Timber framing (German: Fachwerk), or Half-timbering, is the method of creating framed structures of heavy timber jointed together with pegged mortise and tenon joints. Poznań Lublin Voivodeship This article is about the city in Poland Tréguier (Landreger is a port town in the Côtes-d'Armor department in Bretagne in northwestern France. Brittany (Breizh bʁejs Bretagne; Gallo: Bertaèyn) is a former independent Celtic kingdom and Duchy, now incorporated into The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. Simple and strong the mortise and tenon joint has been used for millennia by Woodworkers around the world to join pieces of Wood, usually when the pieces

Contents 1 Naming 2 The structure 2.1 Jetties 2.2 Timbers 2.3 Modern features 3 History and traditions 3.1 The English tradition 3.2 The French tradition 3.3 The German tradition 3.4 The Canadian tradition 3.5 Revival styles in later centuries 4 Advantages 5 Disadvantages 6 References 7 See also 8 External links

Naming

One of the first people to use the term half-timbered was Mary Martha Sherwood (1775-1851) who employed it in her book The Lady of the Manor, published in several volumes from 1823-1829. Mary Martha Sherwood ( Née Butt (6 May 1775 – 22 September 1851 was a prolific and influential writer Year 1823 ( MDCCCXXIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common For the game see 1829 (board game. Year 1829 ( MDCCCXXIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display She uses the term picturesquely:

passing through a gate in a quickset hedge, we arrived at the porch of an old half-timbered cottage, where an aged man and woman received us.

It is not a term she uses generally for all timber-framed buildings, for elsewhere she writes:

an old cottage, half hid by the pool-dam, built with timber, painted black, and with white stucco, and altogether presenting a ruinous and forlorn appearance.

By 1842, the term had found its way into The Encyclopedia of Architecture by Joseph Gwilt (1784-1863). Joseph Gwilt ( January 11, 1784 - September 14, 1863) English Architect and writer was the younger son of George

The structure

. Jettying is a building technique used in Medieval timber frame buildings in which an upper floor projects beyond the dimensions of the floor below The Lexikon der gesamten Technik is an illustrated German-language Encyclopedia of Architectural, Engineering and Manufacturing

Timber framing is the method of creating framed structures of heavy timber jointed together with pegged mortise and tenon joints (lengthening scarf joints and lap joints are also used). Simple and strong the mortise and tenon joint has been used for millennia by Woodworkers around the world to join pieces of Wood, usually when the pieces Simple and strong the mortise and tenon joint has been used for millennia by Woodworkers around the world to join pieces of Wood, usually when the pieces Diagonal bracing is used to prevent racking of the structure.

To deal with the variable sizes and shapes of hewn and sawn timbers the two main historical layout methods used were: scribe carpentry and square rule carpentry. Scribing was used throughout Europe, especially from the 12th century to the 19th century, and was brought to North America where it was common into the early 19th century. The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar In a scribe frame every timber will only fit in one place so that every timber has to be numbered. Square rule carpentry developed in New England in the 18th century and features housed joints in main timbers to allow for interchangeable braces and girts. History See also History of New England New England's earliest inhabitants were Algonquian -speaking Native Americans including the The 18th century lasted from 1701 to 1800 in the Gregorian calendar, in accordance with the Anno Domini / Common Era numbering system Today regularized timber can mean that timber framing is treated as joinery especially when cut by large CNC (computer numerical control) machines. The abbreviation CNC stands for computer numerical control, and refers specifically to a computer "controller" that reads G-code

To finish the walls, the spaces between the timbers were often infilled with wattle-and-daub, brick or rubble, with plastered faces on the exterior and interior which were often “ceiled” with wainscoting for insulation and warmth. Infill in its broadest meaning is material that fills in an otherwise unoccupied space Wattle and daub (or wattle-and-daub) is a Building material used for making walls in which a woven lattice of wooden strips called wattle is daubed A brick is a block of Ceramic material used in Masonry construction laid using mortar. The term thermal insulation can refer to materials used to reduce the rate of Heat transfer, or the methods and processes used to reduce heat transfer This method of infilling the spaces created the half-timbered style, with the timbers of the frame being visible both inside and outside the building.

