Termite Fossil range: Late Triassic - Recent
Formosan subterranean termite soldiers (red colored heads) and workers (pale colored heads). The Late Triassic (also known as Upper Triassic, or Keuper) is the third and final of three epochs of the Triassic period. The Formosan subterranean termite ( Coptotermes formosanus) is an invasive species of Termite.
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Arthropoda Class: Insecta Subclass: Pterygota Infraclass: Neoptera Superorder: Dictyoptera Order: Isoptera
Families
Mastotermitidae Kalotermitidae Termopsidae Hodotermitidae Rhinotermitidae Serritermitidae Termitidae

Termites, sometimes incorrectly called "white ants", are a group of social insects usually classified at the taxonomic rank of order Isoptera (but see also taxonomy below). Arthropods are Animals belonging to the Phylum Arthropoda (from Greek ἄρθρον arthron, " Joint " Insects ( Class Insecta) are a major group of Arthropods and the most diverse group of Animals on the Earth with over a million described Pterygota is a subclass of Insects that includes the winged insects Neoptera is a classification group that includes almost all the winged Insects specifically those that can flex their wings over their abdomens Dictyoptera includes three groups of polyneopterous insects - cockroaches ( Blattaria) termites ( Isoptera) and mantids ( Mantodea) The termites are a group of Social Insects usually classified at the taxonomic rank of order Isoptera (but see also taxonomy Mastotermes darwiniensis, Common names Giant Northern Termite and Darwin Termite, is a Termite Species found only Dampwood termites ( Termopsidae) constitute a small and rather primitive family of Termites (Isoptera Ants are social Insects of the family Formicidae and along with the related families of Wasps and Bees belong to the order Definition In the absence of agreement about its meaning the term "social" is used in many different senses referring among other things to attitudes Insects ( Class Insecta) are a major group of Arthropods and the most diverse group of Animals on the Earth with over a million described Taxonomy is the practice and science of classification The word comes from the Greek, taxis (meaning 'order' 'arrangement' and, nomos This article is about the taxonomic rank for the sequence of species in a taxonomic list see Taxonomic order In scientific classification used As truly social animals, they are termed eusocial along with the ants and some bees and wasps. Eusociality ( Greek eu: "good" + "social" is a term used for the highest level of social organization in a hierarchical classification Termites mostly feed on dead plant material, generally in the form of wood, leaf litter, soil, or animal dung, and about 10% of the estimated 4,000 species (about 2,600 taxonomically known) are economically significant as pests that can cause serious structural damage to buildings, crops or plantation forests. In Biology, detritus is non-living particulate organic material (as opposed to dissolved organic material Termites are major detrivores, particularly in the subtropical and tropical regions, and their recycling of wood and other plant matter is of considerable ecological importance. Detritivores, also known as detritus feeders or saprophages, are Heterotrophs that obtain Nutrients by consuming Detritus (decomposing The subtropics are the zones of the Earth immediately north and south of the tropic zone which is bounded by the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of The Tropics are centered on the Equator and limited in Latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the northern hemisphere at approximately 23°26' (23 Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of

As eusocial insects, termites live in colonies that, at maturity, number from several hundred to several million individuals. Eusociality ( Greek eu: "good" + "social" is a term used for the highest level of social organization in a hierarchical classification They are a prime example of decentralised, self-organised systems using swarm intelligence and use this cooperation to exploit food sources and environments that could not be available to any single insect acting alone. __FORCETOC__ Decentralization or Decentralisation (see Spelling differences) is the process of dispersing Decision-making governance closer to the people Self-organization is a process of Attraction and repulsion in which the internal organization of a System, normally an open system, increases Swarm intelligence (SI is Artificial intelligence based on the Collective behavior of decentralized, self-organized systems A typical colony contains nymphs (semi-mature young), workers, soldiers, and reproductive individuals of both genders, sometimes containing several egg-laying queens. In Greek mythology, a nymph is any member of a large class of mythological entities in human female form

Contents 1 Social organization 1.1 Reproductives 1.2 Workers 1.3 Soldiers 1.4 Diet 1.5 Mounds 2 Human interaction 2.1 Avoiding termite troubles 2.2 Termites in the human diet 3 Ecology 3.1 Plant defences against termites 4 Taxonomy, evolution and systematics 4.1 Evolutionary history 4.2 Systematics 5 Termites as a source of power 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links

Social organization

Reproductives

A female that has flown, mated, and is producing eggs, is called a "queen". Similarly, a male that has flown, mated, and remains in proximity to a queen, is termed a "King". These anthropocentric terms have caused great misunderstanding of colony dynamics. Research using genetic techniques to determine relatedness of colony members is showing that the idea that colonies are only ever headed by a monogamous royal pair is wrong. Monogamy is the custom or condition of having only one mate in a Relationship, thus forming a Couple. Multiple pairs of reproductives within a colony are not uncommon. In the families Rhinotermitidae and Termitidae, and possibly others, sperm competition does not seem to occur (male genitalia are very simple and the sperm are anucleate), suggesting that only one male (king) generally mates within the colony. Sperm competition is " competition between Sperm of two or more Males for the Fertilization of an Ovum " (Parker 1970 A sex organ, or primary sexual characteristic, as narrowly defined is any of the anatomical parts of the body which are involved in sexual reproduction and constitute

