotine present in tobacco and to the act of smoking, or in response to social pressure. The term " addiction " is used in many contexts to describe an obsession compulsion or excessive Physical dependence or psychological dependence such as Nicotine is an Alkaloid found in the Nightshade family of plants ( Solanaceae) which constitutes approximately 0 In some societies, people smoke for ritualistic purposes. According to the WHO about one-third of the world's male population smokes tobacco, ^[1] with two-thirds of all the world's smokers residing in 10 countries. In order they are China, India, Indonesia, Russia, the U. S. , Japan, Brazil, Bangladesh, Germany and Turkey respectively. ^[2]

Tobacco use by Native Americans throughout North and South America dates back to 2000 BC. For indigenous peoples in the United States other than Hawaii and Alaska see also Native Americans in the United States. The practice was brought back to Europe by the crew of Christopher Columbus. Christopher Columbus (1451 &ndash May 20 1506 was an Italian Navigator, colonizer Tobacco smoking took hold in Spain and then was introduced to the rest of the world by trade. Tobacco is an agricultural product processed from the fresh leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana. Nicotiana refers to a Genus of Herbs and Shrubs of the Nightshade family ( Solanaceae) indigenous to Tobacco has been growing on the northern continents since about 6000 BC and began being used by native cultures at about 3000 BC. It has been smoked in one form or another since about 2000 BC. There are pictoral drawings of ancient Mayans smoking crude cigars from 1400 BC.

Tobacco smoke contains nicotine and harmane (a MAO inhibitor), which combined give rise to addictive stimulant and euphoriant properties. Nicotine is an Alkaloid found in the Nightshade family of plants ( Solanaceae) which constitutes approximately 0 The MAOI (Monoamine oxidase inhibitor Alkaloids found in Seeds of Peganum harmala (also known as Harmal or Monoamine oxidase inhibitors ( MAOIs) are a class of powerful antidepressant drugs prescribed for the treatment of depression. The term " addiction " is used in many contexts to describe an obsession compulsion or excessive Physical dependence or psychological dependence such as Stimulant drugs are Drugs that temporarily increase alertness and awareness The effect of nicotine in first time or irregular users is an increase in alertness and memory, and mild euphoria. Alertness is the state of paying close and continuous Attention. Nicotine also disturbs metabolism and suppresses appetite. Metabolism is the set of Chemical reactions that occur in living Organisms in order to maintain Life. This is because nicotine, like many stimulants, temporarily increases blood sugar levels.

Medical research has determined that tobacco smoking causes lung cancer, emphysema, and cardiovascular disease among other health problems. Lung cancer is a Disease of uncontrolled Cell growth in tissues of the Lung. Emphysema is a chronic obstructive Pulmonary disease ( COPD) formerly termed a chronic obstructive Lung disease (COLD Cardiovascular disease or cardiovascular diseases refers to the class of diseases that involve the Heart or Blood vessels ( arteries and ^[3][4] The World Health Organization reported that tobacco smoking killed 100 million people worldwide in the 20th century and warned that it could kill one billion people around the world in the 21st century. The twentieth century of the Common Era began on The 21st century is the current century of the Christian Era or Common Era in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ^[5][6]

Contents 1 Methods of smoking 1.1 Cigarette 1.2 Roll-Your-Own 1.3 Cigar 1.4 Pipe 1.5 Hookah 2 Health effects 2.1 Establishing a link between smoking and health effects 2.2 Health risks of smoking 2.2.1 Carcinogenicity 2.2.2 Lung dysfunction 2.2.3 Effects on the heart 2.2.4 Smoker's attitudes 2.3 Passive smoking 2.4 Somatic and psychological effects 2.5 Mood and anxiety disorders 2.6 Health benefits of smoking 3 Effects of the habit and industry on society 3.1 Effect on healthcare costs 3.2 Tobacco and other drugs 3.3 Advertising 3.4 Peer pressure 3.5 Parental smoking 3.6 Smoking in movies and television 3.7 The use of smoking to project an image 4 Religious views on smoking 5 Smoking cessation 6 Legal issues and regulation 6.1 Age restrictions 6.2 Taxation 6.3 Restrictions on cigarette advertising 6.4 Package warnings 6.5 Smoking bans 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links

Methods of smoking

Cigarette

Main article: Cigarette

See also: List of additives in cigarettes

Cigarette smoking is the most common form of tobacco consumption. A cigarette ( French "small Cigar " from cigar + -ette) is a product consumed through Smoking and manufactured This is the list of 599 additives in cigarettes submitted to the United States Department of Health and Human Services in April 1994 Because of the curing process, the smoke is mild enough to inhale in overdose quantities, unlike cigar, roll-your-own or pipe tobacco. Cigarettes also contain a number of additives, particularly to enhance taste. Cigarettes are smoked by some with a cigarette holder. A cigarette holder is a slender Tube, a Fashion accessory in which a Cigarette is held for smoking. (See also Beedi).

Roll-Your-Own

Main article: Roll-Your-Own

Roll-Your-Owns, often called rolleys or roll ups, are very very popular, particularly in European countries; these are prepared from loose tobacco, cigarette papers and filters all bought separately. Roll-your-own (RYO often called rollies roll-ups or hand-rolled cigarettes refers to a cigarette made from loose Tobacco and Rolling papers. Unlike Ready Made Cigarettes, roll ups don't contain the additives that ready mades do, pipes and cigars also don't contain the additives

Cigar

Main article: Cigar

A cigar is generally puffed, not inhaled. A cigar is a tightly rolled bundle of dried and fermented Tobacco which is ignited so that its smoke may be drawn into the smoker's mouth Cigars come in many shapes and sizes, the most common being the "Corona", "Cigarillo", and "Robusto". The tobacco used is grown throughout the Caribbean in places such as the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, and Cuba, but also in countries in other regions such as Brazil and Indonesia. The Caribbean (ˌkærəˡbiən kæ'rəbiən Cariben|Caraïben or Caraïben; Caraïbe or more commonly Antilles; Caribe is a Region consisting The Dominican Republic ( Spanish: República Dominicana;) is a nation located in the Caribbean region and shares the island of Hispaniola with Nicaragua (ˌnɪkəˈrɑgwə officially the Republic of Nicaragua () is a representative democratic republic and the largest nation in Central America Honduras in Spanish, República de Honduras) is a democratic republic in Central America. Jamaica (ˈdʒəˈmeɪkə} is an Island nation of the Greater Antilles, in length and as much as in width situated in the Caribbean Sea. The Republic of Cuba (ˈkjuːbə or) consists of the island of Cuba (the largest and second-most populous island of the Greater Antilles) Isla de la Cigars generally come available in 2 categories in reference to color, "Natural" and "Maduro". "Natural" shades are ones that do not undergo a further fermenting process, unlike "Maduro" which in its construction involves a further fermenting process to darken and strengthen (in taste) the leaf.

Pipe

Main article: Smoking pipe (tobacco)

A pipe for smoking typically consists of a small chamber (bowl) for combustion of the substance to be smoked and a thin stem (shank) that ends in a mouthpiece (also called a bit). See also Smoking pipe A pipe for Tobacco smoking typically consists of a small chamber (the bowl for the Combustion of the Tobacco Combustion or burning is a complex sequence of Exothermic chemical reactions between a Fuel and an Oxidant accompanied by the production of Pipes are made from a variety of materials (some obscure): briar, corncob, meerschaum, clay, wood, glass, gourd, bamboo, and various other materials, such as metal. A corncob is the central core of a Maize (Zea mays ssp mays L is a soft white Mineral sometimes found floating on the Black Sea, and rather suggestive of sea-foam (Meerschaum whence also the French name for the same substance Clay is a naturally occurring material composed primarily of fine-grained Minerals which show plasticity through a variable range of Water content, and Wood is hard fibrous lignified structural tissue produced as secondary Xylem in the stems of Woody plants notably trees but also shrubs Glass in the common sense refers to a Hard, Brittle, transparent Solid, such as that used for Windows many This article refers to the Dried fruit shell For the alternative country musical group of a similar name see The Gourds. Bamboo is a group of Woody perennial Evergreen Plants in the True grass family Poaceae, subfamily Tobacco used for smoking pipes is often chemically treated to change smell and taste not available in other commercial tobacco products. Many of these are mixtures using staple ingredients of variously cured Burley and Virginia tobaccos which are mixed with tobaccos from different areas, such as Oriental or Balkan locations. Latakia (a fire-cured tobacco of Cypriot or Syrian origin), Perique (only grown in St. James Parish, Louisiana) or combinations of Virginia and Burley tobaccos of African, Indian, or South American origins. Latakia tobacco ( تبغ اللاذقية) is a specially prepared Tobacco originally produced in Syria and named after the port city of Latakia Perique is a type of Tobacco from Saint James Parish Louisiana known for its strong powerful and fruity aroma St James Parish (Paroisse de Saint-Jacques is a Parish located in the U Burley may refer to Place names Places in England Burley Hampshire Burley Herefordshire Traditionally, many U. S. tobaccos are made of American Burley with artificial sweeteners and flavorings added to create an artificial "aromatic" smell, whereas "English" blends are based on natural Virginia tobaccos enhanced with Oriental and other natural tobaccos. There is a growing tendency towards "natural" tobaccos which derive their aromas from blending with spice tobaccos alone and historically-based curing processes.

