Third Servile War
Part of the Servile Wars
Italia and surrounding territory, 218 BC
Date 73 to 71 BC Location Italia Result Decisive Roman victory
Belligerents
Army of escaped slaves	Roman Republic
Commanders
Crixus †, Oenomaus †, Spartacus † a[›], Castus †, Gannicus †	Gaius Claudius Glaber, Publius Varinius, Gnaeus Clodianus, Lucius Gellius Publicola, Gaius Cassius Longinus, Gnaeus Manlius, Marcus Licinius Crassus, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus, Lucius Quinctius, Gnaeus Tremellius Scrofa
Strength
120,000 escaped slaves and gladiators, including non-combatants; total number of combatants unknown	3,000+ militia, 8 Roman Legions (40,000–50,000 men), 12,000+ - organization unknown. Italia, under the Roman Republic and later Empire, was the name of the Italian peninsula. Italia, under the Roman Republic and later Empire, was the name of the Italian peninsula. The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the Crixus (d 72 BC was a leader of the Slave rebellion in the Third Servile War, along with Spartacus and Oenomaus. Oenomaus, was a gladiator from Gaul, escaped from the gladiatorial school of Lentulus Batiatus in Capua Spartacus (c 109 BC-71 BC according to Roman historians was a Slave who became the leader (or possibly one of several leaders in the unsuccessful slave Gaius Claudius Glaber was a Roman Praetor in 73 BC He tried but failed to hem in Spartacus and his fellow slaves on Mt Publius Varinius was a Roman Praetor in 73 BC and Proconsul in 72 BC and suffered several defeats against Spartacus ' rebellious slaves during the Third See also Third Servile War Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus was one of two Consuls of the Roman Republic in 72 BCE along with Lucius See also Third Servile War Lucius Gellius Publicola was one of two Consuls of the Roman Republic in 72 BC along with Gnaeus Cornelius Gaius Cassius Longinus was a Roman Consul in 73 BC (together with Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus) Marcus Licinius Crassus ( Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS (ca Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, commonly known as Pompey /'pɑmpi/ Pompey the Great or Pompey the Triumvir ( Classical Latin abbreviation Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus (ca 116- soon after 56 BC younger brother of the more famous Lucius Licinius Lucullus, was a supporter of Lucius Cornelius Sulla The term militia is commonly used today to refer to a military force composed of ordinary Citizens to provide defense emergency law enforcement or Paramilitary service For other uses see Legion The Roman Legion (from Latin legio "military levy Conscription,"
Casualties and losses
Almost all killed in action or crucified	Unspecified but heavy (50, 1,000, or 4,000 lost through decimation)
^ a: Presumed dead, body never found

The Third Servile War, also called the Gladiator War and The War of Spartacus by Plutarch, was the last of a series of unrelated and unsuccessful slave rebellions against the Roman Republic, known collectively as the Servile Wars. Decimation ( Latin: decimatio; decem = " Ten " was a form of military Discipline used by officers in the Roman Army Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the The Third Servile War was the only one to directly threaten the Roman heartland of Italia and was doubly alarming to the Roman people due to the repeated successes of the rapidly growing band of rebel slaves against the Roman army between 73 and 71 BC. Italia, under the Roman Republic and later Empire, was the name of the Italian peninsula. The rebellion was finally crushed through the concentrated military effort of a single commander, Marcus Licinius Crassus, although the rebellion continued to have indirect effects on Roman politics for years to come. Marcus Licinius Crassus ( Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS (ca

Between 73 and 71 BC, a band of escaped slaves — originally a small cadre of about 70 escaped gladiators which grew into a band of over 120,000 men, women and children — wandered throughout and raided Italy with relative impunity under the guidance of several leaders, including the famous gladiator-general Spartacus. En cadre is a military expression for a group around whom a unit is formed or a training staff Gladiators (gladiatores "swordsmen" or "one who uses a sword" from la ''gladius'' "sword" were professional fighters in Ancient Rome who fought Spartacus (c 109 BC-71 BC according to Roman historians was a Slave who became the leader (or possibly one of several leaders in the unsuccessful slave The able-bodied adults of this band were a surprisingly effective armed force that repeatedly showed they could withstand the Roman military, from the local Campanian patrols, to the Roman militia, and to trained Roman legions under consular command. Campania is a region of Southern Italy in Europe. The region has a population of around 5 The term militia is commonly used today to refer to a military force composed of ordinary Citizens to provide defense emergency law enforcement or Paramilitary service For other uses see Legion The Roman Legion (from Latin legio "military levy Conscription," Consul (abbrev cos; Latin plural consules) was the highest elected office of the Roman Republic and an appointive office under the Empire Plutarch described the actions of the slaves as an attempt by Roman slaves to escape their masters and flee through Cisalpine Gaul, while Appian and Florus depicted the revolt as a civil war in which the slaves waged a campaign to capture the city of Rome itself. Cisalpine Gaul ( Latin: Gallia Cisalpina, meaning " Gaul on this side of the Alps " was the Roman name for a geographical area (later Florus, Roman Historian, lived in the time of Trajan and Hadrian.