At maturity, a primary queen has a great capacity to lay eggs. In physogastric species, the queen adds an extra set of ovaries with each moult, resulting in a greatly distended abdomen and increased fecundity, often reported to reach a production of more than two-thousand eggs a day. Ecdysis is the Molting of the Cuticula in Arthropods and related groups ( Ecdysozoa) In Vertebrates such as Mammals the abdomen (belly constitutes the part of the body between the Thorax (chest and Pelvis. Fecundity, derived from the word fecund, generally refers to the ability to Reproduce. The distended abdomen increases the queen's body length to several times more than before mating and reduces her ability to move freely, though attendant workers provide assistance. The queen is widely believed to be a primary source of pheromones useful in colony integration, and these are thought to be spread through shared feeding (trophallaxis). A pheromone (from Greek φέρω phero "to bear" + ‘ορμόνη " Hormone " is a Chemical that triggers a natural Trophallaxis is the transfer of food or other fluids among members of a Community through mouth-to-mouth ( stomodeal) or anus-to-mouth ( proctodeal) feeding

The king grows only slightly larger after initial mating and continues to mate with the queen for life. This is very different from ant colonies, in which a queen mates once with the male(s) and stores the gametes for life, and the male ants die shortly after mating. A gamete (from Ancient Greek γαμέτης; translated gamete = wife gametes = husband is a cell that fuses with another gamete

The winged (or 'alate') caste, also referred to as the reproductive caste, are generally the only termites with well-developed eyes (although workers of some harvesting species do have well-developed compound eyes, and, in other species, soldiers with eyes occasionally appear). Termites on the path to becoming alates (going through incomplete metamorphosis) form a sub-caste in certain species of termites, functioning as workers ('pseudergates') and also as potential supplementary reproductives. Hemimetabolism or hemimetaboly, also called incomplete metamorphosis, is a term used to describe the mode of development of certain insects that includes Supplementaries have the ability to replace a dead primary reproductive and, at least in some species, several are recruited once a primary queen is lost.

In areas with a distinct dry season, the alates leave the nest in large swarms after the first good soaking rain of the rainy season. In other regions, flights may occur throughout the year or more commonly in the spring and autumn. Termites are relatively poor fliers and are readily blown downwind in windspeeds of less than 2 kph, shedding their wings soon after landing at an acceptable site, where they mate and attempt to form a nest in damp timber or earth. (For the South African airport with IATA code "KMH" see Johan Pienaar Airport.

Workers

Worker termites undertake the labours of foraging, food storage, brood, nest maintenance, and some of the defence effort in certain species. Workers are the main caste in the colony for the digestion of cellulose in food and are the most likely to be found in infested wood. Cellulose is an Organic compound with the formula, a Polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β(1→4 This is achieved in one of two ways. In all termite families except the Termitidae, there are flagellate protists in the gut that assist in cellulose digestion. Flagellates are cells with one or more whip-like organelles called flagella. Protists (ˈproʊtɨst are a diverse group of eukaryotic Microorganisms Historically protists were treated as the kingdom Protista but this However, in the Termitidae, which account for approximately 60% of all termite species, the flagellates have been lost and this digestive role is taken up, in part, by a consortium of prokaryotic organisms. The prokaryotes (proʊˈkærioʊts singular prokaryote /proʊˈkæriət/ are a group of Organisms that lack a Cell nucleus (= karyon or any other This simple story, which has been in Entomology textbooks for decades, is complicated by the finding that all studied termites can produce their own cellulase enzymes, and therefore can digest wood in the absence of their symbiotic microbes. Entomology (from Greek grc ἔντομος entomos, "that which is cut in pieces or engraved/segmented" hence "insect" and grc -λογία Cellulase refers to a class of Enzymes produced chiefly by Fungi, Bacteria, and Protozoans that Catalyze the cellulolysis (or Enzymes are Biomolecules that catalyze ( ie increase the rates of Chemical reactions Almost all enzymes are Proteins Our knowledge of the relationships between the microbial and termite parts of their digestion is still rudimentary. What is true in all termite species, however, is that the workers feed the other members of the colony with substances derived from the digestion of plant material, either from the mouth or anus. The anus is an opening at the opposite end of an Animal 's Digestive tract from the Mouth. This process of feeding of one colony member by another is known as trophallaxis and is one of the keys to the success of the group. Trophallaxis is the transfer of food or other fluids among members of a Community through mouth-to-mouth ( stomodeal) or anus-to-mouth ( proctodeal) feeding It frees the parents from feeding all but the first generation of offspring, allowing for the group to grow much larger and ensuring that the necessary gut symbionts are transferred from one generation to another.