Jetties

Where the houseowner could afford it, the more expensive technique of jettying was incorporated in the construction of the house. Home owners were taxed on their ground-floor square footage; jettying allows higher stories to have larger square footage than the ground floor.

A jetty is an upper floor that depends on a cantilever system in which a horizontal beam, the jetty bressummer, on which the wall above rests, projects outward beyond the floor below. A cantilever is a beam supported on only one end The beam carries the load to the support where it is resisted by moment and Shear stress.

Timbers

Historically the timbers would have been hewn square using a felling axe and finish surfaced with a broad axe. If required, smaller timbers were ripsawn from the hewn baulks using pitsaws or frame saws. Today it is more common for timbers to be bandsawn and the timbers may sometimes be machine planed on all four sides.

The vertical timbers include

• posts (main supports at corners and other major uprights),
• studs (subsidiary upright limbs in framed walls), for example, close studding. Polymerase (DNA directed epsilon, also known as POLE, is a human Gene. Close studding is a form of timber work used in timber-framed buildings in which vertical timbers (studs are set close together dividing the wall into narrow panels

The horizontal timbers include

• sill-beams (also called ground-sills or sole-pieces, at the bottom of a wall into which posts and studs are fitted using tenons),
• noggin-pieces (the horizontal timbers forming the tops and bottoms of the frames of infill-panels),
• wall-plates (at the top of timber-framed walls that support the trusses and joists of the roof). In Architecture and Structural engineering, a truss is a structure comprising one or more triangular units constructed with straight slender members whose A joist in Architecture and Engineering, is one of the horizontal supporting members that run from wall to wall wall to beam or beam to beam to support a Ceiling

When jettying, horizontal elements can include:

• the jetty bressummer (or breastsummer), the main sill on which the projecting wall above rests and which stretches across the whole width of the jetty wall. The bressummer is itself cantilevered forward beyond the wall below.
• the dragon-beam which runs diagonally from one corner to another, and supports the corner posts above and is supported by the corner posts below.
• the jetty beams or joists which conform to the greater dimensions of the floor above but rest at right angles on the jetty-plates that conform to the shorter dimensions of the floor below. The jetty beams are morticed at 45° into the sides of the dragon beams. They are the main constituents of the cantilever system and they determine how far the jetty projects
• the jetty-plates, designed to carry the jetty beams. The jetty plates themselves are supported by the corner posts of the recessed floor below.

The sloping timbers include

• trusses (the slanting timbers forming the triangular framework at gables and roof),
• braces (slanting beams giving extra support between horizontal or vertical members of the timber frame),
• herringbone bracing (a decorative and supporting style of frame, usually at 45 ° to the upright and horizontal directions of the frame). In Architecture and Structural engineering, a truss is a structure comprising one or more triangular units constructed with straight slender members whose A gable is the generally triangular portion of a wall between the edges of a sloping roof Vietnam roofjpg|thumb|The roofs of Vietnam.]] A roof is the covering on the uppermost part of a Building.

Modern features

It is in the United States and Canada, however, that the art of timber frame construction has been revived since the 1970's, and is now experiencing a thriving renaissance of the ancient skills. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page This article is about the Decade 1970-1979 For the Year 1970 see 1970. This is largely due to such practitioners as Steve Chappell, Jack Sobon and Tedd Benson who studied old plans and techniques and revived the technique that had been long neglected.