Pipes can range from the simple machine-made briar pipe to handmade and artful implements created by pipe-makers which can be expensive collectors' items. The popularity of pipe smoking in Western countries has declined in recent years under the onslaught of cigarette advertising. However, it has also enjoyed a resurgence of late among younger and middle aged smokers who find its contemplative nature and age-transcendent status as "hobby not habit" to be both thoroughly enjoyable and stress-relieving. As many pipe-smokers say, "We don't inhale. "

Hookah

Main article: Hookah

A hookah (or sheesha) is a type of traditional Middle Eastern and South Asian water pipe, which operates by water-filtration and indirect heat. A hookah (हुक़्क़ा حقّہ hukkah) is a single or multi-stemmed (often glass-based water pipe for Smoking. Hookahs are most popular in the Middle East, but form a niche market in many other places. In other contexts, hookahs are used to smoke cannabis, hashish or opium. Cannabis ( Cán-na-bis) is a Genus of Flowering plants that includes three putative species Cannabis sativa subsp Hashish (from Arabic: ar حشيش, lit "grass" also hash) is a preparation of cannabis composed of the compressed Opium is a Narcotic formed from the Latex (ie sap released by lacerating (or "scoring" the immature seed pods of opium poppies (

Typically, tobacco is smoked from a hookah by placing richly flavored tobaccos in the smoking bowl, covering it with foil, and placing a coal on top of the foil. This keeps the tobacco from burning, and allows it to bake. The resulting vapors are further cooled by the hookah water and filtered by a bubbling action in the basin of the hookah, resulting in a moist, warm light smoke. The Al-Waha, Al Fakher, and Nakhla tobacco companies compete for market share in the Middle East by producing flavored tobaccos for use in the hookah. Some flavors include the traditional apple, grape, double apple, orange, strawberry, cherry, mango, vanilla, and melon flavors; as well as more modern flavors of cola, coconut, cappuccino, and banana milk.

Health effects

Main article: Tobacco and health

Establishing a link between smoking and health effects

As the use of tobacco became popular in Europe, a number of people became concerned about its negative effects. One of the first was King James I of Great Britain. James VI and I (19 June 1566 – 27 March 1625 was King of Scotland as James VI, and King of England and King of Ireland as James In his 1604 treatise, A Counterblaste to Tobacco, King James observed that smoking was:

A custome lothsome to the eye, hatefull to the Nose, harmfull to the braine, dangerous to the Lungs, and in the blacke stinking fume thereof, nearest resembling the horrible Stigian smoke of the pit that is bottomelesse. A Counterblaste to Tobacco is a Treatise written by King James I of England in 1604, in which he expresses his distaste for Tobacco

The late-19th century invention of automated cigarette-making machinery in the American South made possible mass production of cigarettes at low cost, and cigarettes became elegant and fashionable among society men as the Victorian era gave way to the Edwardian. In 1912, American Dr. Isaac Adler was the first to strongly suggest that lung cancer is related to smoking. Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled ^[7] In 1929, Fritz Lickint of Dresden, Germany, published a formal statistical evidence of a lung cancer–tobacco link, based on a study showing that lung cancer sufferers were likely to be smokers. Dresden (etymologically from Old Sorbian Drežďany, meaning people of the riverside forest, Drježdźany is the Capital city of the German Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Lung cancer is a Disease of uncontrolled Cell growth in tissues of the Lung. ^[8] Lickint also argued that tobacco use was the best way to explain the fact that lung cancer struck men four or five times more often than women (since women smoked much less). ^[8]

Prior to World War I, lung cancer was considered to be a rare disease, which most physicians would never see during their career. ^[9][10] With the postwar rise in popularity of cigarette smoking, however, came a virtual epidemic of lung cancer.

In 1950, Richard Doll published research in the British Medical Journal showing a close link between smoking and lung cancer. Sir William Richard Shaboe Doll CH OBE FRS ( 28 October 1912 &ndash 24 July 2005) was a British ^[11] Four years later, in 1954 the British Doctors Study, a study of some 40 thousand doctors over 20 years, confirmed the suggestion, based on which the government issued advice that smoking and lung cancer rates were related. The British doctors study is the generally accepted name of a Prospective Cohort study which has been running from 1951 to 2001 and in 1956 provided convincing statistical ^[12] The British Doctors Study lasted till 2001, with result published every ten years and final results published in 2004 by Doll and Richard Peto. Sir Richard Peto FRS (born 1943 is Professor of Medical Statistics and Epidemiology at the University of Oxford. ^[13] Much early research was also done by Dr. Ochsner. Reader's Digest magazine for many years published frequent anti-smoking articles. Reader's Digest is a monthly general-interest family Magazine co-founded in 1922 by Lila Bell Wallace and DeWitt Wallace. In 1964 the United States Surgeon General's Report on Smoking and Health (referenced below), led millions of American smokers to quit, the banning of certain advertising, and the requirement of warning labels on tobacco products. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the

Health risks of smoking

The main health risks in tobacco pertain to diseases of the cardiovascular system, in particular myocardial infarction (heart attack), cardiovascular disease, diseases of the respiratory tract such as Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), asthma,^[14] emphysema, and cancer, particularly lung cancer and cancers of the larynx and tongue. Myocardial infarction ( MI or AMI for acute myocardial infarction) also known as a heart attack, occurs when the blood supply Cardiovascular disease or cardiovascular diseases refers to the class of diseases that involve the Heart or Blood vessels ( arteries and In living organisms a respiratory system functions to allow Gas exchange. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease ( COPD) is a Disease of the lungs in which the Airways become narrowed Asthma is a chronic Condition involving the Respiratory system in which the airways occasionally constrict become inflamed, and are Emphysema is a chronic obstructive Pulmonary disease ( COPD) formerly termed a chronic obstructive Lung disease (COLD Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled Lung cancer is a Disease of uncontrolled Cell growth in tissues of the Lung. The larynx (plural larynges) colloquially known as the voicebox, is an organ in the Neck of Mammals involved in protection of the

A person's increased risk of contracting disease is directly proportional to the length of time that a person continues to smoke as well as the amount smoked. However, if someone stops smoking, then these chances gradually decrease as the damage to their body is repaired. A year after quitting, the risk of contracting heart disease is half that of a continuing smoker. ^[15] The health risks of smoking are not uniform across all smokers. Risks vary according to amount of tobacco smoked, with those who smoke more at greater risk. Light smoking is still a health risk. Likewise, smoking "light" cigarettes does not reduce the risks.

The data regarding smoking to date focuses primarily on cigarette smoking, which increases mortality rates by 40% in those who smoke less than 10 cigarettes a day, by 70% in those who smoke 10–19 a day, by 90% in those who smoke 20–39 a day, and by 120% in those smoking two packs a day or more. ^[16] Pipe smoking has also been researched and found to increase the risk of various cancers by 33%. ^[17]

Some studies suggest that hookah smoking is considered to be safer than other forms of smoking. However, water is not effective for removing all relevant toxins, e. g. the carcinogenic aromatic hydrocarbons are not water-soluble. Several negative health effects are linked to hookah smoking and studies indicate that it is likely to be more harmful than cigarettes, due in part to the volume of smoke inhaled. ^[18][19] In addition to the cancer risk, there is some risk of infectious disease resulting from pipe sharing, and other risks associated with the common addition of other psychoactive drugs to the tobacco. ^[20]

Diseases caused by tobacco smoking are significant hazards to public health. Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease prolonging life and promoting health through the organised efforts and informed choices of society organisations According to the Canadian Lung Association, tobacco kills between 40,000–45,000 Canadians per year, more than the total number of deaths from AIDS, traffic accidents, suicide, murder, fires and accidental poisoning. Murder is the unlawful killing of another human person with Malice aforethought, as defined in Common Law countries Fire is the heat and light energy released during a Chemical reaction, in particular a combustion reaction. In the context of Biology, poisons are substances that can cause damage, Illness, or Death to Organisms usually by ^[21][22] The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention describes tobacco use as "the single most important preventable risk to human health in developed countries and an important cause of premature death worldwide. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (or CDC) is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services based in unincorporated The term developed country, or advanced country, is used to categorize countries with developed Economies in which the tertiary and quaternary sectors "