Termite workers are generally blind due to undeveloped eyes. Despite this limitation, they are able to create elaborate nests and tunnel systems using a combination of soil, chewed wood/cellulose, saliva, and faeces. Some species have been known to create such durable walls that industrial machinery has been damaged in an attempt to break their tall mounds. Some African and Australian species have mounds more than 4 metres high. The nest is created and maintained by workers with many distinct features such as housing the brood, water collection through condensation, reproductive chambers, and tunnel networks that effectively provide air conditioning and control the CO₂/O₂ balance. A few species even practice agriculture, with elaborate fungal gardens which are fed on collected plant matter, providing a nutritious mycelium on which the colony then feeds (see "Diet", below). Mycelium (plural mycelia) is the vegetative part of a Fungus, consisting of a mass of branching thread-like Hyphae The mass of hyphae is sometimes called

Soldiers

The soldier caste has anatomical and behavioural specializations, providing strength and armour which are primarily useful against ant attack. The proportion of soldiers within a colony varies both within and among species. Many soldiers have jaws so enlarged that they cannot feed themselves, but instead, like juveniles, are fed by workers. The pan-tropical sub-family Nasutitermitinae have soldiers with the ability to exude noxious liquids through either a horn-like nozzle (nasus) or simple hole in the head (fontanelle). References in Pop Culture The dragon in John Gardner's 1971 novel Grendel makes reference to the fontanele as a mark of the universe's progress Fontanelles which exude defensive secretions are also a feature of the family Rhinotermitidae. Many species are readily identified using the characteristics of the soldiers' heads, mandibles, or nasus. The mandible (from Latin mandibula, "jawbone" or inferior maxillary bone forms the lower Jaw and holds the lower teeth in place Among the drywood termites, a soldier's globular ("phragmotic") head can be used to block their narrow tunnels. Termite soldiers are usually blind, but in some families, soldiers developing from the reproductive line may have at least partly functional eyes.

It's generally accepted that the specialization of the soldier caste is principally a defence against predation by ants. The wide range of jaw types and phragmotic heads provides methods which effectively block narrow termite tunnels against ant entry. A tunnel-blocking soldier can rebuff attacks from many ants. Usually more soldiers stand by behind the initial soldier so once the first one falls another soldier will take the place. In cases where the intrusion is coming from a breach that is larger than the soldier's head, defence requires special formations where soldiers form a phalanx-like formation around the breach and blindly bite at intruders or shoot toxic glue from the nasus. The phalanx (Ancient Greek φάλαγξ Modern Greek φάλαγγα phālanga (plural phalanxes or phalanges (Ancient and Modern Greek φάλαγγες This formation involves self-sacrifice because once the workers have repaired the breach during fighting, no return is provided, thus causing the death of all the defenders.

Termites undergo incomplete metamorphosis, with their freshly hatched young taking the form of tiny termites that grow without significant morphological changes (other than wings and soldier specializations). Metamorphosis is a Biological process by which an Animal physically develops after Birth or hatching involving a conspicuous and relatively Some species of termite have dimorphic soldiers (up to three times the size of smaller soldiers). Though their value is unknown, speculation is that they may function as an elite class that defends only the inner tunnels of the mound. Evidence for this is that, even when provoked, these large soldiers do not defend themselves but retreat deeper into the mound. On the other hand, dimorphic soldiers are common in some Australian species of Schedorhinotermes that neither build mounds nor appear to maintain complex nest structures. Some termite taxa are without soldiers; perhaps the best known of these are the Apicotermitinae.

Diet

Termites are generally grouped according to their feeding behaviour. Thus, the commonly used general groupings are subterranean, soil-feeding, drywood, dampwood, and grass-eating. Of these, subterraneans and drywoods are primarily responsible for damage to human-made structures.

All termites eat cellulose in its various forms as plant fibre. Cellulose is an Organic compound with the formula, a Polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β(1→4 Cellulose is a rich energy source (as demonstrated by the amount of energy released when wood is burned), but remains difficult to digest. Termites rely primarily upon symbiotic protozoa (metamonads) such as Trichonympha, and other microbes in their gut to digest the cellulose for them and absorb the end products for their own use. The metamonads are a large group of Flagellate protozoa Their composition is not entirely settled but they include the Retortamonads Diplomonads and Trichonympha is a genus of Parabasalian Protists that live in the Intestines of many if not most Termite Species. A microorganism (also spelled micro organism or micro-organism and also called a microbe) is an Organism that is Microscopic (usually Gut protozoa, such as Trichonympha, in turn rely on symbiotic bacteria embedded on their surfaces to produce some of the necessary digestive enzymes. Trichonympha is a genus of Parabasalian Protists that live in the Intestines of many if not most Termite Species. The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have This relationship is one of the finest examples of mutualism among animals. Most so called "higher termites", especially in the Family Termitidae, can produce their own cellulase enzymes. Family denotes a group of People affiliated by consanguinity affinity or co-residence Cellulase refers to a class of Enzymes produced chiefly by Fungi, Bacteria, and Protozoans that Catalyze the cellulolysis (or However, they still retain a rich gut fauna and primarily rely upon the bacteria. Due to closely related bacterial species, it is strongly presumed that the termites' gut flora are descended from the gut flora of the ancestral wood-eating cockroaches, like those of the genus Cryptocercus. Cockroaches (or simply "roaches" are Insects of the order Blattaria. Cryptocercus is a genus of Cockroaches in the family Cryptocercidae of which this genus is the only member