The Roman Senate's growing alarm about the continued military successes of this band, and about their depredations against Roman towns and the countryside, eventually led to Rome's fielding of an army of eight legions under the harsh but effective leadership of Marcus Licinius Crassus. The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. Marcus Licinius Crassus ( Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS (ca The war ended in 71 BC when the armies of Spartacus, after long and bitter fighting, retreating before the legions of Crassus, and realizing that the legions of Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus and Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus were moving in to entrap them, launched their full strength against Crassus' legions and were utterly destroyed. Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, commonly known as Pompey /'pɑmpi/ Pompey the Great or Pompey the Triumvir ( Classical Latin abbreviation Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus (ca 116- soon after 56 BC younger brother of the more famous Lucius Licinius Lucullus, was a supporter of Lucius Cornelius Sulla

The Third Servile War was significant to the broader history of ancient Rome mostly in its effect on the careers of Pompey and Crassus. The two generals used their success in putting down the rebellion to further their political careers, using their public acclaim and the implied threat of their legions to sway the consular elections of 70 BC in their favor. Their actions as Consuls greatly furthered the subversion of Roman political institutions and contributed to the eventual transition of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire. Subversion refers to an attempt to overthrow structures of Authority, including the State. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial

Slavery in the Roman republic

Further information: Slavery in antiquity, First Servile War, and Second Servile War

Through varying degrees throughout Roman history, the existence of a pool of inexpensive labor in the form of slaves was an important factor in the economy. Slavery as an institution in Mediterranean cultures of the ancient world comprised a mixture of Debt-slavery, slavery as a punishment for crime and The First Servile War of 135 – 132 BC was an unsuccessful slave uprising against the Romans on the island of Sicily, in Enna. The Second Servile War was an unsuccessful slave uprising against the Roman Republic on the island of Sicily. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC Slavery is a social-economic system under which certain persons — known as slaves — are deprived of personal freedom and compelled to perform labour or services An economy is the realized social system of production exchange distribution and consumption of goods and services of a country or other area Slaves were acquired for the Roman workforce through a variety of means, including purchase from foreign merchants and the enslavement of foreign populations through military conquest. ^[1] With Rome's heavy involvement in wars of conquest in the first and second centuries BC, tens if not hundreds of thousands of slaves at a time were imported into the Roman economy from various European and Mediterranean acquisitions. ^[2] While there was limited use for slaves as servants, craftsmen, and personal attendants, vast numbers of slaves worked in mines and on the agricultural lands of Sicily and southern Italia. Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy. ^[3]

For the most part, slaves were treated harshly and oppressively during the Roman republican period. The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the Under Republican law, a slave was not considered a person, but property. Owners could abuse, injure or even kill their own slaves without legal consequence. While there were many grades and types of slaves, the lowest — and most numerous — grades who worked in the fields and mines were subject to a life of hard physical labor. ^[4]

This high concentration and oppressive treatment of the slave population led to rebellions. In 135 BC and 104 BC, the First and Second Servile Wars, respectively, erupted in Sicily, where small bands of rebels found tens of thousands of willing followers wishing to escape the oppressive life of a Roman slave. The First Servile War of 135 – 132 BC was an unsuccessful slave uprising against the Romans on the island of Sicily, in Enna. The Second Servile War was an unsuccessful slave uprising against the Roman Republic on the island of Sicily. While these were considered serious civil disturbances by the Roman Senate, taking years and direct military intervention to quell, they were never considered a serious threat to the Republic. Civil disorder, also known as civil unrest, is a broad term that is typically used by law enforcement to describe one or more forms of disturbance caused by a group of people The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. The Roman heartland of Italia had never seen a slave uprising, nor had slaves ever been seen as a potential threat to the city of Rome. Italia, under the Roman Republic and later Empire, was the name of the Italian peninsula. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 This would all change with the Third Servile War.

The rebellion begins (73 BC)

The Capuan revolt

The Gladiator Mosaic at the Galleria Borghese

In the Roman Republic of the first century, gladiatorial games were one of the more popular forms of entertainment. The Borghese Gallery (Italian Galleria Borghese) in Rome is an art gallery housed in the former Villa Borghese Pinciana, a building that was from the first Gladiators (gladiatores "swordsmen" or "one who uses a sword" from la ''gladius'' "sword" were professional fighters in Ancient Rome who fought In order to supply gladiators for the contests, several training schools, or ludi, were established throughout Italia. Italia, under the Roman Republic and later Empire, was the name of the Italian peninsula. ^[5] In these schools, prisoners of war and condemned criminals — who were considered slaves — were taught the skills required to fight to the death in gladiatorial games. Slavery as an institution in Mediterranean cultures of the ancient world comprised a mixture of Debt-slavery, slavery as a punishment for crime and ^[6] In 73 BC, a group of some 200 gladiators in the Capuan school owned by Lentulus Batiatus plotted an escape. Gladiators (gladiatores "swordsmen" or "one who uses a sword" from la ''gladius'' "sword" were professional fighters in Ancient Rome who fought Capua is a city in the Province of Caserta, Campania, Italy situated 25 km (16 mi north of Naples, on the northeastern edge of Lentulus Batiatus was the owner of the Roman Gladiatorial school in Capua (near Mount Vesuvius) who owned Spartacus, the leader of the slave rebellion When their plot was betrayed, a force of about 70 men seized kitchen implements, ("choppers and spits"), fought their way free from the school, and seized several wagons of gladiatorial weapons and armor. ^[7]

Once free, the escaped gladiators chose leaders from their number, selecting two Gallic slaves — Crixus and Oenomaus — and Spartacus, who was said either to be a Thracian auxiliary from the Roman legions later condemned to slavery, or a captive taken by the legions. Crixus (d 72 BC was a leader of the Slave rebellion in the Third Servile War, along with Spartacus and Oenomaus. Oenomaus, was a gladiator from Gaul, escaped from the gladiatorial school of Lentulus Batiatus in Capua Spartacus (c 109 BC-71 BC according to Roman historians was a Slave who became the leader (or possibly one of several leaders in the unsuccessful slave "Thracians" also refers to modern inhabitants of Thrace, regardless of ethnicity Auxiliaries (from Latin: auxilia = "supports" formed the standing non-citizen corps of the Roman army of the Principate (30 BC&ndash284 AD For other uses see Legion The Roman Legion (from Latin legio "military levy Conscription," ^[8] There is some question as to Spartacus's nationality, however, as a Thraex (plural Thraces or Threses) was a type of gladiator in Rome, so that the title "Thracian" may simply refer to the style of gladiatorial combat in which he was trained. ^[9]