Timber framed structures differ from conventional wood framed buildings in several ways. Timber framing uses fewer, larger wooden members, commonly using timbers with dimensions in the range of 15 to 30 cm (6" to 12") as opposed to common wood framing which uses many more timbers with their dimensions usually in the 5 to 25 cm (2" to 10") range. The methods of fastening the frame members also differ, in conventional framing the members are joined using nails or other mechanical fasteners while timber framing uses mortice and tenon or more complex joints which are usually fastened using only wooden pegs. In Engineering, Woodworking and Construction, a nail is a pin -shaped sharp object of hard Metal, typically Steel,

Recently, it has become common to surround the timber structure entirely in manufactured panels, such as SIPs (Structural Insulating Panels). Structural insulated panels (or structural insulating panels) SIPs are a composite Building material. This method of enclosure means that the timbers can only be seen from inside the building, but has the benefits of being less complex to build and offering more efficient heat insulation. Structural Insulated Panels are a sandwich construction of two rigid composite materials usually wood based like OSB or plywood with a foamed insulating material in between either by gluing billets as in EPS (Expanded Polystyrene) or foamed and formed in place with polyurethane. Oriented strand board, or OSB, or waferboard or Sterling board (UK is an Engineered wood product formed by layering strands (flakes of A polyurethane, commonly abbreviated PU, is any Polymer consisting of a chain of organic units joined by urethane links The advantage of this for timber framing in the modern world is less of a dependency on bracing and auxiliary members like minor joists and rafters as the panels can span a considerable distance and greatly increase the stiffness of the timber frame itself.

Alternative ways include the use of straw bale construction. “Straw bale construction is at once an American invention and a sustainable answer to housing needs on and off the reservation The straw bales are stacked for the walls with various finishes applied to the interior and exterior such as stucco and plaster. This appeals to the traditionalist and the environmentalist as this is using "found" materials to build.

History and traditions

The techniques used in timber framing date back thousands of years, and have been used in many parts of the world during various periods such as ancient Japan, Europe and medieval England. Svendborg is a city in central Denmark, located in Svendborg municipality (population 59040 in 2008 on the island of Funen. The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland

Half-timbered construction in the Northern European vernacular building style is characteristic of medieval and early modern Denmark, England, Germany and parts of France, in localities where timber was in good supply and building stone and the skills to work it were in short supply. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Lumber or timber is Wood in any of its stages from felling through readiness for use as structural Material for Construction, or In half-timbered construction timbers that were riven in half provided the complete skeletal framing of the building.

Some Roman carpentry preserved in anoxic layers of clay at Romano-British villa sites demonstrate that sophisticated Roman carpentry had all the necessary techniques for this construction. Clay is a naturally occurring material composed primarily of fine-grained Minerals which show plasticity through a variable range of Water content, and Romano-British culture is that of the Romanized Britons under the Roman Empire and later the Western Roman Empire, and of those exposed to Roman culture in the years A villa was originally an Upper-class Country house, though since its origins in Roman times the idea and function of a villa has evolved considerably A carpenter (builder is a skilled craftsman who performs carpentry - a wide range of Woodworking that includes constructing buildings, The earliest surviving (French) half-timbered buildings date from the 12th century.

The English tradition

Some of the earliest known timber houses in Europe have been found in Scotland and England, dating to Neolithic times; Balbridie and Fengate are some of the rare examples of these constructions. Holborn (ˈhoʊbɚn or /ˈhoʊbɝːn/ "ho bun" is an area of Central London, England London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. Scotland ( Gaelic: Alba) is a Country in northwest Europethat occupies the northern third of the island of Great Britain. The Neolithic (from Greek νεολιθικός — neolithikos from νέος neos, "new" + λίθος lithos Balbridie is the site of a Neolithic timber-house in Aberdeenshire, Scotland, situated in the south Deeside near the B9077 road. Fengate is a predominantly industrial area of the city of Peterborough, Cambridgeshire in the United Kingdom.