Carcinogenicity

Main article: Carcinogen

Smoke, or any partially burnt organic matter, is carcinogenic (cancer-causing). The term carcinogen refers to any substance Radionuclide or radiation that is an agent directly involved in the promotion of Cancer or in the fatation of its propagation The damage a continuing smoker does to their lungs can take up to 20 years before its physical manifestation in lung cancer. Women began smoking later than men, so the rise in death rate amongst women did not appear until later. The male lung cancer death rate decreased in 1975 — roughly 20 years after the fall in cigarette consumption in men. A fall in consumption in women also began in 1975 but by 1991 had not manifested in a decrease in lung cancer related mortalities amongst women. ^[23]

Smoke contains several carcinogenic pyrolysis products, particularly the polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), which are toxicated to mutagenic epoxides. Pyrolysis is the Chemical decomposition of organic materials by heating in the absence of Oxygen or any other reagents except possibly Steam Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons ( PAH s are Chemical compounds that consist of fused Aromatic rings and do not contain Heteroatoms or Toxication is the process of Metabolism in which the metabolite of a compound is more toxic than the parent drug or Chemical. In Biology, a mutagen ( Latin, literally origin of change) is a physical or chemical agent that changes the genetic information (usually DNA) The first PAH to be identified as a carcinogen in tobacco smoke was benzopyrene, which been shown to toxicate into a diol epoxide and then permanently attach to nuclear DNA, which may either kill the cell or cause a genetic mutation. Benzopyrene, C20H12 is a five-ring Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon that is Mutagenic and highly Carcinogenic It is a crystalline In biology mutations are changes to the Nucleotide sequence of the Genetic material of an organism If the mutation inhibits programmed cell death, the cell can survive to become a cancer cell. Programmed cell-death ( PCD) is death of a cell in any form mediated by an intracellular program Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled

The carcinogenity of tobacco smoke is not explained by nicotine per se, which is not carcinogenic or mutagenic. Nicotine is an Alkaloid found in the Nightshade family of plants ( Solanaceae) which constitutes approximately 0 However, it inhibits apoptosis, therefore accelerating existing cancers. ^[24] Also, NNK, a nicotine derivative converted from nicotine, can be carcinogenic. Thus, to reduce cancer risk but to deliver nicotine, there are tobacco products where the tobacco is not pyrolysed, but the nicotine is vaporized with solvent such as glycerol.

Lung dysfunction

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) caused by smoking, known as tobacco disease, is a permanent, incurable reduction of pulmonary capacity characterized by shortness of breath, wheezing, persistent cough with sputum, and damage to the lungs, including emphysema and chronic bronchitis^[25]. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease ( COPD) is a Disease of the lungs in which the Airways become narrowed Sputum is matter that is Expectorated from the respiratory tract such as Mucus or Phlegm, mixed with Saliva, which can then be spat Emphysema is a chronic obstructive Pulmonary disease ( COPD) formerly termed a chronic obstructive Lung disease (COLD Bronchitis is an Inflammation of the bronchi (medium-size airways in the Lungs Acute bronchitis is usually caused by Viruses

Effects on the heart

Smoking contributes to the risk of developing heart disease. All smoke contains very fine particulates that are able to penetrate the alveolar wall into the blood and exert their effects on the heart in a short time.

Inhalation of tobacco smoke causes several immediate responses within the heart and blood vessels. Within one minute the heart rate begins to rise, increasing by as much as 30 percent during the first 10 minutes of smoking. Carbon monoxide in tobacco smoke exerts its negative effects by reducing the blood’s ability to carry oxygen. Carbon monoxide poisoning occurs after the inhalation of Carbon monoxide gas ^[26]

Smoking tends to increase blood cholesterol levels. Furthermore, the ratio of high-density lipoprotein (the “good” cholesterol) to low-density lipoprotein (the “bad” cholesterol) tends to be lower in smokers compared to non-smokers. Smoking also raises the levels of fibrinogen and increases platelet production (both involved in blood clotting) which makes the blood viscous. Carbon monoxide binds to haemoglobin (the oxygen-carrying component in red blood cells), resulting in a much stabler complex than haemoglobin bound with oxygen or carbon dioxide -- the result is permanent loss of blood cell functionality. Blood cells are naturally recycled after a certain period of time, allowing for the creation of new, functional erythrocytes. However, if carbon monoxide exposure reaches a certain point before they can be recycled, hypoxia (and later death) occurs. All these factors make smokers more at risk of developing various forms of arteriosclerosis. As the arteriosclerosis progresses, blood flows less easily through rigid and narrowed blood vessels, making the blood more likely to form a thrombosis (clot). Sudden blockage of a blood vessel may lead to an infarction (e. g. stroke). However, it is also worth noting that the effects of smoking on the heart may be more subtle. These conditions may develop gradually given the smoking-healing cycle (the human body heals itself between periods of smoking), and therefore a smoker may develop less significant disorders such as worsening or maintenance of unpleasant dermatological conditions, e. g. eczema, due to reduced blood supply. Smoking also increases blood pressure and weakens blood vessels^[27].

Smoker's attitudes

Nicotine is an addictive stimulant and is one of the main factors leading to continued tobacco smoking. Nicotine is an Alkaloid found in the Nightshade family of plants ( Solanaceae) which constitutes approximately 0 Stimulant drugs are Drugs that temporarily increase alertness and awareness Although the percentage of the nicotine inhaled with tobacco smoke is quite small (most of the substance is destroyed by the heat) it is still sufficient to cause physical and/or psychological dependence. Physical dependence (or drug dependence) refers to a state resulting from habitual use of a drug where negative physical Withdrawal symptoms result from abrupt discontinuation

Prior to habituation, tobacco smokers often focus on the reinforcing properties of smoking rather than the associated health risks. The diseases caused by smoking surface relatively later in life, so they do not serve to deter smoking.

Some smokers argue that the depressant effect of smoking allows them to calm their nerves, often allowing for increased concentration. Depressant is a chemical agent that diminishes the function or activity of a specific part of the body (see also Sedative) However, according to the Imperial College London, "Nicotine seems to provide both a stimulant and a depressant effect, and it is likely that the effect it has at any time is determined by the mood of the user, the environment and the circumstances of use. Imperial College London (officially The Imperial College of Science Technology and Medicine as given in its Royal Charter It is one of only three universities to have reached Studies have suggested that low doses have a depressant effect, whilst higher doses have stimulant effect. "^[28] However, it is impossible to differentiate a drug effect brought on by nicotine use, and the alleviation of nicotine withdrawal.

Passive smoking

Main article: Passive smoking

Passive or involuntary smoking occurs when the exhaled and ambient smoke (otherwise known as environmental or secondhand smoke) from one person's cigarette is inhaled by other people. Passive smoking involves inhaling carcinogens, as well as other toxic components, that are present in secondhand tobacco smoke.

Secondhand smoke is known to harm children, infants and reproductive health through acute lower respiratory tract illness, asthma induction and exacerbation, chronic respiratory symptoms, middle ear infection, lower birth weight babies, and Sudden Infant Death Syndrome. Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS is a syndrome marked by the symptoms of sudden and unexplained death of an apparently healthy Infant aged one month to one year In a study published on August 25, 2004 smoke-free policies were linked to a short-term reduction in admissions for acute myocardial infarction. Events 1248 - The Dutch city of Ommen receives city rights and fortification rights from Otto III the "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " ^[29][30] In a study released on February 12, 2006 warning signs for cardiovascular disease are higher in people exposed to secondhand tobacco smoke, adding to the link between "passive smoke" and heart disease. Events 1429 - English Forces under Sir John Fastolf defend a supply convoy carrying rations to the army besieging Orleans from attack by the Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. "Our study provides further evidence to suggest low-level exposure to secondhand smoke has a clinically important effect on susceptibility to cardiovascular disease," said Dr. Andrea Venn of University of Nottingham in Britain, lead author of the study. ^[31]

According to the U. S. Surgeon General’s Report (Chapter 5; pages 180–194), secondhand smoke is connected to SIDS. ^[32] Infants who die from SIDS tend to have higher concentrations of nicotine and cotinine (a biological marker for secondhand smoke exposure) in their lungs than those who die from other causes. Cotinine is a Metabolite of Nicotine. The word 'cotinine' is an Anagram of 'nicotine' Infants exposed to secondhand smoke after birth are also at a greater risk of SIDS.