These escaped slaves were able to defeat a small force of troops sent after them from Capua, and equip themselves with captured military equipment as well as their gladiatorial weapons. Capua is a city in the Province of Caserta, Campania, Italy situated 25 km (16 mi north of Naples, on the northeastern edge of ^[10] Sources are somewhat contradictory on the order of events immediately following the escape, but they generally agree that this band of escaped gladiators plundered the region surrounding Capua, recruited many other slaves into their ranks, and eventually retired to a more defensible position on Mount Vesuvius. Looting ( Hindi lūṭ akin to Sanskrit luṭhati steals also Latin latro, latronis Mount Vesuvius (in Italian Monte Vesuvio and in Latin Mons Vesuvius) is an active Stratovolcano east of Naples ^[11]

Defeat of the praetorian armies

Initial movements of Roman and Slave forces from the Capuan revolt up to and including the winter of 73–72 BC.

As the revolt and raids were occurring in Campania — which was a vacation region of the rich and influential in Rome, and the location of many estates — the revolt quickly came to the attention of Roman authorities. Campania is a region of Southern Italy in Europe. The region has a population of around 5 They initially viewed the revolt as more a major crime wave than an armed rebellion.

However, later that year, Rome dispatched military force under praetorian authority to put down the rebellion. Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities the commander of an Army, either before ^[12] A Roman praetor, Gaius Claudius Glaber, gathered a force of 3,000 men, not as legions, but as a militia "picked up in haste and at random, for the Romans did not consider this a war yet, but a raid, something like an attack of robbery. Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities the commander of an Army, either before Gaius Claudius Glaber was a Roman Praetor in 73 BC He tried but failed to hem in Spartacus and his fellow slaves on Mt For other uses see Legion The Roman Legion (from Latin legio "military levy Conscription," The term militia is commonly used today to refer to a military force composed of ordinary Citizens to provide defense emergency law enforcement or Paramilitary service "^[13] Glaber's forces besieged the slaves on Mount Vesuvius, blocking the only known way down the mountain. Mount Vesuvius (in Italian Monte Vesuvio and in Latin Mons Vesuvius) is an active Stratovolcano east of Naples With the slaves thus contained, Glaber was content to wait until starvation forced the slaves to surrender.

While the slaves lacked military training, Spartacus' forces displayed ingenuity in their use of available local materials, and in their use of clever, unorthodox tactics when facing the disciplined Roman armies. ^[14] In response to Glaber's siege, Spartacus' men made ropes and ladders from vines and trees growing on the slopes of Vesuvius and used them to rappel down the cliffs on the side of the mountain opposite Glaber's forces. Abseiling (German abseilen, "to rope down" rappelling in American and British English is the controlled descent down a rope in Rock climbing They moved around the base of Vesuvius, outflanked the army, and annihilated Glaber's men. ^[15]

A second expedition, under the praetor Publius Varinius, was then dispatched against Spartacus. Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities the commander of an Army, either before Publius Varinius was a Roman Praetor in 73 BC and Proconsul in 72 BC and suffered several defeats against Spartacus ' rebellious slaves during the Third For some reason, Varinius seems to have split his forces under the command of his subordinates Furius and Cossinius. Plutarch mentions that Furius commanded some 2,000 men, but neither the strength of the remaining forces, nor whether the expedition was composed of militia or legions, appears to be known. These forces were also defeated by the army of escaped slaves: Cossinius was killed, Varinius was nearly captured, and the equipment of the armies was seized by the slaves. ^[16] With these successes, more and more slaves flocked to the Spartacan forces, as did "many of the herdsmen and shepherds of the region", swelling their ranks to some 70,000. A herder is a worker who lives a possibly semi- Nomadic life caring for various domestic Animals in places where these animals wander Pasture lands A shepherd is a person who tends to feeds or guards Sheep, especially in flocks ^[17] The rebel slaves spent the winter of 73–72 BC arming and equipping their new recruits, and expanding their raiding territory to include the towns of Nola, Nuceria, Thurii and Metapontum. Nola is a city of Campania, Italy, in the Province of Naples, situated in the plain between Mount Vesuvius and the Apennines. Nocera Inferiore, formerly Nocera dei Pagani, is a town and comune in Campania, Italy in the Province of Salerno, at the foot of Monte Albino 20 km Thurii &ndash Greek:, called also by some Latin writers and by Ptolemy, Thurium ( Ptol Metapontum or Metapontium ( Greek:: Thuc Strab and all Greek writers have this form the Latins almost universally Metapontum was an important city ^[18]

The victories of the rebel slaves did not come without a cost. At some time during these events, their leader Oenomaus was lost — presumably in battle — and is not mentioned further in the histories. Oenomaus, was a gladiator from Gaul, escaped from the gladiatorial school of Lentulus Batiatus in Capua ^[19]

Motivation and leadership of the escaped slaves

Spartacus, by Denis Foyatier, c. 1830, displayed at the Louvre. The Louvre Museum (Musée du Louvre located in Paris is the world's most visited art museum a historic monument and a national museum of France An example of a modern heroic depiction of Spartacus.

By the end of 73 BC, Spartacus and Crixus were in command of a large group of armed men with a proven ability to withstand Roman armies. What they intended to do with this force is somewhat difficult for modern readers to determine. Since the Third Servile War was ultimately an unsuccessful rebellion, no firsthand account of the slaves' motives and goals exists, and historians writing about the war propose contradictory theories.