Molded plaster ornamentation, pargetting further enriched some English Tudor houses. Half-timbering is characteristic of English vernacular architecture in East Anglia, Warwickshire, Worcestershire, Herefordshire, Shropshire, and Cheshire, where one of the most elaborate surviving English examples of half-timbered construction is Little Moreton Hall. Vernacular Architecture is a term used to categorize methods of Construction which use locally available resources to address local needs In South Yorkshire, the oldest timber house in Sheffield, the "Bishops' House" c. Divisions and environs South Yorkshire is divided into four local government districts they are the City of Sheffield, the Metropolitan Borough of Doncaster Sheffield ( is a city and Metropolitan borough in South Yorkshire, England Bishops' House is a half-timbered house in the Norton Lees district of the City of Sheffield, England. 1500, shows traditional half-timbered construction.

In the Weald of Kent and Sussex, the half-timbered structure of the Wealden house, consisted of an open hall with bays on either side and often jettied upper floors. The Weald (wɪəld is the name given to a physiographic area in south-east England situated between the parallel Chalk Escarpments of the North KENT (1400 AM) is a Radio station broadcasting a Adult Standards/MOR format Several things are commonly known as Halls or halls. For the development of meaning of the word 'hall' see Hall (concept. Jettying is a building technique used in Medieval timber frame buildings in which an upper floor projects beyond the dimensions of the floor below

Half-timbered construction went with colonists to North America in the early 17th century but was soon left behind in New England and the mid-Atlantic colonies for clapboard facings (another tradition of East Anglia). As a means of recording the passage of Time, the 17th Century was that Century which lasted from 1601 - 1700 in the Gregorian calendar

The French tradition

Elaborately half-timbered housefronts of the 15th century still remain in Bourges, Troyes, Rouen, Strasbourg, Thiers, and other cities. Wormshill ( wurmz-HILL) is a small Village and Civil parish within the Borough of Maidstone, Kent, England Warwick (ˈwɒrɪk worrick (silent w in middle is the County town of Warwickshire, England. Bourges is a commune in central France on the Yèvre river It is the capital of the department of Cher and also was the capital Troyes (tʁwa is a commune, the préfecture (capital of the northeastern Aube département in France and is Rouen (ʁwɑ̃ in French) is the historical capital city of Normandy, in northwestern France on the River Seine, and currently the capital Strasbourg (Strasbourg stʁazbuʁ Alsatian: Strossburi,; Straßburg) is the capital and principal City of the Alsace région Thiers is a commune of the Puy-de-Dôme département, in France.

Old houses in Troyes (Champagne, France)

Half-timbered houses in the Petite-France quarter of Strasbourg

The German tradition

Many German cities are famed for their half-timbered houses. Pont-Audemer is a commune and the seat of a canton of the department of Eure in the Haute-Normandie region in northern Petite-France is an area in Strasbourg, Alsace, France. It is located on the Grande Île (Main Island where the river Ill Timber framing was the most popular building technique from the 12th to the 19th century. The oldest buildings still standing are from the 13th century. From the 15th century on, timbers were sometimes elaborately carved and infills with smaller timbering where made for both decorative and structural reasons.

The German Framework Road (Deutsche Fachwerkstraße) is a traveling route that links cities with picturesque half-timbered buildings. It is more than 2000km long and stretches across the states of Lower Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Hesse, Thuringia, Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg. Lower Saxony ( German: Niedersachsen ch is pronounced before an s --> lies in north-western Germany and is second Saxony-Anhalt ( Sachsen-Anhalt) is one of the sixteen ''Bundesländer'' (federal states that make up the Federal Republic of Germany. Hesse (Hessen is a state of Germany with an area The Free State of Thuringia (Freistaat Thüringen is located in central Germany. Bavaria ( German:, with an area of 70553 Km² (27241 square miles and almost 12 Baden-Württemberg is one of the 16 states ( Bundesländer) of the Federal Republic of Germany.