A young waitress who had asthma died at her workplace after being exposed to environmental tobacco smoke. While at her workplace she collapsed after about 20 minutes and then died. The autopsy proved that the woman died from acute asthma, which was associated with work-related ETS(environmental tobacco smoke).

According to earlier studies the smoking ban led to significant improvements regarding respiratory symptoms and lung function in people visiting bars and restaurants. Previously scientists stated that environmental tobacco smoke leads to coronary heart disease, lung cancer and premature death.

The case is available in the February edition of the American Journal of Industrial Medicine. ^[33]

Somatic and psychological effects

Nicotine is a highly addictive psychoactive chemical. Nicotine is an Alkaloid found in the Nightshade family of plants ( Solanaceae) which constitutes approximately 0 When tobacco is smoked, most of the nicotine is pyrolyzed; a dose sufficient to cause mild somatic dependency and mild to strong psychological dependency remains. Pyrolysis is the Chemical decomposition of organic materials by heating in the absence of Oxygen or any other reagents except possibly Steam There is also a formation of harmane (a MAO inhibitor) from the acetaldehyde in cigarette smoke, which seems to play an important role in nicotine addiction ^[34] probably by facilitating dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens in response to nicotine stimuli. The MAOI (Monoamine oxidase inhibitor Alkaloids found in Seeds of Peganum harmala (also known as Harmal or Monoamine oxidase inhibitors ( MAOIs) are a class of powerful antidepressant drugs prescribed for the treatment of depression. According to studies by Henningfield and Benowitz, overall nicotine is more addictive than cannabis, caffeine, ethanol, cocaine, and heroin when considering both somatic and psychological dependence. Cannabis, also known as marijuana or marihuana, or ganja (from Hindi / Sanskrit: गांजा gānjā hemp) is a Caffeine is a bitter white crystalline Xanthine Alkaloid that acts as a Psychoactive Stimulant Drug and a mild Diuretic Cocaine ( benzoylmethyl ecgonine) is a Crystalline Tropane Alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the Coca plant Heroin ( INN: diacetylmorphine, BAN: diamorphine) is a semi-synthetic opioid synthesized from Morphine, a derivative However, due to the stronger withdrawal effects of ethanol, cocaine and heroin, nicotine may have a lower potential for somatic dependence than these substances. Cocaine ( benzoylmethyl ecgonine) is a Crystalline Tropane Alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the Coca plant Heroin ( INN: diacetylmorphine, BAN: diamorphine) is a semi-synthetic opioid synthesized from Morphine, a derivative ^[35][36] A study by Perrine concludes that nicotine's potential for psychological dependency exceeds all other studied drugs^[37] - even ethanol, an extremely physically addictive substance with severe withdrawal symptoms that can be fatal. Delirium tremens (colloquially the DTs, " the horrors " " the fear "" the shakes "" jazz hands "" About half of Canadians who currently smoke have tried to quit. ^[38] McGill University health professor Jennifer O'Loughlin stated that nicotine addiction can occur as soon as five months after the start of smoking. ^[39]

Recent evidence has shown that smoking tobacco increases the release of dopamine in the brain, specifically in the mesolimbic pathway, the same neuro-reward circuit activated by drugs of abuse such as heroin and cocaine. Dopamine is a Hormone and Neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates Heroin ( INN: diacetylmorphine, BAN: diamorphine) is a semi-synthetic opioid synthesized from Morphine, a derivative Cocaine ( benzoylmethyl ecgonine) is a Crystalline Tropane Alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the Coca plant This suggests nicotine use has a pleasurable effect that triggers positive reinforcement. ^[40] One study found that smokers exhibit better reaction-time and memory performance compared to non-smokers, which is consistent with increased activation of dopamine receptors. ^[41] Neurologically, rodent studies have found that nicotine self-administration causes lowering of reward thresholds--a finding opposite that of most other drugs of abuse (e. g. cocaine and heroin). This increase in reward circuit sensitivity persisted months after the self-administration ended, suggesting that nicotine's alteration of brain reward function is either long lasting or permanent. Furthermore, it has been found that nicotine can activate long term potentiation in vivo and in vitro. These studies suggests nicotine’s "trace memory" may contribute to difficulties in nicotine abstinence.

Mood and anxiety disorders

Recent studies have linked smoking to anxiety disorders, suggesting the correlation (and possibly mechanism) may be related to the broad class of anxiety disorders, and not limited to just depression. Current ongoing research are attempting to explore the addiction-anxiety relationship.

Data from multiple studies suggest that anxiety disorders such as depression play a role in cigarette smoking. ^[42] A history of regular smoking was observed more frequently among individuals who had experienced a major depressive disorder at some time in their lives than among individuals who had never experienced major depression or among individuals with no psychiatric diagnosis. Major depressive disorder, also known as major depression, unipolar depression, unipolar disorder, clinical depression, or simply depression ^[43] People with major depression are also much less likely to quit due to the increased risk of experiencing mild to severe states of depression, including a major depressive episode. Smoking cessation is the effort to stop smoking Tobacco products ^[44] Depressed smokers appear to experience more withdrawal symptoms on quitting, are less likely to be successful at quitting, and are more likely to relapse. ^[45]

Health benefits of smoking

Studies suggest that smoking decreases appetite. ^[46][47] but did not conclude that overweight people should smoke or that their health would improve by smoking.

Several types of "Smoker’s Paradoxes",^[48] (cases where smoking appears to have specific beneficial effects), have been observed; often the actual mechanism remains undetermined. Risk of ulcerative colitis has been frequently shown to be reduced by smokers on a dose-dependent basis; the effect is eliminated if the individual stops smoking. Ulcerative colitis ( Colitis ulcerosa, UC) is a form of Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD ^[49][50] Smoking appears to interfere with development of Kaposi's sarcoma,^[51] breast cancer among women carrying the very high risk BRCA gene,^[52] preeclampsia,^[53] and atopic disorders such as allergic asthma. Kaposi's sarcoma (KS is a tumor caused by Human herpesvirus 8 ( HHV8) also known as Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV Breast cancer is a Cancer that starts in the cells of the Breast in women and men Pre-eclampsia (US preeclampsia) is a Medical condition where Hypertension arises in pregnancy ( Pregnancy-induced hypertension) in association Atopy (/ˈætəpi/ Greek ἀτοπία - placelessness or atopic syndrome is an allergic Hypersensitivity affecting parts of the body Asthma is a chronic Condition involving the Respiratory system in which the airways occasionally constrict become inflamed, and are ^[54] A plausible mechanism of action in these cases may be the nicotine in tobacco smoke acting as an anti-inflammatory agent and interfering with the disease process. Nicotine is an Alkaloid found in the Nightshade family of plants ( Solanaceae) which constitutes approximately 0 Inflammation ( Latin, inflamatio, to set on fire is the complex biological response of vascular tissues to harmful stimuli such as Pathogens ^[55]

Evidence suggests that non-smokers are up to twice as likely as smokers to develop Parkinson's disease or Alzheimer's disease. Parkinson's disease (also known as Parkinson disease or PD) is a degenerative disorder of the Central nervous system that often impairs the sufferer's Alzheimer's disease ( AD) also called Alzheimer disease or simply Alzheimer's, is the most common form of Dementia. ^[56] A plausible explanation for these cases may be the effect of nicotine, a cholinergic stimulant, decreasing the levels of acetylcholine in the smoker's brain; Parkinson's disease occurs when the effect of dopamine is less than that of acetylcholine. A receptor is cholinergic if it uses Acetylcholine as its Neurotransmitter. Stimulant drugs are Drugs that temporarily increase alertness and awareness The Chemical compound acetylcholine (often abbreviated ACh) is a Neurotransmitter in both the Peripheral nervous system (PNS and Central Dopamine is a Hormone and Neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates In addition, nicotine stimulates the mesolimbic dopamine pathway (as do other drugs of abuse), causing an effective increase in dopamine levels. Opponents counter by noting that consumption of pure nicotine may be as beneficial as smoking without the risks associated with smoking (as in CO poisoning).