Some species of termite practice fungiculture. Fungiculture is the process of producing food medicine and other products by the cultivation of Mushrooms and other Fungi. They maintain a 'garden' of specialized fungi of genus Termitomyces, which are nourished by the excrement of the insects. Termitomyces is a Genus of basidiomycete fungus belonging to the family Tricholomataceae. When the fungi are eaten, their spores pass undamaged through the intestines of the termites to complete the cycle by germinating in the fresh faecal pellets. ^[1][2] They are also well known for eating smaller insects in a last resort environment.

Mounds

Termites build nests to house their colonies. Nests are commonly located in larger timber or in the soil in locations such as growing trees, inside fallen trees, underground, and in above-ground mounds which they construct, commonly called "anthills" in Africa and Australia, despite the technical incorrectness of that name. Mounds occur when the nest grows beyond its initially concealing surface. In tropical savannas the mounds may be very large, with an extreme of 9 metres (30 ft) high in the case of large conical mounds constructed by some Macrotermes species in well-wooded areas in Africa,^[3]. Tropical and subtropical grasslands savannas and shrublands are a Grassland Biome located in Semi-arid to semi- Humid Climate regions Two to three metres, however, would be typical for the largest mounds in most savannas. A savanna or savannah is a Tropical or Subtropical Grassland or Woodland Ecosystem. The shape ranges from somewhat amorphous domes or cones usually covered in grass and/or woody shrubs, to sculptured hard earth mounds, or a mixture of the two. Despite the irregular mound shapes, the different species in an area can usually be identified by simply looking at the mounds.

The sculptured mounds sometimes have elaborate and distinctive forms, such as those of the compass termite (Amitermes meridionalis & A. laurensis) which build tall wedge-shaped mounds with the long axis oriented approximately north-south. This orientation has been experimentally shown to help in thermoregulation. Thermoregulation is the ability of an Organism to keep its body temperature within certain boundaries even when temperature surrounding is very different

The column of hot air rising in the above ground mounds helps drive air circulation currents inside the subterranean network. The structure of these mounds can be quite complex. The temperature control is essential for those species that cultivate fungal gardens and even for those that don't, much effort and energy is spent maintaining the brood within a narrow temperature range, often only plus or minus one degree C over a day.

In some parts of the African savanna, a high density of above-ground mounds dominates the landscape. For instance, in some parts of the Busanga Plain area of Zambia, small mounds of about 1 m diameter with a density of about 100 per hectare can be seen on grassland between larger tree- and bush-covered mounds about 25 m in diameter with a density around 1 per hectare, and both show up well on high-resolution satellite images taken in the wet season. ^[4].

Cathedral Mounds

Magnetic Mounds (nearly North-South Axis)

Termite cathedral mounds in the Northern Territory of Australia

Two cathedral mounds in a tropical savanna blackened by Kakadu National Park's annual winter bushfires. The Northern Territory is a federal territory of Australia, occupying much of the center of the mainland continent as well as the central northern regions For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. Tropical and subtropical grasslands savannas and shrublands are a Grassland Biome located in Semi-arid to semi- Humid Climate regions Kakadu National Park is in the Northern Territory of Australia, 171 km south-east of Darwin. Ladysmith-RFSJPG|right|thumb| Ladysmith NSW RFS fire fighting tanker]]A Bushfire is a Fire that occurs in the bush (collective term for

Human interaction

Because of their wood-eating habits, termites sometimes do great damage to buildings and other wooden structures. Their habit of remaining concealed often results in their presence being undetected until the timbers are severely damaged and exhibit surface changes. Once termites have entered a building, they do not limit themselves to wood; they also damage paper, cloth, carpets, and other cellulosic materials. Paper is thin material mainly used for writing upon printing upon or packaging A textile is a flexible material comprised of a network of natural or artificial Fibres often referred to as thread or Yarn. A carpet is any loom-woven felted textile or grass floor covering Often, other soft materials are damaged and may be used for construction. Particles taken from soft plastics, plaster, rubber, and sealants such as silicon rubber and acrylics are often employed in construction.

Termites usually avoid exposure to unfavourable environmental conditions. They tend to remain hidden in tunnels in earth and wood. Where they need to cross an impervious or unfavourable substrate, they cover their tracks with tubing made of faeces, plant matter, and soil. Sometimes these shelter tubes will extend for many metres, such as up the outside of a tree reaching from the soil to dead branches. Termite barrier systems used for protecting buildings aim to prevent concealed termite access, thus forcing the termites out into the open where they must form clearly visible shelter tubes to gain entry.