Many popular modern accounts of the war claim that there was a factional split in the escaped slaves between those under Spartacus, who wished to escape over the Alps to freedom, and those under Crixus, who wished to stay in southern Italia to continue raiding and plundering. This appears to be an interpretation of events based on the following: the regions that Florus lists as being raided by the slaves include Thurii and Metapontum, which are geographically distant from Nola and Nuceria. Florus, Roman Historian, lived in the time of Trajan and Hadrian. Thurii &ndash Greek:, called also by some Latin writers and by Ptolemy, Thurium ( Ptol Metapontum or Metapontium ( Greek:: Thuc Strab and all Greek writers have this form the Latins almost universally Metapontum was an important city Nola is a city of Campania, Italy, in the Province of Naples, situated in the plain between Mount Vesuvius and the Apennines. Nocera Inferiore, formerly Nocera dei Pagani, is a town and comune in Campania, Italy in the Province of Salerno, at the foot of Monte Albino 20 km This indicates the existence of two groups: Lucius Gellius Publicola eventually attacked Crixus and a group of some 30,000 followers who are described as being separate from the main group under Spartacus;^[20] Plutarch describes the desire of some of the escaped slaves to plunder Italia, rather than escape over the Alps. See also Third Servile War Lucius Gellius Publicola was one of two Consuls of the Roman Republic in 72 BC along with Gnaeus Cornelius Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c ^[21] While this factional split is not contradicted by classical sources, there does not seem to be any direct evidence to support it.

Fictional accounts — such as Stanley Kubrick's 1960 film Spartacus — sometimes portray Spartacus as an ancient Roman freedom fighter, struggling to change a corrupt Roman society and to end the Roman institution of slavery. Freedom fighter is a term to describe those that engage in a struggle to achieve freedom for themselves or to free others in some matter Although this is not contradicted by classical historians, no historical account mentions that the goal of the rebel slaves was to end slavery in the Republic, nor do any of Spartacus' actions seem specifically aimed at ending slavery.

Even classical historians, who were writing only years after the events themselves, seem to be divided as to what the motives of Spartacus were. Appian and Florus write that he intended to march on Rome itself^[22] — although this may have been no more than a reflection of Roman fears. Florus, Roman Historian, lived in the time of Trajan and Hadrian. If Spartacus did intend to march on Rome, it was a goal he must have later abandoned. Plutarch writes that Spartacus merely wished to escape northwards into Cisalpine Gaul and disperse his men back to their homes. Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c Cisalpine Gaul ( Latin: Gallia Cisalpina, meaning " Gaul on this side of the Alps " was the Roman name for a geographical area (later ^[21]

It is not certain that the slaves were a homogeneous group under the leadership of Spartacus. While this is the unspoken assumption of the Roman historians, this may be the Romans projecting their own hierarchical view of military power and responsibility on the ad hoc organization of the slaves. Ad hoc is a Latin phrase which means "for this [ Purpose ]" Certainly other slave leaders are mentioned — Crixus, Oenomaus, Gannicus, and Castus — and we cannot tell from the historical evidence whether they were aides, subordinates, or even equals leading groups of their own and traveling in convoy with Spartacus' people.

Defeat of the consular armies (72 BC)

In the spring of 72 BC, the escaped slaves left their winter encampments and began to move northwards towards Cisalpine Gaul. Cisalpine Gaul ( Latin: Gallia Cisalpina, meaning " Gaul on this side of the Alps " was the Roman name for a geographical area (later

The Senate, alarmed by the size of the revolt and the defeat of the praetorian armies of Glaber and Varinius, dispatched a pair of consular legions under the command of Lucius Gellius Publicola and Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus. Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities the commander of an Army, either before Gaius Claudius Glaber was a Roman Praetor in 73 BC He tried but failed to hem in Spartacus and his fellow slaves on Mt Publius Varinius was a Roman Praetor in 73 BC and Proconsul in 72 BC and suffered several defeats against Spartacus ' rebellious slaves during the Third Consul (abbrev cos; Latin plural consules) was the highest elected office of the Roman Republic and an appointive office under the Empire For other uses see Legion The Roman Legion (from Latin legio "military levy Conscription," See also Third Servile War Lucius Gellius Publicola was one of two Consuls of the Roman Republic in 72 BC along with Gnaeus Cornelius See also Third Servile War Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus was one of two Consuls of the Roman Republic in 72 BCE along with Lucius ^[23] Initially, the consular armies were successful. Gellius engaged a group of about 30,000 slaves, under command of Crixus, near Mount Garganus and killed two-thirds of the rebels, including Crixus himself. See also Third Servile War Lucius Gellius Publicola was one of two Consuls of the Roman Republic in 72 BC along with Gnaeus Cornelius Crixus (d 72 BC was a leader of the Slave rebellion in the Third Servile War, along with Spartacus and Oenomaus. ^[24]

At this point in the history, there is a divergence in the classical sources as to the course of events which cannot be reconciled until the entry of Marcus Licinius Crassus into the war. Marcus Licinius Crassus ( Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS (ca The two most comprehensive (extant) histories of the war by Appian and Plutarch detail very different events. Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c However, neither account directly contradicts the other, but simply reports different events, ignoring some events in the other account, and reporting events that are unique to that account.

Appian's history

The events of 72 BC, according to Appian's version of events.