It has been hypothesized that schizophrenics smoke for self-medication. Self-medication is the use of drugs, sometimes illicit to treat a perceived or real malady often of a psychological nature ^[57] Considering the high rates of physical sickness and deaths^[58][59] among persons suffering from schizophrenia, one of smoking's short term benefits is its temporary effect to improve alertness and cognitive functioning in that disease. Schizophrenia ( from the Greek roots schizein (σχίζειν "to split" and phrēn ^[60] It has been postulated that the mechanism of this effect is that schizophrenics have a disturbance of nicotinic receptor functioning. ^[61] Rates of smoking have been found to be much higher in schizophrenics. ^[62]

Effects of the habit and industry on society

Effect on healthcare costs

In countries where there is a public health system, society covers the cost of medical care for smokers who become ill through in the form of increased taxes. Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease prolonging life and promoting health through the organised efforts and informed choices of society organisations Two arguments exist on this front, the "pro-smoking" argument suggesting that heavy smokers generally don't live long enough to develop the costly and chronic illnesses which affect the elderly, reducing society's healthcare burden. The "anti-smoking" argument suggests that the healthcare burden is increased because smokers get chronic illnesses younger and at a higher rate than the general population.

Data on both positions is limited. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention published research in 2002 claiming that the cost of each pack of cigarettes sold in the United States was more than $7 in medical care and lost productivity. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (or CDC) is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services based in unincorporated ^[63]The cost may be higher, with another study putting it as high as $41 per pack, most of which however is on the individual and his/her family. ^[64] This is how one author of that study puts it when he explains the very low cost for others: "The reason the number is low is that for private pensions, Social Security, and Medicare — the biggest factors in calculating costs to society — smoking actually saves money. Smokers die at a younger age and don't draw on the funds they've paid into those systems. " ^[64]

By contrast, some non-scientific studies, including one conducted by Philip Morris in the Czech Republic^[65] and another by the Cato Institute,^[66] support the opposite position. The Czech Republic ( ˈt͡ʃɛskaː ˈrɛpuˌblɪka short form in Česko ˈt͡ʃɛskɔ also called Czechia, The Cato Institute is a Libertarian Think tank headquartered in Washington D Neither study was peer-reviewed nor published in a scientific journal, and the Cato Institute have received funding from tobacco companies in the past. Philip Morris has explicitly apologised for the former study, saying: "The funding and public release of this study which, among other things, detailed purported cost savings to the Czech Republic due to premature deaths of smokers, exhibited terrible judgment as well as a complete and unacceptable disregard of basic human values. For one of our tobacco companies to commission this study was not just a terrible mistake, it was wrong. All of us at Philip Morris, no matter where we work, are extremely sorry for this. No one benefits from the very real, serious and significant diseases caused by smoking. " ^[65]

Between 1970 an 1995, per-capita cigarette consumption in poorer developing countries increased by 67 percent, while it dropped by 10 percent in the richer developed world. Eighty percent of smokers now live in less developed countries. By 2030, the World Health Organization (WHO) forecasts that 10 million people a year will die of smoking-related illness, making it the single biggest cause of death worldwide, with the largest increase to be among women. WHO forecasts' the 21st century's death rate from smoking to be ten times the 20th century's rate. ("Washingtonian" magazine, December 2007).

Tobacco and other drugs

Main article: Tobacco and other drugs

A number of studies have been conducted to explore the relationship between tobacco and other drug use. An association between tobacco and other drug use has been well established While the association between smoking tobacco and other drug use has been well-established, the nature of this association remains unclear. The two main theories are the phenotypic causation (gateway) model and the correlated liabilities model. The gateway drug theory (also called variously gateway theory, gateway hypothesis and gateway effect) is the hypothesis that the use of soft drugs leads The causation model argues that smoking is a primary influence on future drug use, while the correlated liabilities model argues that smoking and other drug use are predicated on genetic or environmental factors.

Advertising

Main article: Tobacco advertising

Before the 1970s, most tobacco advertising was legal in the United States and most European nations. Tobacco advertising is the promotion of Tobacco use (typically Cigarette smoking) by the Tobacco industry through a variety of Tobacco advertising is the promotion of Tobacco use (typically Cigarette smoking) by the Tobacco industry through a variety of In the United States, in the 1950s and 1960s, cigarette brands were frequently sponsors of television shows—most notably shows such as To Tell the Truth and I've Got a Secret. To Tell the Truth is an American Television Game show created by Bob Stewart and produced by Goodson - Todman For IGAS qua graphology organization see International Graphoanalysis Society I've Got a Secret is a weekly panel Game show produced One of the most famous television jingles of the era came from an advertisement for Winston cigarettes. Winston Cigarettes are manufactured for or by RJ Reynolds Tobacco Company or its newer incarnation as RJR Nabisco and/or its affiliates The slogan "Winston tastes good like a cigarette should!" proved to be catchy, and is still quoted today. " Winston tastes good like a cigarette should " is an enduring slogan that appeared in Newspaper, Magazine, Radio, and Television Other popular slogans from the 1960s were "Us Tareyton smokers would rather fight than switch!," which was used to advertise Tareyton cigarettes, and "I'd Walk a Mile for a Camel". " Us Tareyton smokers would rather fight than switch! " is an enduring Slogan which appeared in Magazine, Newspaper, and Television Tareyton is a brand of cigarettes originally manufactured by the American Tobacco Company.

In the 1950s, manufacturers began adding filter tips to cigarettes to remove some of the tar and nicotine as they were smoked. "Safer", "less potent" cigarette brands were also introduced. Light cigarettes became so popular that, as of 2004, half of American smokers preferred them over regular cigarettes ^[67], in spite the fact that the idea of a "safer" cigarette is a myth. Cigarettes that offer "low tar and nicotine" cause the smoker to smoke more or to inhale more deeply to get the same level of nicotine. According to The Federal Government’s National Cancer Institute (NCI), light cigarettes provide no benefit to smoker's health. ^[68][69]

In the United States, it was believed by many that tobacco companies are marketing tobacco smoking to minors. ^[70] For example, Reynolds American Inc. used the Joe Camel cartoon character to advertise Camel cigarettes. Reynolds American Inc ( is an American company whose holdings include R Joe Camel (officially Old Joe) was the advertising Mascot for Camel cigarettes from late 1987 to July 12, 1997, appearing Camel is a brand of Cigarettes that was introduced by American company R Other brands such as Virginia Slims targeted women with slogans like "You've Come a Long Way Baby". Virginia Slims is a Brand of Cigarette manufactured by Philip Morris.

In 1964, the Surgeon General of the United States, released the Surgeon General's Advisory Committee Report on Smoking and Health. Overview The Surgeon General is nominated by the US President and confirmed via majority vote by the Senate. It was based on over 7000 scientific articles that linked tobacco use with cancer and other diseases. This report led to laws requiring warning labels on tobacco products and to restrictions on tobacco advertisements. As these began to come into force, tobacco marketing became more subtle, with sweets shaped like cigarettes put on the market, and a number of advertisements designed to appeal to children, particularly those featuring Joe Camel resulting in increased awareness and uptake of smoking among children^[71]. Joe Camel (officially Old Joe) was the advertising Mascot for Camel cigarettes from late 1987 to July 12, 1997, appearing However, restrictions did have an effect on adult quit rates, with its use declining to the point that by 2004, nearly half of all Americans who had ever smoked had quit. ^[72]

Many nations, including Russia and Greece, still allow billboards advertising tobacco use. Tobacco smoking is still advertised in special magazines, during sporting events, in gas stations and stores, and in more rare cases on television. Some nations, including the UK and Australia, have begun anti-smoking advertisements to counter the effects of tobacco advertising.

The actual effectiveness of tobacco advertisement is widely documented. According to an opinion piece by Henry Saffer, public health experts say that tobacco advertising increases cigarette consumption and there is much empirical literature that finds a significant effect of tobacco advertising on smoking, especially in children. Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease prolonging life and promoting health through the organised efforts and informed choices of society organisations Advertising is a form of Communication that typically attempts to persuade potential Customers to Purchase or to consume more of a particular Brand A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence ^{[73][74][75][76][77][78][79][80]} A Dutch tobacco company manufactures "Pink Elephant" vanilla-flavored cigarettes, and "Black Devil" chocolate-flavored cigarettes.

Peer pressure

Many anti-smoking organizations claim that teenagers begin their smoking habits due to peer pressure, and cultural influence portrayed by friends. However, one study found that direct pressure to smoke cigarettes did not play a significant part in adolescent smoking. In that study, adolescents also reported low levels of both normative and direct pressure to smoke cigarettes. Normative has specialized meanings in several academic disciplines ^[81] A similar study showed that individuals play a more active role in starting to smoke than has previously been acknowledged and that social processes other than peer pressure need to be taken into account. ^[82] Another study's results revealed that peer pressure was significantly associated with smoking behavior across all age and gender cohorts, but that intrapersonal factors were significantly more important to the smoking behavior of 12–13 year-old girls than same-age boys. Peer Pressure is a term describing the pressure exerted by a Peer group in encouraging a person to change their Attitude, Behavior and/or Morals Within the 14–15 year-old age group, one peer pressure variable emerged as a significantly more important predictor of girls' than boys' smoking. ^[83] It is debated whether peer pressure or self-selection is a greater cause of adolescent smoking. Self-selection is a term used to indicate any situation in which individuals select themselves into a group. It is arguable that the reverse of peer-pressure is true, when the majority of peers do not smoke and ostracize those who do.