Termites can be major agricultural pests, particularly in Africa and Asia, where crop losses can be severe. Counterbalancing this is the greatly improved water infiltration where termite tunnels in the soil allow rainwater to soak in deeply and help reduce runoff and consequent soil erosion.

In many cultures, termites are used for food (particularly the alates), and termite nests are used widely in construction (the dirt is often dust-free) and as a soil amendment.

Humans have moved many wood-eating species between continents, but have also caused drastic population decline in others through habitat loss and pesticide application.

Avoiding termite troubles

Precautions:

• Avoid contact of susceptible timber with ground by using termite-resistant concrete, steel, or masonry foundation with appropriate barriers. Concrete is a construction material composed of Cement (commonly Portland cement) as well as other cementitious materials such as Fly ash and Slag Steel is an Alloy consisting mostly of Iron, with a Carbon content between 0 Masonry is the building of structures from individual units laid in and bound together by mortar, and the term "masonry" can also refer to the units themselves Even so, termites are able to bridge these with shelter tubes, and it has been known for termites to chew through piping made of soft plastics and even some metals, such as lead, to exploit moisture. In general, new buildings should be constructed with embedded physical termite barriers so that there are no easy means for termites to gain concealed entry. While barriers of poisoned soil, so called termite pre-treatment, have been in general use since the 1970s, it is preferable that these be used only for existing buildings without effective physical barriers. What are Termite Pre-Treatments? "Pre-treatment" is a term for poison that is applied to the soil
• The intent of termite barriers (whether physical, poisoned soil, or some of the new poisoned plastics) is to prevent the termites from gaining unseen access to structures. In most instances, termites attempting to enter a barriered building will be forced into the less favourable approach of building shelter tubes up the outside walls, and thus, they can be clearly visible both to the building occupants and a range of predators. Regular inspection by a competent (trained and experienced) inspector is the best defence.
• Timber treatment. All measures that are taken to ensure a long life of wood fall under the definition wood preservation (timber treatment
• Use of timber that is naturally resistant to termites such as Canarium australianum (Turpentine Tree), Callitris glaucophylla (White Cypress), or one of the Sequoias. Note that there is no tree species whose every individual tree yields only timbers that are immune to termite damage, so that even with well known termite-resistant timber types, there will occasionally be pieces that are attacked.

When termites have already penetrated a building, the first action is usually to destroy the colony with insecticides before removing the termites' means of access and fixing the problems that encouraged them in the first place. An insecticide is a Pesticide used against Insects in all developmental forms Baits (feeder stations) with small quantities of disruptive insect hormones or other very slow acting toxins have become the preferred least-toxic management tool in most western countries. This has replaced the dusting of toxins direct into termite tunnels that had been widely done since the early 1930s (originating in Australia). The main dust toxicants have been the inorganic metallic poison arsenic trioxide, insect growth regulators (hormones) such as Triflumuron and, more recently, fipronil. Arsenic trioxide is the most important commercial compound of Arsenic, and the main starting material for arsenic chemistry Hormones (from Greek ὁρμή - "impetus" are chemicals released by cells that affect cells in other parts of the body Fipronil is a broad spectrum Insecticide that disrupts the insect central nervous system by blocking the passage of chloride ions through the GABA receptor and glutamate-gated Blowing dusts into termite workings is a highly skilled process. All these slow-acting poisons can be distributed by the workers for hours or weeks before any symptoms occur and are capable of destroying the entire colony. In the context of Biology, poisons are substances that can cause damage, Illness, or Death to Organisms usually by More modern variations include chlorfluazuron, Diflubenzuron, hexaflumuron, and Novaflumuron as bait toxicants and fipronil and imidacloprid as soil poisons. Fipronil is a broad spectrum Insecticide that disrupts the insect central nervous system by blocking the passage of chloride ions through the GABA receptor and glutamate-gated Imidacloprid is a neonicotinoid, which is a class of neuro-active insecticides modeled after nicotine Soil poisons are the least-preferred method of control as this requires much larger doses of toxin and results in uncontrollable release to the environment.

Termites in the human diet

The alates are nutritious, having a good store of fat and protein, and are palatable in most species with a nutty flavour when cooked. They are easily gathered at the beginning of the rainy season in Central and Southern Africa when they swarm, as they are attracted to lights and can be gathered up when they land on nets put up around a lamp. Central Africa is a core Region of the African Continent often considered to include Burundi, the Central African Republic, Chad Southern Africa is the Southernmost Region of the African Continent, variably defined by Geography or Geopolitics. The wings are shed and can be removed by a technique similar to winnowing. Wind winnowing is an agricultural method developed by ancient cultures for separating grain from Chaff. They are best gently roasted on a hot plate or lightly fried until slightly crisp; oil is not usually needed since their bodies are naturally high in oil. Cooking oil is purified Fat of Plant or Animal origin which is liquid at room temperature Traditionally they make a welcome treat at the beginning of the rainy season when livestock is lean, new crops have not yet produced food, and stored produce from the previous growing season is running low.