According to Appian, the battle between Gellius' legions and Crixus' men near Mount Garganus was the beginning of a long and complex series of military maneuvers that almost resulted in the Spartacan forces directly assaulting the city of Rome itself. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2

After his victory over Crixus, Gellius moved northwards, following the main group of slaves under Spartacus who were heading for Cisalpine Gaul. Spartacus (c 109 BC-71 BC according to Roman historians was a Slave who became the leader (or possibly one of several leaders in the unsuccessful slave Cisalpine Gaul ( Latin: Gallia Cisalpina, meaning " Gaul on this side of the Alps " was the Roman name for a geographical area (later The army of Lentulus was deployed to bar Spartacus' path, and the consuls hoped to trap the rebel slaves between them. See also Third Servile War Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus was one of two Consuls of the Roman Republic in 72 BCE along with Lucius Spartacus (c 109 BC-71 BC according to Roman historians was a Slave who became the leader (or possibly one of several leaders in the unsuccessful slave Spartacus' army met Lentulus' legion, defeated it, turned, and destroyed Gellius' army, forcing the Roman legions to retreat in disarray. ^[25] Appian claims that Spartacus executed some 300 captured Roman soldiers to avenge the death of Crixus, forcing them to fight each other to the death as gladiators. Crixus (d 72 BC was a leader of the Slave rebellion in the Third Servile War, along with Spartacus and Oenomaus. ^[26] Following this victory, Spartacus pushed northwards with his followers (some 120,000) as fast as he could travel, "having burned all his useless material, killed all his prisoners, and butchered his pack-animals in order to expedite his movement". ^[25]

The defeated consular armies fell back to Rome to regroup while Spartacus' followers moved northward. The consuls again engaged Spartacus somewhere in the Picenum region, and once again were defeated. Picenum was a Region of ancient Roman Italy. Picenum was the birthplace of such notables as Pompey the Great and his father Pompeius Strabo ^[25]

Appian claims that at this point Spartacus changed his intention of marching on Rome — implying this was Spartacus' goal following the confrontation in Picenum^[27] — as "he did not consider himself ready as yet for that kind of a fight, as his whole force was not suitably armed, for no city had joined him, but only slaves, deserters, and riff-raff", and decided to withdraw into southern Italia once again. They seized the town of Thurii and the surrounding countryside, arming themselves, raiding the surrounding territories, trading plunder with merchants for bronze and iron (with which to manufacture more arms), and clashing occasionally with Roman forces which were invariably defeated. Thurii &ndash Greek:, called also by some Latin writers and by Ptolemy, Thurium ( Ptol ^[28]

Plutarch's history

The events of 72 BC, according to Plutarch's version of events. Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c

Plutarch's description of events differs significantly from that of Appian's.

According to Plutarch, after the battle between Gellius' legion and Crixus men (whom Plutarch describes as "Germans"^[29]) near Mount Garganus, Spartacus' men engaged the legion commanded by Lentulus, defeated them, seized their supplies and equipment, and pushed directly into northern Italia. After this defeat, both consuls were relieved of command of their armies by the Roman Senate and recalled to Rome. The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. ^[30] Plutarch does not mention Spartacus engaging Gellius' legion at all, nor of Spartacus facing the combined consular legions in Picenum. ^[29]

Plutarch then goes on to detail a conflict not mentioned in Appian's history. According to Plutarch, Spartacus' army continued northwards to the region around Mutina (modern Modena). Modena (ˈmɔːdena Mòdna in Modenese dialect is a city and a Comune ( Municipality) on the south side of the Po valley, in the There, a Roman army of some 10,000 soldiers, led by the governor of Cisalpine Gaul, Gaius Cassius Longinus attempted to bar Spartacus' progress and were also defeated. Cisalpine Gaul ( Latin: Gallia Cisalpina, meaning " Gaul on this side of the Alps " was the Roman name for a geographical area (later Gaius Cassius Longinus was a Roman Consul in 73 BC (together with Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus) ^[31]

Plutarch makes no further mention of events until the initial confrontation between Marcus Licinius Crassus and Spartacus in the spring of 71 BC, omitting the march on Rome and the retreat to Thurii described by Appian. Marcus Licinius Crassus ( Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS (ca ^[30] However, as Plutarch describes Crassus forcing Spartacus' followers to retreat southwards from Picenum, one might infer that the rebel slaves approached Picenum from the south in early 71 BC, implying that they withdrew from Mutina into southern or central Italia for the winter of 72–71 BC.

Why they might do so, when there was apparently no reason for them not to escape over the Alps — Spartacus' goal according to Plutarch^[32] — is not explained.

The war under Crassus (71 BC)

The events of early 71 BC. Marcus Licinius Crassus takes command of the Roman legions, confronts Spartacus, and forces the rebel slaves to retreat through Lucania to the straits near Messina. Marcus Licinius Crassus ( Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS (ca Lucania was an ancient district of southern Italy, extending from the Tyrrhenian Sea to the Gulf of Taranto. Plutarch claims this occurred in the Picenum region, while Appian places the initial battles between Crassus and Spartacus in the Samnium region.

Despite the contradictions in the classical sources regarding the events of 72 BC, there seems to be general agreement that Spartacus and his followers were in the south of Italia in early 71 BC.

Crassus takes command of the legions

The Senate, now alarmed at the apparently unstoppable rebellion occurring within Italia, gave the task of putting down the rebellion to Marcus Licinius Crassus. Italia, under the Roman Republic and later Empire, was the name of the Italian peninsula. Marcus Licinius Crassus ( Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS (ca ^[30] Crassus was no stranger to Roman politics, or to military command as he had been a field commander under Lucius Cornelius Sulla during the second civil war between Sulla and the Marian faction in 82 BC, and had served under Sulla during the following dictatorship. Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix ( Latin: L•CORNELIVS•L•F•P•N•SVLLA•FELIX (c Sulla's second civil war was one of a series of civil wars of Ancient Rome. This article is about the Roman statesman who reorganized the army and was seven times Consul ^[33]