Parental smoking

Children of smoking parents are more likely to smoke than children with non-smoking parents. One study found that parental smoking cessation was associated with less adolescent smoking, except when the other parent currently smoked. ^[84] A current study tested the relation of adolescent smoking to rules regulating where adults are allowed to smoke in the home. Results showed that restrictive home smoking policies were associated with lower likelihood of trying smoking for both middle and high school students. ^[85]

Smoking in movies and television

Exposure to smoking in movies has been linked with adolescent smoking initiation in cross-sectional studies. ^[86][87] Films tend to have a high incidence of smoking behavior vis-a-vis the general population. According to a study of movies created between 1988 and 1997, eighty-seven percent of these movies portrayed various tobacco use, with an average of 5 occurrences per film. R-rated movies had the greatest number of occurrences and were most likely to feature major characters using tobacco. ^[88] Despite the declining tobacco use in the society, the incidence of smoking in 2002 movies was nearly the same as in 1950 movies. ^[89]

There have been moves to reduce the depiction of protagonists smoking in television shows, especially those aimed at children. For example, Ted Turner took steps to remove or edit scenes that depict characters smoking in cartoons such as Tom and Jerry, The Flintstones and Scooby-Doo,^[90] which are shown on his Cartoon Network and Boomerang television channels. Robert Edward "Ted" Turner III (born November 19, 1938) is an American Media proprietor and philanthropist. Tom and Jerry is a series of theatrical Short subjects (cartoons created by William Hanna and Joseph Barbera for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer The Flintstones is an animated American television sitcom that ran from 1960 to 1966 on ABC. Scooby-Doo is a long-running American animated series produced for Saturday morning television in several different versions from 1969 to the Boomerang is a 24-hour American Cable television channel owned by Turner Broadcasting System (a division of Time Warner)

The use of smoking to project an image

Famous smokers of the past used cigarettes or pipes as part of their image, such as Jean Paul Sartre's Gauloise-brand cigarettes, Albert Einstein's, Joseph Stalin's, Douglas MacArthur's, Bertrand Russell's, and Bing Crosby's pipes, or the news broadcaster Edward R. Murrow's cigarette. Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (21 June 1905 &ndash 15 April 1980 commonly known simply as Jean-Paul Sartre (ʒɑ̃ pol saʁtʁə was a French Gauloises is a brand of Cigarette of French manufacture It is produced by the company Altadis. Albert Einstein ( German: ˈalbɐt ˈaɪ̯nʃtaɪ̯n; English: ˈælbɝt ˈaɪnstaɪn (14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955 was a German -born theoretical Joseph Stalin ( ნამდვილი გვარი ჯუღაშვილი|Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; March 5 1953 was General Secretary of the Communist Party General MacArthur redirects here for other meanings see General MacArthur (disambiguation. Bertrand Arthur William Russell 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970 was a British Philosopher, Historian Edward R Murrow (born Egbert Roscoe Murrow; April 25 1908 &ndash April 27 1965) was an American journalist Writers in particular seemed to be known for smoking; see, for example, Cornell Professor Richard Klein's book Cigarettes are Sublime for the analysis, by this professor of French literature, of the role smoking plays in 19th and 20th century letters. Richard Klein can refer to Dick Klein (football player (born 1934 American football player Richard Klein (paleoanthropologist (born The popular author Kurt Vonnegut addressed his addiction to cigarettes within his novels. Kurt Vonnegut Jr (November 11 1922 – April 11 2007 (ˈvɒnəgət was a prolific and genre-bending American Novelist known for works blending Satire, Black British Prime Minister Harold Wilson was well known for smoking a pipe in public as was Winston Churchill for his cigars. James Harold Wilson Baron Wilson of Rievaulx, KG, OBE, FRS, PC (11 March 1916 &ndash 24 May 1995 was one of the most prominent British politicians Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, KG, OM, CH, TD, FRS, PC, PC (Can ( 30 November 1874 Sherlock Holmes, the fictional detective created by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle smoked a pipe, cigarettes, and cigars, besides injecting himself with cocaine, "to keep his overactive brain occupied during the dull London days, when nothing happened". Sherlock Holmes is a famous fictional detective of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries who first appeared in Publication in 1887 Sir Arthur Ignatius Conan Doyle, DL (22 May 1859 – 7 July 1930 was an Anglo-Scottish Author most noted for his stories about the The DC Vertigo comic book character, John Constantine, created by Alan Moore, is synonymous with smoking, so much so that the first storyline by Preacher creator, Garth Ennis, centred around John Constantine contracting lung cancer. DC Comics is an American comic book and related media company Vertigo is an Imprint of the American Comic-book publisher DC Comics. John Constantine ( May 10, 1953 in Liverpool, England) is the fictional Protagonist of the comic series Alan Moore (born November 18 1953 in Northampton) is an English Writer most famous for his influential work in Comics, including the acclaimed Preacher is a term the for someone who preaches Sermons or gives homilies Garth Ennis (born January 16, 1970 in Holywood, Northern Ireland) is an Irish Comics writer best known for the DC Professional wrestler James Fullington, while in character as "The Sandman", is a chronic smoker in order to appear "tough". Professional wrestling, or pro wrestling, is a non-competitive professional Sport, where all matches are scripted by the promotion's booking staff James (" Jim " Fullington Following the highly-publicised caning of Michael P In Character is an Acting term referring to an Actor playing the part of a character either in a format setting (e

Religious views on smoking

Main article: Religious views on smoking

Communal smoking of a sacred tobacco pipe is a common ritual of many Native American tribes, and was considered a sacred part of their religion. Religious views on smoking vary widely Indigenous peoples of the Americas have traditionally used Tobacco for religious purposes while Abrahamic and other religions Sema, the Anishinaabe word for tobacco, was grown for ceremonial use and considered the ultimate sacred plant since its smoke was believed to carry prayers to the heavens. Anishinaabe or more properly Anishinaabeg or Anishinabek (which is the plural form of the word is a self-description often used by the Odawa, Ojibwe ^[91] The tobacco used during these rituals varies widely in potency — the Nicotiana rustica species used in South America, for instance, has up to twice the nicotine content of the common North American N. Nicotiana rustica, known in South America as Mapacho, is a plant in the Solanaceae family tabacum.

Before the health risks of smoking were identified through controlled study, smoking was considered an immoral habit by certain Christian preachers and social reformers. The founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, Joseph Smith, Jr, recorded that on February 27, 1833, he received a revelation which addressed tobacco use. Please see the talk page for this article and the "See also" list before adding content or adding a hyphen to Latter Day Saint Revelation is the act of revealing or disclosing (see etymology or in the theological perception making something obvious and clearly understood through active or passive communication Eventually accepted as a commandment, faithful Mormons do not smoke.

Jehovah's Witnesses earthwide, base their stand against smoking on the Bible's command to "clean ourselves of every defilement of flesh" (2 Corinthians 7:1)

The Jewish Rabbi Yisrael Meir Kagan (1838–1933) was one of the first Jewish authorities to speak out on smoking. Rabbi Yisrael Meir (HaCohen Kagan ( Dzyatlava, February 6, 1838 - Raduń, September 15, 1933) also known popularly

Smoking cessation

Main article: Smoking cessation

Many of tobacco's health effects can be minimized through smoking cessation. Smoking cessation is the effort to stop smoking Tobacco products The British doctors study^[92] showed that those who stopped smoking before they reached 30 years of age lived almost as long as those who never smoked. The British doctors study is the generally accepted name of a Prospective Cohort study which has been running from 1951 to 2001 and in 1956 provided convincing statistical It is also possible to reduce the risks by reducing the frequency of smoking and by proper diet and exercise. Some research has indicated that some of the damage caused by smoking tobacco can be moderated with the use of antioxidants. An antioxidant is a Molecule capable of slowing or preventing the oxidation of other molecules

Smokers wanting to quit or to temporarily abstain from smoking can use a variety of nicotine-containing tobacco substitutes, or nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) products to temporarily lessen the physical withdrawal symptoms, the most popular being nicotine gum and lozenges. Nicotine replacement therapy (NRT is the use of various forms of Nicotine delivery methods intended to replace nicotine obtained from smoking or other Withdrawal, also known as withdrawal/abstinence syndrome, refers to the characteristic signs and symptoms that appear when a drug that causes Physical dependence is Nicotine gum is a type of Chewing gum that delivers Nicotine to the body Applications Modal logic In Modal logic, the lozenge expresses the possibility of the following expression Nicotine patches are also used for smoking cessation. A nicotine patch is a Transdermal patch that releases Nicotine into the body through the skin Medications that do not contain nicotine can also be used, such as bupropion (Zyban or Wellbutrin) and varenicline (Chantix). Bupropion ( INN, previously known as amfebutamone; sold as Wellbutrin, Zyban, and several other Trade names is an atypical Antidepressant Varenicline (trade name Chantix in the USA and Champix in Europe and other countries marketed by Pfizer, usually in the form of varenicline tartrate

Peer support can be helpful, such as that provided by support groups and telephone quitlines.