Ecology

Ecologically, termites are important in nutrient recycling, habitat creation, soil formation and quality and, particularly the winged reproductives, as food for countless predators. A nutrient is food or chemicals that an organism needs to live and grow or a substance used in an organism's metabolism which must be taken in from its environment A habitat (which is Latin for "it inhabits" is an Ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular Species. Soil, often typeset as SOiL, is a four piece rock band from Chicago Illinois United States founded by Shaun Glass Tom Schofield Tim King and Adam Zadel The role of termites in hollowing timbers and thus providing shelter and increased wood surface areas for other creatures is critical for the survival of a large number of timber-inhabiting species. Larger termite mounds play a role in providing a habitat for plants and animals, especially on plains in Africa that are seasonally inundated by a rainy season, providing a retreat above the water for smaller animals and birds, and a growing medium for woody shrubs with root systems that cannot withstand inundation for several weeks. ||-||-||-||-||-||-||-||}A floodplain, or flood plain, is flat or nearly flat land adjacent to a Stream or River that experiences occasional or periodic A wet season or rainy season is a Season in which the average Rainfall in a region is significantly increased In addition, scorpions, lizards, snakes, small mammals, and birds live in abandoned or weathered mounds, and aardvarks dig substantial caves and burrows in them, which then become homes for larger animals such as hyenas and mongooses. Scorpions are eight-legged Carnivorous Arthropods They are members of the order Scorpiones within the class Arachnida. Lizards are a large and widespread group of Reptiles of the order Squamata, with nearly 5000 species and ranging across all continents except The Aardvark ( Orycteropus afer) ("Digging foot" is a medium-sized burrowing nocturnal Mammal native to Africa. The Hyaenidae is a Mammalian family of order Carnivora. The Hyaenidae family native to both African and Asian continents consists of four A mongoose (plural mongooses) is a member of the family Herpestidae (although also used for some members of Eupleridae) a family of small

As detrivores, termites clear away leaf and woody litter and so reduce the severity of the annual bush fires in African savannas, which are not as destructive as those in Australia and the USA. Detritivores, also known as detritus feeders or saprophages, are Heterotrophs that obtain Nutrients by consuming Detritus (decomposing

Globally, termites are found roughly between 50 degrees North & South, with the greatest biomass in the tropics and the greatest diversity in tropical forests and Mediterranean shrublands. Biomass refers to living and recently dead Biological material that can be used as fuel or for industrial production Termites are also considered to be a major source of atmospheric methane, one of the prime greenhouse gases. Methane is a Chemical compound with the molecular formula. It is the simplest Alkane, and the principal component of Natural gas. Greenhouse gases are gaseous constituents of the atmosphere bothnatural and anthropogenic that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared Termites have been common since at least the Cretaceous period. The Cretaceous (kriːˈteɪʃəs, usually abbreviated 'K' for its German translation "Kreide" is a geologic period and system, reaching from the end of Termites also eat bone and other parts of carcasses, and their traces have been found on dinosaur bones from the middle Jurassic in China. ^[5]

Plant defences against termites

Many plants have developed effective defences against termites, and in most ecosystems, there is an observable balance between the growth of plants and the feeding of termites. An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants animals and micro-organisms( Biotic factors in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical ( Defence is typically achieved by secreting anti-feedant chemicals (such as oils, resins, and lignins) into the woody cell walls. An oil is a substance that is in a viscous Liquid state ( "oily") at ambient temperatures or slightly warmer and is Resin, not to be confused with Rosin, is a Hydrocarbon Secretion of many Plants particularly coniferous trees. Lignin or lignen is a complex Chemical compound most commonly derived from Wood and an integral part of the secondary Cell walls of Plants This reduces the ability of termites to efficiently digest the cellulose. Cellulose is an Organic compound with the formula, a Polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β(1→4 Many of the strongly termite-resistant tree species have heartwood timber that is extremely dense (such as Eucalyptus camaldulensis) due to accretion of these resins. Wood is hard fibrous lignified structural tissue produced as secondary Xylem in the stems of Woody plants notably trees but also shrubs The River Red Gum ( Eucalyptus camaldulensis) is a tree of the genus Eucalyptus. Over the years there has been considerable research into these natural defensive chemicals with scientists seeking to add them to timbers from susceptible trees. A commercial product, "Blockaid", has been developed in Australia and uses a range of plant extracts to create a paint-on nontoxic termite barrier for buildings. In 2005, a group of Australian scientists "discovered" (announced) a treatment based on an extract of a species of Eremophila that repels termites. Eremophila is a genus of plants of the family Myoporaceae, with species known by the common names of Emu Bush, Poverty Bush or Fuchsia ^[6] Tests have shown that termites are strongly repelled by the toxic material to the extent that they will starve rather than cross treated samples. When kept in close proximity to the extract, they become disoriented and eventually die. Scientists hope to use this toxic compound commercially to prevent termite feeding.