Crassus was given a praetorship, and assigned six new legions in addition to the two formerly consular legions of Gellius and Lentulus, giving him an army of some 40,000–50,000 trained Roman soldiers. Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities the commander of an Army, either before See also Third Servile War Lucius Gellius Publicola was one of two Consuls of the Roman Republic in 72 BC along with Gnaeus Cornelius See also Third Servile War Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus was one of two Consuls of the Roman Republic in 72 BCE along with Lucius ^[34] Crassus treated his legions with harsh, even brutal, discipline, reviving the punishment of unit decimation within his army. Decimation ( Latin: decimatio; decem = " Ten " was a form of military Discipline used by officers in the Roman Army Appian is uncertain whether he decimated the two consular legions for cowardice when he was appointed their commander, or whether he had his entire army decimated for a later defeat (an event in which up to 4,000 legionaries would have been executed). Dux (plural duces) is Latin for leader (from the verb ducere, 'to lead' and could refer to anyone who commanded troops such The Roman legionary was a professional soldier of the Roman army after the Marian reforms of 107 BC. ^[35] Plutarch only mentions the decimation of 50 legionaries of one cohort as punishment after Mummius' defeat in the first confrontation between Crassus and Spartacus. ^[36] Regardless of what actually occurred, Crassus' treatment of his legions proved that "he was more dangerous to them than the enemy", and spurred them on to victory rather than running the risk of displeasing their commander. ^[35]

Crassus and Spartacus

When the forces of Spartacus moved northwards once again, Crassus deployed six of his legions on the borders of the region (Plutarch claims the initial battle between Crassus' legions and Spartacus' followers occurred near the Picenum region,^[30] Appian claims it occurred near the Samnium region^[37]), and detached two legions under his legate, Mummius, to maneuver behind Spartacus, but gave them orders not to engage the rebels. Picenum was a Region of ancient Roman Italy. Picenum was the birthplace of such notables as Pompey the Great and his father Pompeius Strabo Samnium ( Oscan: Safinim; Italian Sannio) is a historical region of the south central Apennines in Italy, that was home to the A legatus (often anglicized as legate) was a general in the Roman army, equivalent to a modern general officer When an opportunity presented itself, Mummius disobeyed, attacked the Spartacan forces, and was subsequently routed. ^[36] Despite this initial loss, Crassus' engaged Spartacus and defeated him, killing some 6,000 of the rebels. ^[37]

The tide seemed to have turned in the war. Crassus' legions were victorious in several engagements, killing thousands of the rebel slaves, and forcing Spartacus to retreat south through Lucania to the straits near Messina. Lucania was an ancient district of southern Italy, extending from the Tyrrhenian Sea to the Gulf of Taranto. According to Plutarch, Spartacus made a bargain with Cilician pirates to transport him and some 2,000 of his men to Sicily, where he intended to incite a slave revolt there and gather reinforcements. Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c Geography Cilicia extended along the Aegean coast east from Pamphylia, to Mount Amanus ( Gavurdağı Mount) which separated it from Syria Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy. However, he was betrayed by the pirates, who took payment and then abandoned the rebel slaves. ^[36] Minor sources mention that there were some attempts at raft and shipbuilding by the rebels as a means to escape, but that Crassus took unspecified measures to ensure the rebels could not cross to Sicily, and their efforts were abandoned. ^[38]

Spartacus' forces then retreated towards Rhegium. Reggio di Calabria (Italian pronunciation /ˈrɛʤo ˌdikaˈlabrja/ Calabrian dialect: Rìggiu, Greek-Calabrian: Righi, Greek: Crassus' legions followed and upon arrival built fortifications across the isthmus at Rhegium, despite harassing raids from the rebel slaves. The rebels were under siege and cut off from their supplies. ^[39]

Reinforcement legions arrive; the end of the war

The last events of the war in 71 BC, where the army of Spartacus broke the siege by Crassus' legions and retreated toward the mountains near Petelia. Spartacus (c 109 BC-71 BC according to Roman historians was a Slave who became the leader (or possibly one of several leaders in the unsuccessful slave Marcus Licinius Crassus ( Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS (ca For other uses see Legion The Roman Legion (from Latin legio "military levy Conscription," Shows the initial skirmishes between elements of the two sides, the turn-about of the Spartacan forces for the final confrontation. Note the legions of Pompey moving in from the north to capture survivors. Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, commonly known as Pompey /'pɑmpi/ Pompey the Great or Pompey the Triumvir ( Classical Latin abbreviation

At this time, the legions of Pompey were returning to Italia, having put down the rebellion of Quintus Sertorius in Hispania. Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, commonly known as Pompey /'pɑmpi/ Pompey the Great or Pompey the Triumvir ( Classical Latin abbreviation Italia, under the Roman Republic and later Empire, was the name of the Italian peninsula. Quintus Sertorius ( 123 BC - 72 BC) was a Roman statesman and general born in Nursia, in Sabine territory around 124 BC Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Gibraltar

Sources disagree on whether Crassus had requested reinforcements, or whether the Senate simply took advantage of Pompey's return to Italia, but Pompey was ordered to bypass Rome and head south to aid Crassus. ^[40] The Senate also sent reinforcements under the command of "Lucullus", mistakenly thought by Appian to be Lucius Licinius Lucullus, commander of the forces engaged in the Third Mithridatic War at the time, but who appears to have been the proconsul of Macedonia, Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus, the former's younger brother. For his grandfather and namesake see Lucius Licinius Lucullus. The Third Mithridatic War ( 75 - 65 BC) was one of three Mithridatic Wars fought between Mithridates VI of Pontus and the Roman Republic Ancient Rome In the Roman Republic, a proconsul was a Promagistrate (like a Propraetor) who after serving as Consul, spent a year The Roman province of Macedonia was officially established in 146 BC, after the Roman general Quintus Caecilius Metellus defeated Andriscus of Macedon Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus (ca 116- soon after 56 BC younger brother of the more famous Lucius Licinius Lucullus, was a supporter of Lucius Cornelius Sulla ^[41] With Pompey's legions marching out of the north, and Lucullus' troops landing in Brundisium, Crassus realized that if he did not put down the slave revolt quickly, credit for the war would go to the general who arrived with reinforcements, and thus he spurred his legions on to end the conflict quickly. Brindisi can also refer to a song in which a company is exhorted to drink such as the "Tea-Cup Brindisi" in Gilbert and Sullivan 's " The ^[42]