Legal issues and regulation

On 27 February 2005 the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, took effect. The World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (abbreviated WHO FCTC) is a Treaty adopted by the 56th World Health Assembly on The FCTC is the world's first public health treaty. Countries that sign on as parties agree to a set of common goals, minimum standards for tobacco control policy, and to cooperate in dealing with cross-border challenges such as cigarette smuggling. Currently the WHO declares that 4 billion people will be covered by the treaty, which includes 168 signatories. ^[93] Among other steps, signatories are to put together legislation that will eliminate secondhand smoke in indoor workplaces, public transport, indoor public places and, as appropriate, other public places.

Age restrictions

Many countries have a smoking age, In many countries, including the United States, most European Union member states, New Zealand, Canada, South Africa, Israel, India, Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica and Australia, it is illegal to sell tobacco products to minors and in the Netherlands, Austria,Belgium,Denmark and South Africa it is illegal to sell tobacco products to people under the age of 16. The minimum legal age to purchase Cigarettes or Tobacco products varies from country to country On 1 September 2007 the minimum age to buy tobacco products in Germany rose from 16 to 18, as well as in Great Britain on 1 October 2007. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. See also Kingdom of Great Britain Great Britain (Breatainn Mhòr Prydain Fawr Breten Veur Graet Breetain is the larger of the two main islands ^[94] In 46 of the 50 United States, the minimum age is 18, except for Alabama, Alaska, New Jersey, and Utah where the legal age is 19 (also in Onondaga County in upstate New York, as well as Suffolk and Nassau Counties of Long Island, New York). Some countries have also legislated against giving tobacco products to (i. e. buying for) minors, and even against minors engaging in the act of smoking. Underlying such laws is the belief that people should make an informed decision regarding the risks of tobacco use. These laws have a lax enforcement in some nations and states. In other regions, cigarettes are still sold to minors because the fines for the violation are lower or comparable to the profit made from the sales to minors. However in China, Turkey, and many other countries usually a child will have little problem buying tobacco products, because they are often told to go to the store to buy tobacco for their parents.

Taxation

Many governments have introduced excise taxes on cigarettes in order to reduce the consumption of cigarettes. Excise or Excise tax (sometimes called an excise duty) is a type of Tax charged on goods produced within the country (as opposed to Customs duties Money collected from the cigarette taxes are frequently used to pay for tobacco use prevention programs, therefore making it a method of internalizing external costs. In Economics, an externality is an impact on any party not directly involved in an economic decision

In 2002, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention said that each pack of cigarettes sold in the United States costs the nation more than $7 in medical care and lost productivity. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (or CDC) is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services based in unincorporated ^[95] That's over $2000 per year/smoker. Another study by a team of health economists finds the combined price paid by their families and society is about $41 per pack of cigarettes. ^[96]

Substantial scientific evidence shows that higher cigarette prices result in lower overall cigarette consumption. Most studies indicate that a 10% increase in price will reduce overall cigarette consumption by 3% to 5%. Youth, minorities, and low-income smokers are two to three times more likely to quit or smoke less than other smokers in response to price increases. ^[97][98] Smoking is often cited as an example of an inelastic good, however, i. In Economics, elasticity is the ratio of the percent change in one variable to the percent change in another variable e. a large rise in price will only result in a small decrease in consumption.

Many nations have implemented some form of tobacco taxation. As of 1997, Denmark had the highest cigarette tax burden of $4. 02 per pack. Taiwan only had a tax burden of $0. 62 per pack. Currently, the average price and excise tax on cigarettes in the United States is well below those in many other industrialized nations. ^[99]

Cigarette taxes vary widely from state to state in the United States. For example, South Carolina has a cigarette tax of only 7 cents per pack, the nation's lowest, while New Jersey has the highest cigarette tax in the U. S. : $2. 575 per pack. In Alabama, Illinois, Missouri, New York City, Tennessee, and Virginia, counties and cities may impose an additional limited tax on the price of cigarettes. ^[100] Due to the high tax rate, the price of an average pack of cigarettes in New Jersey is $6. 45,^[101][102] which is still less than the approximated external cost of a pack of cigarettes.

In Canada, cigarette taxes have raised prices of the more expensive brands to upwards of ten CAD$.

In the United Kingdom, a packet of cigarettes typically costs between £4. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located 25 and £5. 50 ($8. 50/$11. 00) depending on the brand purchased and where the purchase was made^[103]. The UK has a strong black market for cigarettes which has formed as a result of the high taxation, and it is estimated that 25-30% of all cigarettes smoked in the country avoid UK taxes^[104].

Restrictions on cigarette advertising

Several Western countries have also put restrictions on cigarette advertising. In the United States, all television advertising of tobacco products has been prohibited since 1971. In Australia, the Tobacco Advertising Prohibition Act 1992^[105] prohibits tobacco advertising in any form, with a very small number of exceptions (some international sporting events were accepted, but these exceptions were revoked in 2006). Other countries have legislated particularly against advertising that appears to target minors.

Package warnings

Main article: Tobacco packaging warning messages

Some countries also impose legal requirements on the packaging of tobacco products. Tobacco packaging warning messages are Health warning messages that appear on the packaging of Cigarettes and other Tobacco products For example in the countries of the European Union, Turkey, Australia^[106] and South Africa, cigarette packs must be prominently labeled with the health risks associated with smoking. ^[107] Canada, Australia, Thailand, Iceland and Brazil have also imposed labels upon cigarette packs warning smokers of the effects, and they include graphic images of the potential health effects of smoking. Cards are also inserted into cigarette packs in Canada. There are sixteen of them, and only one comes in a pack. They explain different methods of quitting smoking. Also, in the United Kingdom, there have been a number of graphic NHS advertisements, one showing a cigarette filled with fatty deposits, as if the cigarette is symbolising the artery of a smoker. The National Health Service is the name commonly used to refer to the four Publicly-funded healthcare systems of the United Kingdom collectively or individually (although

Currently in Australia, almost 70% of the cigarette packet (including 1/3 of the front, the whole back and both sides) are covered in either graphic imagery or health factoids. These warnings depict graphic images of the effects of smoking as well as information about the names and numbers of chemicals and annual death rates. Television ads accompany them, including video of smokers struggling to breathe in hospital. Since then, the number of smokers has been reduced by one quarter. ^[108] Singapore similarly requires cigarette manufacturers to print images of mouths, feet and blood vessels adversely affected by smoking.

France has the additional requirement of listing on the side of all packaging the percentages of tobacco present, compared to the weight of the paper and additives present. For one U. S. manufacturer of cigarettes sold in France, the side list indicates only 85. 0% is tobacco, 9. 0% are the additives, and paper constitutes another 6. 0% of the total weight of a cigarette. Filters are not part of the formula. The additives are a syrup sprayed on the chopped tobacco leaf on the conveyor belt and is a combination of the 599 additive ingredients as submitted to Member of Congress Henry Waxman in a 50 page list by the five major U. S. tobacco companies during his Congressional Hearings on April 14, 1994. Events 43 BC - Battle of Forum Gallorum: Mark Antony, besieging Julius Caesar 's assassin Decimus Junius Brutus in Year 1994 ( MCMXCIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1994 Gregorian calendar)