Taxonomy, evolution and systematics

Recent DNA evidence has supported the nearly 120-year-old hypothesis, originally based on morphology, that termites are most closely related to the wood-eating cockroaches (genus Cryptocercus), to which the singular and very primitive Mastotermes darwiniensis shows some telltale similarities. Cockroaches (or simply "roaches" are Insects of the order Blattaria. Cryptocercus is a genus of Cockroaches in the family Cryptocercidae of which this genus is the only member Mastotermes darwiniensis, Common names Giant Northern Termite and Darwin Termite, is a Termite Species found only Most recently, this has led some authors to propose that termites be reclassified as a single family, Termitidae, within the order Blattaria, which contains cockroaches ^[7][8]. Cockroaches (or simply "roaches" are Insects of the order Blattaria. However, most researchers advocate the less drastic measure of retaining the termites as Isoptera but as a group subordinate to true roaches, preserving the internal classification of termites ^[9].

Evolutionary history

The oldest unambiguous termite fossils date to the early Cretaceous, although structures from the late Triassic have been interpreted as fossilized termite nests. Copal is a type of Resin produced from plant or tree secretions, often taken from members of the genus Copaifera. FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system. The Cretaceous (kriːˈteɪʃəs, usually abbreviated 'K' for its German translation "Kreide" is a geologic period and system, reaching from the end of ^[10] Given the diversity of Cretaceous termites, it is likely that they had their origin at least sometime in the Jurassic. The Jurassic is a geologic period and system that extends from about Ma (million years ago to  Ma that is from the end of the Triassic to the beginning

It has long been accepted that termites are closely related to cockroaches and mantids, and they are classified in the same superorder (Dictyoptera), but new research has shed light on the details of termite evolution. Cockroaches (or simply "roaches" are Insects of the order Blattaria. The Insect order Mantodea or mantises consists of approximately 2000 species worldwide in Temperate and Tropical habitats of Dictyoptera includes three groups of polyneopterous insects - cockroaches ( Blattaria) termites ( Isoptera) and mantids ( Mantodea) ^[11] There is now strong evidence suggesting that termites are really highly modified, social, wood-eating cockroaches. A study conducted by scientists has found that endosymbiotic bacteria from termites and a genus of cockroaches, Cryptocercus, share the strongest phylogenetical similarities out of all other cockroaches. An endosymbiont is any Organism that lives within the body or cells of another organism i Cryptocercus is a genus of Cockroaches in the family Cryptocercidae of which this genus is the only member Both termites and Cryptocercus also share similar morphological and social features -- most cockroaches do not show social characteristics, but Cryptocercus takes care of its young and exhibits other social behaviour. As mentioned above, the primitive Giant Northern Termite (Mastotermes darwiniensis) exhibits numerous cockroach-like characteristics that are not shared with other termites. Mastotermes darwiniensis, Common names Giant Northern Termite and Darwin Termite, is a Termite Species found only

Systematics

As of 1996, about 2,800 termite species are recognized, classified in seven families[2]. In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. These are arranged here in a phylogenetic sequence, from the most basal to the most advanced:

• Mastotermitidae (1 species, Mastotermes darwiniensis)

• Hodotermitidae (3 genera, 19 species)
  • Hodotermitinae

• Kalotermitidae (22 genera, 419 species)

• Termopsidae (5 genera, 20 species)
  • Termopsinae
  • Porotermitinae
  • Stolotermitinae

• Rhinotermitidae (14 genera, 343 species)
  • Coptotermitinae Holmgren
  • Heterotermitinae Froggatt
  • Prorhinoterminae Quennedey & Deligne, 1975
  • Psammotermitinae Holmgren
  • Rhinotermitinae Froggatt
  • Stylotermitinae Holmgren, K & N, 1917
  • Termitogetoninae Holmgren

• Serritermitidae (1 species, Serritermes serrifer)

• Termitidae (236 genera, 1958 species)
  • Macrotermitinae (14 genera, 349 species)
  • Nasutitermitinae (91 genera, 663 species)
  • Amitermitinae (17 genera, 295 species)
  • Apicotermitinae (43 genera, 202 species)
  • Cubitermitinae (28 genera, 161 species)
  • Termitinae (43 genera, 288 species)

The most current classification of termites is summarized by Engel & Krishna (2004). In Phylogenetics, a basal Clade is the earliest clade to branch in a larger clade it appears at the base of a cladogram Mastotermes darwiniensis, Common names Giant Northern Termite and Darwin Termite, is a Termite Species found only Mastotermes darwiniensis, Common names Giant Northern Termite and Darwin Termite, is a Termite Species found only Dampwood termites ( Termopsidae) constitute a small and rather primitive family of Termites (Isoptera Amitermitinae constitute a subfamily of harvester termites & allies (family Termitidae) in the Isoptera order