Buildings in Hornburg (Germany)

Buildings in Braubach (Germany)

House in Schwerin (Germany) built in 1698

The Canadian tradition

Called colombage pierroté in Quebec as well other areas of Canada, half-timbered construction in-filled with stone and rubble survived into the 19th century and was consciously revived at the end of that century. This article is about the German city in Lower Saxony For the municipality in Saxony-Anhalt see Hornburg Saxony-Anhalt. Braubach is a municipality in the Rhein-Lahn-Kreis, in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. Schwerin (ʃveˈʁiːn is a City in northern Germany and the capital of the state Quebec (kwɨˈbɛk In Western Canada it was used on buildings in the Red River Settlement. The Red River Colony (or Selkirk Settlement) was a colonization project set up by Thomas Douglas 5th Earl of Selkirk in 1811 on 300000 km² of land granted The Men's House at Lower Fort Garry is a good example of colombage pierroté. Lower Fort Garry was built in 1831 by the Hudson's Bay Company on the western bank of the Red River, twenty miles north of the original Fort Garry, which

Revival styles in later centuries

When half-timbering regained popularity in Britain after 1860 in the various revival styles, such as the Queen Anne style houses by Richard Norman Shaw and others, it was often used to evoke a "Tudor" atmosphere (see Tudorbethan), though in Tudor times half-timbering had begun to look rustic and was increasingly limited to villages houses (illustration, above left). The Queen Anne Style is a style of architecture, furniture and decoration that reached its greatest popularity in the last quarter of the 19th century manifesting itself in Richard Norman Shaw RA ( Edinburgh, 7 May 1831 &ndash London, 17 November 1912) was the most influential British architect In 1912, Allen W. Jackson published The Half-Timber House: Its Origin, Design, Modern Plan, and Construction, and rambling half-timbered beach houses appeared on dune-front properties in Rhode Island or under palm-lined drives of Beverly Hills. Rhode Island ( officially named the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, is a state in the New England region of the United States During the 1920s increasingly minimal gestures towards some half-timbering in commercial speculative house-building saw the fashion peter out.

In the revival styles, such as Tudorbethan (Mock Tudor), the half-timbered appearance is superimposed on the brickwork or other material as an outside decorative façade rather than forming the main frame that supports the structure. A facade or façade (fəˈsɑːd is generally one side of the exterior of a Building, especially the front but also sometimes the sides and rear

Advantages

The use of timber framing in buildings offers various aesthetic and structural benefits, as the timber frame lends itself to open plan designs and allows for complete enclosure in effective insulation for energy efficiency.

The timber frame structure goes up quickly in its modern incarnation. While some modern shops still cut the timbers with hand tools and hand guided power tools, modern CNC (computer numerical control) machinery has been readily adapted to the task. The abbreviation CNC stands for computer numerical control, and refers specifically to a computer "controller" that reads G-code This eliminates much of the repetitive labor from the process, but still often requires hand-finishing. The complexity of hip/valley joinery as of yet cannot be duplicated by CNC machinery beyond simple cuts. Additionally, due to the rigid timber requirements of CNC machinery, odd sized, tree trunk, hand hewn, and recycled timbers are usually hand cut even in the machine dominated shops.

One aid in speeding up assembly on site is pre-fitting the frame, usually in bent or wall sections that are laid out on the shop floor. This can assure a correct fit and with pre-drilling for the pegs it speeds the site process. This pre-fitting in the shop is independent of a machine or hand cut system. Valley and Hip timbers usually are not pre-fit but careful layout and checking can catch most errors.

In two to three days an average size timber frame home can be erected and within a week to two weeks after that the shell of the house is ready for drying in, which is to say, ready for windows, mechanical systems, and roofing. The shell in this case would be with Structural Insulated Panels (SIPs). Structural insulated panels (or structural insulating panels) SIPs are a composite Building material.

The timber frame can give the home owner the ability to make a creative statement through the use of design and specialty touches like carvings of favorite quotes and incorporating timbers from heirloom structures, like a barn from a family homestead.