Hearing of the approach of Pompey, Spartacus attempted to negotiate with Crassus to bring the conflict to a close before Roman reinforcements arrived. ^[43] When Crassus refused, a portion of Spartacus' forces broke out of confinement and fled toward the mountains west of Petelia (modern Strongoli) in Bruttium, with Crassus' legions in pursuit. Strongoli is a Comune and Town with a population of over 6000 people in the Province of Crotone, in Calabria, Italy. Calabria ( Latin: Brutium) is a region in southern Italy, south of Naples, located at the "toe" of ^[44] The legions managed to catch a portion of the rebels – under the command of Gannicus and Castus – separated from the main army, killing 12,300. ^[45] However, Crassus' legions also suffered losses, as some of the army of escaping slaves turned to meet the Roman forces under the command of a cavalry officer named Lucius Quinctius and the quaestor Gnaeus Tremellius Scrofa, routing them. Quaestors were originally appointed by the Consuls to investigate criminal acts and determine if the consul needed to take public action ^[46] The rebel slaves were not, however, a professional army, and had reached their limit. They were unwilling to flee any farther, and groups of men were breaking away from the main force to independently attack the oncoming legions of Crassus. ^[47] With discipline breaking down, Spartacus turned his forces around and brought his entire strength to bear on the oncoming legions. In this last stand, Spartacus' forces were finally routed completely, with the vast majority of them being killed on the battlefield. ^[48] The eventual fate of Spartacus himself is unknown, as his body was never found, but he is accounted by historians to have perished in battle along with his men. ^[49]

Aftermath

The Fall of Spartacus.

The rebellion of the Third Servile War had been annihilated by Crassus.

Pompey's forces did not directly engage Spartacus' forces at any time, but his legions moving in from the north were able to capture some 5,000 rebels fleeing the battle, "all of whom he slew". ^[50] Because of this, Pompey sent a dispatch to the Senate, saying that while Crassus certainly had conquered the slaves in open battle, he himself had ended the war, thus claiming a large portion of the credit and earning the enmity of Crassus. ^[51]

While most of the rebel slaves had been killed on the battlefield, some 6,000 survivors had been captured by the legions of Crassus. All 6,000 were crucified along the road between Rome and Capua. Crucifixion (from Latin crucifixio, noun of process crucifixio, from perfect passive participle crucifixus, fixed to a cross from Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Capua is a city in the Province of Caserta, Campania, Italy situated 25 km (16 mi north of Naples, on the northeastern edge of ^[52]

Pompey and Crassus reaped political benefit for having put down the rebellion. Both Crassus and Pompey returned to Rome with their legions and refused to disband them, instead encamping them outside Rome. ^[53] Both men stood for the consulship of 70 BC, even though Pompey was ineligible because of his youth, and lack of service as praetor or quaestor. Consul (abbrev cos; Latin plural consules) was the highest elected office of the Roman Republic and an appointive office under the Empire Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities the commander of an Army, either before Quaestors were originally appointed by the Consuls to investigate criminal acts and determine if the consul needed to take public action ^[54] Nonetheless, both men were elected consul for 70 BC,^[55] partly due to the implied threat of their armed legions encamped outside the city. Consul (abbrev cos; Latin plural consules) was the highest elected office of the Roman Republic and an appointive office under the Empire ^[56]

The effects of the Third Servile War on the Roman attitudes towards slavery, and the institution of slavery in Rome, are harder to determine. Certainly the revolt had shaken the Roman people, who "out of sheer fear seem to have begun to treat their slaves less harshly than before. "^[57] The wealthy owners of the latifundia began to reduce the number of agricultural slaves, opting to employ the large pool of formerly dispossessed freemen in sharecropping arrangements. Latifundia are pieces of property covering tremendous areas The latifundia (Latin lātifundium; lātus, "spacious" + fundus, "farm estate" Sharecropping is a system of agriculture or agricultural production in which a landowner allows a tenant to use the land in return for a share of the crop produced on the land (e ^[58] With the end of Julius Caesar's Gallic Wars in 52 BC, the major Roman wars of conquest would cease until the reign of emperor Trajan (reigned 98–117 AD), and with them the supply of plentiful and inexpensive slaves through military conquest, further promoting the use of freemen laborers in agricultural estates. The Gallic Wars were a series of Military campaigns waged by the Roman proconsul Julius Caesar against several Gallic tribes, lasting from Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, commonly known as Trajan ( September 18 53 &ndash August 9 117) was a Roman Emperor who

The legal status and rights of the Roman slave also began to change. During the time of emperor Claudius (reigned 41–54 AD), a constitution was enacted which made the killing of an old or infirm slave an act of murder, and decreed that if such slaves were abandoned by their owners, they became freedmen. The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus or Claudius I ( August 1, 10 BC &ndash October 13, AD 54 ( Tiberius Claudius Drusus from birth to ^[59] Under Antoninus Pius (reigned 138–161 AD), the legal rights of slaves were further extended, holding owners responsible for the killing of slaves, forcing the sale of slaves when it could be shown that they were being mistreated, and providing a (theoretically) neutral third party authority to which a slave could appeal. Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus ( September 19, 86 &ndash March 7 161) generally known in English as Antoninus Pius ^[60] While these legal changes occurred much too late to be direct results of the Third Servile War, they represent the legal codification of changes in the Roman attitude toward slaves which would have been evolving for decades.

It is difficult to determine the extent to which the events of this war contributed to the changes in the use and legal rights of Roman slaves. It seems that the end of the Servile Wars coincided with the end of the period of most prominent use of slaves in Rome, and the beginning of a new perception of the slave within Roman society and law. The Third Servile War was the last of the Servile Wars, and Rome would not see another slave uprising of this type again.