Termites as a source of power

One of the US Department of Energy's most enduring goals is to replace fossil fuels with renewable sources of cleaner energy, such as hydrogen produced from plant biomass fermentation. The United States Department of Energy ( DOE) is a Cabinet -level department of the United States government responsible for energy policy Fossil fuels or mineral fuels are fossil source Fuels that is Hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the Earth’s crust. Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 Biomass refers to living and recently dead Biological material that can be used as fuel or for industrial production Fermentation has many important uses in industry Though the word fermentation can have stricter definitions when speaking of it in industrial fermentation it more loosely Termites may help reach this goal through metagenomics. Metagenomics (also Environmental Genomics, Ecogenomics or Community Genomics) is the study of genetic material recovered directly from environmental

Termites are capable of producing up to two litres of hydrogen from fermenting a single sheet of paper, making them one of the planet's most efficient bioreactors. Termites achieve this high degree of efficiency by exploiting the metabolic capabilities of about 200 different species of microbes that inhabit their hindguts.

Hydrogen is normally created by using electricity to remove hydrogen molecules from water or natural gas, but the electricity is most often generated using fossil fuels that emit carbon pollutants. The microbial community in the termite gut efficiently manufactures large quantities of clean hydrogen. By sequencing the termite's microbial community, it may be possible to get a better understanding of these biochemical pathways. The termites are a group of Social Insects usually classified at the taxonomic rank of order Isoptera (but see also taxonomy

Termites eat wood but cannot extract energy from the complex lignocellulose polymers within it. These polymers are broken down into simple sugars by fermenting bacteria in the termite's gut and using enzymes that produce hydrogen as a byproduct. A second wave of bacteria uses the simple sugars and hydrogen to make the acetate the termite requires for energy. If it can be determined which enzymes are used to create hydrogen, and which genes produce them, this process could be scaled up with bioreactors to generate hydrogen from woody biomass, such as poplar, in commercial quantities. Biochemical engineering is a branch of Chemical engineering or Biological engineering that mainly deals with the design and construction of unit processes that

Sceptics regard this as unlikely to be a carbon-neutral commercial process due to the energy inputs. For decades, researchers have sought to house termites on a commercial scale (like worm farms) to break down woody debris and paper, but funding has been scarce and the problems of developing a continuous process that does not disrupt the termites' homeostasis have not been overcome. Vermicompost (also called worm Compost, vermicast worm castings worm humus or worm manure is the end-product of the breakdown of Organic matter by some Homeostasis (from Greek: ὅμος hómos, "equal" and ιστημι istēmi, "to stand" lit

• Original article
• JGI - Organization responsible for sequencing the termite.

See also

• Decompiculture
• Stigmergy

References

• Grimaldi, D. and Engel, M.S. (2005). The term decompiculture was coined by forestry professor Timothy Myles of the Urban Entomology Program at the University of Toronto and refers to how decomposing Stigmergy is a mechanism of spontaneous indirect Coordination between agents or actions where the trace left in the environment by an action stimulates the David A Grimaldi (born September 22, 1957) is an entomologist and Curator of Invertebrate Zoology at the American Museum of Natural History in Michael S Engel (born 24 September 1971 in Creve Coeur Missouri) is a Paleontologist and Entomologist. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Evolution of the Insects. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP is a Publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534 ISBN 0-521-82149-5.  
• Engel, M.S. and K. Michael S Engel (born 24 September 1971 in Creve Coeur Missouri) is a Paleontologist and Entomologist. Krishna (2004). Family-group names for termites (Isoptera). American Museum Novitates 3432: 1–9.  
• Earthlife
• Termite terms
• Cretaceous termites

Further reading

Abe T. , Bignell D. E. , Higashi M. (eds. ) (2000). Termites: evolution, sociality, symbioses, ecology. Kluwer academic publishers. ISBN 0792363612.  

External links

• University of Nebraska page on Termites
• A summary of termite control methods
• University of California advice on Drywood Termites
• Termite Pest Control Information - USA National Pesticide Information Center
• Catalogue of the termites of the World
• Pictures of termites
• Transitional Species in Insect Evolution
• Did the Termites Cause Laterites?
• Cretaceous Termites and Soil Phosphorus
• Beneficial Uses of Termites
• Texas A&M University Department of Entomology - Center for Urban & Structural Entomology
• Biomimicry used in Eastgate Building, Zimbabwe
• The Soul of the White Ant - Eugène N. Marais
• Urban Entomology Program University of Toronto
• Harvard University fact sheet on Eastern Subterranean Termites
• Isoptera: termites (CSIRO Australia Entomology).
• 'Termite guts can save the planet', says Nobel laureate
• USA Pest Management Association's fact sheet on termites
• Termite Control Information from a US chemical supply company
• The "Termite Institute" is a thinly disguised BASF corporation site promoting the biocide fipronil. Be careful.

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