Disadvantages

Because the structure is made from wood, it inherits any disadvantages wood may exhibit as an engineering material. Some possible disadvantages of wood as opposed to some other building materials include:

• Noise from footsteps in adjacent rooms both above, below and on the same floor in such buildings can be quite audible.
• The possibility of infestation by insects such as termites, cockroaches or powderpost beetles, or by other pest animals such as mice and rats. The termites are a group of Social Insects usually classified at the taxonomic rank of order Isoptera (but see also taxonomy Cockroaches (or simply "roaches" are Insects of the order Blattaria. True Powderpost beetles are a group of Woodboring beetles in the Insect subfamily Lyctidae and the false powderpost beetles the family Bostrichidae A pest is an organism which has characteristics that are regarded by Humans as injurious or unwanted A mouse (plural mice) is a small Animal that belongs to one Rats are various medium sized long-tailed Rodents of the superfamily Muroidea
• Various types of rot including dry rot. The Aviation term ROT stands for rate one turn, also known as a standard rate turn. In the field of construction dry rot refers to the decay of timber in buildings and other wooden structures by certain Fungi.
• Other fungi that are non-destructive to the wood, but are harmful to humans such as black mold. A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ Aspergillus niger is a Fungus and one of the most common species of the genus Aspergillus.
• Wood burns more readily than some other materials, making timber frame buildings somewhat more susceptible to fire damage, although this idea is not universally accepted: Since the cross-sectional dimensions of many structural members exceed 15 cm × 15 cm (6" × 6"), timber frame structures benefit from the unique properties of large timbers, which char on the outside forming an insulated layer that protects the rest of the beam from burning. Combustion or burning is a complex sequence of Exothermic chemical reactions between a Fuel and an Oxidant accompanied by the production of ^[1][2]
• Many older timber frame buildings, especially those built before the 1950s, are more vulnerable to damage during an earthquake. The 1950s Decade refers to the years of 1950 to 1959 inclusive An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth 's crust that creates Seismic waves Earthquakes are recorded with a Seismometer Many design improvements were made in the latter half of the 20th century that improve the earthquake resistance of this type of structure. The twentieth century of the Common Era began on

References

See also

• Norman architecture
• Weatherboarding
• Light-frame construction
  • Platform framing
  • Balloon framing
• Carpenter

External links

• The Heartwood School - Timber framing workshops and other woodworking and homebuilding courses. For other buildings in Normandy see Architecture of Normandy. Weatherboarding is the Cladding or ‘ Siding ’ of a house consisting of long thin timber boards that overlap one another either vertically or horizontally on the Framing, in construction known as light frame construction, is a building technique based around structural members usually called studs, which provide a stable Framing, in construction known as light frame construction, is a building technique based around structural members usually called studs, which provide a stable Framing, in construction known as light frame construction, is a building technique based around structural members usually called studs, which provide a stable A carpenter (builder is a skilled craftsman who performs carpentry - a wide range of Woodworking that includes constructing buildings,
• Timber Home Network - A comprehensive resource on log and timber homes.
• Fox Maple School of Traditional Building - Fine Craftsmanship is at the heart of our teaching philosophy
• Plantation Pine Framing Campaign
• Timber Development Association of NSW - Australia
• Buffalo (New York) as an architectural museum: Half-timber in a variety of North American revival styles
• The German half-timber route: where to find half-timbered village and town houses in Germany (map)
• The German Framework Road Extensive information on German fachwerkhaeuser, with a 2000km route through Germany.
• Website of The Timber Frame Business Council
• Website of The Timber Framers Guild
• Website of The Carpenters Fellowship
• A German tourist route showcasing many historical timber framed buildings
• TRADA: Timber Research And Development Association
• Rural Crafts Courses in North Wales - Timber framing courses, Charcoal making, greenwood carving and more!
• History & Construction of Medieval Timber-framed Houses in England & Wales A comprehensive outline with many pictures and links
• Timber Engineering Reference Links, Conferences, Standards, Dictionary,. . .
• Canadian Wood Council - Wood building design tools, case studies and references.
• Website of The Natural Building Network
• Grand Oaks Academy of Timber Framing Timber Framing courses, Timber Frame plans
• Glossary of Timber Framing Terms

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