References

Classical works

• Appian, Civil wars, Penguin Classics; New Ed edition, 1996. ISBN 0-14-044509-9.
• Caesar, Julius, Commentarii de Bello Gallico. Commentarii de Bello Gallico is Julius Caesar 's third-person account of his nine years of war in Gaul.
• Cicero, M. Tullius. Marcus Tullius Cicero ( Classical Latin ˈkikeroː usually ˈsɪsərəʊ in English January 3, 106 BC &ndash December 7, 43 BC was a Roman The Orations of Marcus Tullius Cicero, literally translated by C. D. Yonge, "for Quintius, Sextus Roscius, Quintus Roscius, against Quintus Caecilius, and against Verres". London. George Bell & Sons. 1903. OCLC: 4709897
• Florus, Publius Annius, Epitome of Roman History. Publius Annius Florus, Roman Poet and Rhetorician identified by some authorities with the historian Florus. Harvard University Press, 1984. ISBN 0-674-99254-7
• Frontinus, Sextus Julius, Stratagems, Loeb edition, 1925 by Charles E. Sextus Julius Frontinus (ca 40-103 AD was one of the most distinguished Roman aristocrats of the late first century AD but is best known to the post-Classical world as an Bennett. ISBN 0-674-99192-3
• Gaius the Jurist, Gai Institvtionvm Commentarivs Primvs
• Livius, Titus, This History of Rome
• Livius, Titus, Periochae, K. Gaius ( Floruit AD 130–180 was a celebrated Roman Jurist. Scholars know very little of his personal life Titus Livius (traditionally 59 BC &ndash AD 17 known as Livy in English, was a Roman historian who wrote a monumental history of Rome Titus Livius (traditionally 59 BC &ndash AD 17 known as Livy in English, was a Roman historian who wrote a monumental history of Rome G. Saur Verlag, 1981. ISBN 3-519-01489-0
• Orosius, Histories. Paulus Orosius (b circa 375 d 418? was a Christian Historian, theologian and disciple of St
• Plutarchus, Mestrius , Plutarch's Lives, "The Life of Crassus" and "The Life of Pompey". Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c Modern Library, 2001. ISBN 0-375-75677-9.
• Sallust, Histories, P. For the philosopher see Sallustius; for other uses see Sallust (disambiguation. McGUSHIN (Oxford,1992/1994) ISBN 0-19-872140-4
• Seneca, De Beneficiis
• Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars: The Life of Claudius. Lucius or Marcus Annaeus Seneca, known as Seneca the Elder and Seneca the Rhetorician (ca Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius (ca 69/75 &ndash after 130 was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire.

Modern books

• Bradley, Keith. Slavery and Rebellion in the Roman World. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989. ISBN 0-7134-6561-1.
• Broughton, T. Robert S. Magistrates of the Roman Republic, vol. 2. Cleveland: Case Western University Press, 1968.
• Davis, William Stearns ed. , Readings in Ancient History: Illustrative Extracts from the Sources, 2 Vols, Vol. II: Rome and the West. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1912–13.
• Matyszak, Philip, The enemies of Rome, Thames & Hudson, 2004. ISBN 0-500-25124-X.
• Strachan-Davidson, J. L. (ed. ), Appian, Civil Wars: Book I, Oxford University Press, 1902 (repr. 1969).
• Mommsen, Theodor, The History of Rome, Books I-V, project Gutenburg electronic edition, 2004. Christian Matthias Theodor Mommsen ( 30 November 1817 &ndash 1 November 1903) was a German classical scholar, Project Gutenberg, abbreviated as PG, is a volunteer effort to Digitize, archive and distribute Cultural works ISBN 0-415-14953-3.
• William Smith, D. C. L. , LL. D. , A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, John Murray, London, 1875.

Multimedia

• Fagan, Garret G., "The History of Ancient Rome: Lecture 23, Sulla's Reforms Undone", The Teaching Company. The Teaching Company is a Chantilly Virginia company that produces recordings of lectures by nationally top-ranked University Professors The professors [sound recording:CD].

Notes

• References to the Mommsen text is based on the Project Gutenburg e-text edition of the books. Project Gutenberg, abbreviated as PG, is a volunteer effort to Digitize, archive and distribute Cultural works An e-text (from " electronic text " sometimes written as etext) is generally any Text-based information that is available in a digitally References are therefore given in terms of line numbers within the text file, and not page numbers as would be the case with physical books. In Computing, a line number is a method used to specify a particular sequence of characters in a Text file.
• References to "classical works" (Livy, Plutarch, Appian, etc. ) are given in the traditional "Book:verse" format, rather than edition-specific page numbers.

External links

Classical historical works

Works at LacusCurtius.

• Appian's The Civil Wars.
• Frontinus's The Strategemata. Sextus Julius Frontinus (ca 40-103 AD was one of the most distinguished Roman aristocrats of the late first century AD but is best known to the post-Classical world as an
• Plutarch's, Life of Crassus
• Plutarch's, Life of Pompey

Works at Livius.org. Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus ( Greek: Μέστριος Πλούταρχος c

• Appian on Spartacus (excerpts from The Civil Wars).
• Florus on Spartacus (excerpts from the Epitome of Roman History).
• Livy's Periochae. 95:2. Titus Livius (traditionally 59 BC &ndash AD 17 known as Livy in English, was a Roman historian who wrote a monumental history of Rome
• Livy's Periochae. 96:1 and 97:1.
• Plutarch on Spartacus (excerpts from the Life of Crassus).

Works at The Internet Classics Archive.

• Livy's Histories

Modern works

• William Smith's, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities at LacusCurtius. A scanned page version is also available at The Ancient Library.