Smoking bans

Main article: Smoking ban

See also: Anti-tobacco movement in Nazi Germany

Several countries such as the Republic of Ireland, Latvia, Estonia, France, Finland, Norway, Canada, Australia, Sweden, Singapore, Italy, Indonesia, India, Lithuania, Chile, Spain, Iceland, United Kingdom, Slovenia and Malta have legislated against smoking in public places, often including bars and restaurants. Smoking bans are public policies including Criminal laws and Occupational safety and health Regulations which prohibit Tobacco smoking Nazi Germany initiated a strong anti-tobacco movement and led the first public anti- Smoking campaign in Modern history. Ireland ( Irish: Éire, ˈeːrʲə is a country in north-western Europe. Latvia ( Latvija officially the Republic of Latvia (Latvijas Republika is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia ( Eesti or Eesti Vabariik) is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Finland, officially the Republic of Finland ( is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. Norway ( Norwegian: Norge ( Bokmål) or Noreg ( Nynorsk) officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Constitutional Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. Singapore Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest The Republic of Indonesia ( (Republik Indonesia is a Country in Southeast Asia. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the Chile, officially the Republic of Chile ( Spanish:) is a country in South America occupying a long and narrow Coastal strip wedged between the Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Iceland, officially the Republic of Iceland ( ( Ísland or Lýðveldið Ísland ( The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Slovenia, officially the Republic of Slovenia (Republika Slovenija) is a Country in southern Central Europe bordering Italy to the west Malta, officially the Republic of Malta (Repubblika ta' Malta is a European Microstate, comprising an Archipelago of three islands Restauranteurs have been permitted in some jurisdictions to build designated smoking areas (or to prohibit smoking). In the United States, many states prohibit smoking in restaurants, and some also prohibit smoking in bars. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the In provinces of Canada, smoking is illegal in indoor workplaces and public places, including bars and restaurants. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page In Australia, smoking bans vary from state to state. Currently, Queensland has total bans within all public interiors (including workplaces, bars, pubs and eateries) as well as patrolled beaches and some outdoor public areas. Queensland is a state of Australia, occupying the north-eastern corner of the mainland continent There are, however, exceptions for designated smoking areas. In Victoria, smoking is banned in train stations, bus stops and tram stops as these are public locations where second hand smoke can affect non-smokers waiting for public transport, and since July 1st 2007 is now extended to all indoor public places. In New Zealand and Brazil, smoking is banned in enclosed public places mainly bars, restaurants and pubs. New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld Hong Kong banned smoking on 1 January 2007 in the workplace, public spaces such as restaurants, karaoke rooms, buildings, and public parks. Hong Kong ( officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, is a territory located on China 's south coast on the Pearl River Delta, and borders New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Bars serving alcohol who do not admit under-18s have been exempted till 2009. In Romania smoking is illegal in trains, metro stations, public institutions (except where designated, usually outside) and public transportation. Romania ( dated: Rumania, Roumania

See the List of smoking bans article for a full list of restrictions in various areas around the world. This is a list of Smoking bans by country A 2006 smoking ban in Buenos Aires city prohibits smoking in public areas including bars and restaurants

See also

Notes

References

Boffetta, P. , Agudo, A. , Ahrens, W. , Benhamou, E. , Benhamou, S. , Darby, S. C. , Ferro, G. , Fortes, C. , Gonzalez, C. A. , Jockel, K. H. , Krauss, M. , Kreienbrock, L. , Kreuzer, M. , Mendes, A. , Merletti, F. , Nyberg, F. , Pershagen, G. , Pohlabeln, H. , Riboli, E. , Schmid, G. , Simonato, L. , Tredaniel, J. , Whitley, E. , Wichmann, H. E. , Saracci, R. 1998. Multicenter case-control study of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and lung cancer in Europe. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 90:1440–1450. Borio, G. , 2006. The Tobacco Timeline. Tobacco. org. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2004. History of the 1964 Surgeon General's Report on Smoking and Health. [3] James I of England. 1604. A Counterblaste to Tobacco.

Joint Committee on Smoking and Health. Smoking and health: physician responsibility; a statement of the Joint Committee on Smoking and Health. Chest 1995; 198:201–208 Osvaldo P. Almeida, Gary K. Hulse, David Lawrence and Leon Flicker, "Smoking as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease: contrasting evidence from a systematic review of case-control and cohort studies," Addiction, Volume 97, Issue 1, Page 15 - January 2002. A systematic review is a Literature review focused on a single question which tries to identify appraise select and synthesize all high quality research evidence relevant to Smoking cessation methods compared Smoking cessation methods compared. Smokingrelief. co. uk. BBC news (2007) Scots 'back smoke ban exemptions'. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/6464521.stm

Further reading

Allan M. Brandt: The Cigarette Century; The Rise and Deadly Persistence of the Product that Defined America, Basic Books, N. Y. (2007), ISBN 0-465-07047-7 Iain Gately: La Diva Nicotina. The Story of How Tobacco Seduced the World (2001) (ISBN 0-7432-0812-9). David Krough: Smoking: The Artificial Passion (Freeman, 1992) (ISBN 0-7167-2347-6). G Invernizzi et al. , Particulate matter from tobacco versus diesel car exhaust: an educational perspective. Tobacco Control 13, S.219-221 (2004) Ian Tyrrell;Deadly Enemies: Tobacco and Its Opponents in Australia (1999) John C. Burnham, Bad Habits: Drinking, Smoking, Taking Drugs, Gambling, Sexual Misbehavior, and Swearing in American History, New York University Press, 1993 Michael Givel and Stanton Glantz (Summer 2001) “Tobacco Lobby Political Influence on U. S. State Legislatures in the 1990s. ” Tobacco Control (10) pp. 124-134. Jordan Goodman, Tobacco in History: The Cultures of Dependence, Routledge, London, 1993 Richard Kluger, Ashes to Ashes, 1996, on smoking in U. S. Robin Walker, Under Fire: A History of Tobacco Smoking in Australia, Penguin, Ringwood, 1984. David Harley, "'The Beginnings of the Tobacco Controversy: Puritanism, James I, and the Royal Physicians'", Bulletin of the History of Medicine, vol. 67, Spring 1993, pp. 28–50 Hendricks, P. S. , et al. (2006). The early time course of smoking withdrawal effects. Psychopharmacology, 187, 385–396.

Ness, R. , Grisso, J. , Hirschinger, N. , Markovic, N. , Shaw, L. , Day, N. , and Kline, J. (1999). Cocaine and Tobacco Use and the Risk of Spontaneous Abortion. New England J. Med. 340:333–339; Oncken, C. , Kranzler, H. , O'Malley, P. , Gendreau, P. , Campbell, W. A. (2002). The Effect of Cigarette Smoking on Fetal Heart Rate Characteristics. Obstet Gynecol 99: 751–755. Venners, S. A. , X. Wang, C. Chen, L. Wang, D. Chen, W. Guang, A. Huang, L. Ryan, J. O'Connor, B. Lasley, J. Overstreet, A. Wilcox, and X. Xu. (2004). Paternal Smoking and Pregnancy Loss: A Prospective Study Using a Biomarker of Pregnancy Am J Epidemiol 159: 993–1001. Blackwell Synergy - Cookie Absent (See above). Retrieved on 2005-12-18. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 218 BC - Second Punic War: Battle of the Trebia - Hannibal 's Carthaginian forces defeat those of the "Health : Young smokers' heart attack risk", BBC. Retrieved on 2005-12-18. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 218 BC - Second Punic War: Battle of the Trebia - Hannibal 's Carthaginian forces defeat those of the   WHO East Mediterranean Regional Office. Islamic ruling on smoking. Cairo: WHO East Mediterranean Regional Office, 2003. This publication cites anti-smoking Fatwas. Gatrad AR, Sheikh A. "Medical ethics and Islam: principles and practice. " Arch Dis Child 2001;84: 72-5. [4] Ask the Imam. "Is smoking cigarettes haram?" [www. islam. tc/ask-imam/view. php?q=300] accessed July 25, 2006 Jibaly M. "Smoking: a social poison. " Detroit: Al-Qur'an was-Sunnah Society of North America, 1996. Cites seven different Islamic law opinions. [5] accessed July 25, 2006 Islam Online. "Is the ruling on smoking still controversial?" [6] accessed July 25, 2006 This analysis based primarily on the quoted opinion of Sheikh Yusuf Al-Qaradawi. Yusuf al-Qaradawi ( Arabic: يوسف القرضاوي Yūsuf al-Qaraḍāwiy) (born September 9, 1926) is an Egyptian Muslim

External links

• The Social History of Smoking, by G. L. Apperson, 1914, from Project Gutenberg
• The Tobacco Timeline at tobacco. Project Gutenberg, abbreviated as PG, is a volunteer effort to Digitize, archive and distribute Cultural works org
• Legacy Tobacco Documents Library at University of California San Francisco
• UCSF Tobacco Industry Videos Collection
• University of Wisconsin Center for Tobacco Research and Intervention
• QuitSmokingCounter.com - Online Quit Smoking Counter that measures smoking cessation and the length of time the person has stopped smoking.
• Smoking consequences

The University of California San Francisco ( UCSF) is one of the world's leading centers of Health sciences research Patient care, and education

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