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The Tang Dynasty (Chinese: 唐朝; pinyin: Táng Cháo; Middle Chinese: dhɑng[1]) (June 18, 618–June 4, 907) was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. Chinese civilization originated in various city-states along the Yellow River ( valley in the Neolithic era The Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors ( were mythological rulers of China during the period from c The Xia Dynasty ( of China is the first dynasty to be described in ancient historical records such as Records of the Grand Historian and The Shang Dynasty ( Chinese: 商[[wiktionary 朝|朝]] or Yin Dynasty ( 殷[[wiktionary 代|代]] was according to traditional sources the The Zhou Dynasty ( POJ: Chiu Tiau 1122 BC to 256 BC was preceded by the Shang Dynasty and followed by the Qin Dynasty in China. The Zhou Dynasty ( POJ: Chiu Tiau 1122 BC to 256 BC was preceded by the Shang Dynasty and followed by the Qin Dynasty in China. The Zhou Dynasty ( POJ: Chiu Tiau 1122 BC to 256 BC was preceded by the Shang Dynasty and followed by the Qin Dynasty in China. The Spring and Autumn Period ( was a period in Chinese history which roughly corresponds to the first half of the Eastern Zhou dynasty (from the second half of the 8th century BC The Warring States Period ( also known as the Era of Warring States covers the period from some time in the 5th century BC to the unification of China by the Not to be confused with the Qing Dynasty, the last dynasty of China The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. The Xin Dynasty ( was a Chinese Dynasty (although strictly speaking it had only one Emperor) which lasted from 9 - 23 AD The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. The Three Kingdoms period ( is a period in the History of China, part of an era of disunity called the Six Dynasties following immediately the loss of Cao Wei ( was one of the empires that competed for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period Shu Han ( Traditional Chinese: 蜀漢 Pinyin: Shǔ Hàn sometimes known as the Kingdom of Shu (蜀 shǔ was one of the Three Kingdoms competing Eastern Wu ( Chinese: 東吳 Pinyin: Dōng Wú also known as Sun Wu ( Traditional Chinese: 孫吳 pinyin Sūn Wú refers to a The Jìn Dynasty ( 265 – 420) one of the Six Dynasties, followed the Three Kingdoms period and preceded the Southern and Northern Dynasties The Jìn Dynasty ( 265 – 420) one of the Six Dynasties, followed the Three Kingdoms period and preceded the Southern and Northern Dynasties The Jìn Dynasty ( 265 – 420) one of the Six Dynasties, followed the Three Kingdoms period and preceded the Southern and Northern Dynasties The Sixteen Kingdoms ( or less commonly the Sixteen States, were a collection of numerous short-lived sovereign states in China proper and its neighboring areas This article is about the Southern and Northern Dynasties in China. The Sui Dynasty ( 581 - 618 AD and in the undertaking of other construction projects including the reconstruction of the Great Wall. Wu Zetian ( (625 – December 16, 705 In 705 she was overthrown in a coup and Emperor Zhongzong was returned to the throne Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms ( 907-960 was an era of political upheaval in China, beginning in the Tang Dynasty and ending in the Song Dynasty. The Liao Dynasty ( 907 - 1125, also known as the Khitan Empire (契丹國 was an empire in northern China that ruled over the regions of Manchuria The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Xi Xia redirects here For a Chinese general whose name may be transliterated as Xi Xia see Xi Qia The Western Xia Dynasty ( or The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms This is an article for the Jurchen Jin Dynasty (1115–1234 For other Chinese dynasties whose names are also rendered "Jin" in Pinyin, see Jin Dynasty The Yuan Dynasty ( Pinyin: Yuáncháo Dai Ön Ulus (Дай Юан Улс was a ruling Dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai The Ming Dynasty ( or Empire of the Great Ming ( was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol -led Not to be confused with Qin Dynasty, the first dynasty of Imperial China This article discusses history of the state which currently governs Taiwan Area. The history of the People's Republic of China details the history of Mainland China since October 1, 1949, when after a near complete victory See also History of China, History of the People's Republic of China Early 1950s Social revolution The People's Republic of China was founded on See also History of China, History of the People's Republic of China Power struggles after Mao's death See also History of China, History of the People's Republic of China Recovery in the 1990s Post-Tiananmen The Tiananmen Square protests See also History of China, History of the People's Republic of China "Fourth Generation" The Hu-Wen Administration Power transition The Republic of China on Taiwan era ( also known as the postwar era ( refers to the period in Taiwan's history, between the end of World War II This article discusses the history of Taiwan (including the Pescadores) The following is a Chronology of the dynasties in Chinese history. China was the largest economy on earth for most of the recorded history of the past two millennia Chinese Historiography refers to the study of methods and assumptions made in studying Chinese history. Chinese art is Art that whether ancient or modern originated in or is practiced in China or by Chinese artists or performers The history of education in China began with the birth of Chinese civilization. The history of Science and Technology in China is both long and rich with many contributions to science and technology See also Chinese law The origin of the current Law of the People's Republic of China can be traced back to the period of the early 1930s during the establishment of the The recorded military history of China extends from about 1500 BC to the present day The naval history of China dates back thousands of years with archives existing since the late Spring and Autumn Period ( 722 BC - 481 BC) about the The following is a Timeline of the History of China. Between the changing of the dynasties, most dates overlap as ruling periods do not transfer immediately Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use Middle Chinese ( or Ancient Chinese as used by linguist Bernhard Karlgren, refers to the Chinese language spoken during Southern and Northern Events 618 - Coronation of the Chinese governor Li Yuan as Emperor Gaozu of Tang, the new Emperor of China, initiating three centuries Events By Place Asia The Sui Dynasty ends and the Tang Dynasty begins in China. Events 781 BC - The first historic Solar eclipse is recorded in China. Events By Place Asia Oleg leads the Kievan Rus' in a campaign against Constantinople (see Rus'-Byzantine The following is a Chronology of the dynasties in Chinese history. The Sui Dynasty ( 581 - 618 AD and in the undertaking of other construction projects including the reconstruction of the Great Wall. Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms ( 907-960 was an era of political upheaval in China, beginning in the Tang Dynasty and ending in the Song Dynasty. It was founded by the Li (李) family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire. The dynasty was interrupted briefly by the Second Zhou Dynasty (October 16, 690–March 3, 705) when Empress Wu Zetian seized the throne, becoming the first and only Chinese empress regnant, ruling in her own right. Events 456 - Magister militum Ricimer defeats the Emperor Avitus at Piacenza and becomes master of the western Events By Place Asia Wu Zetian 's Zhou Dynasty begins in China (she was China's first and only female emperor ruling on her own Events 1284 - Statute of Rhuddlan incorporated the Principality of Wales into England 1575 - Indian Alternate meanings Area code 705; Project 705; Life 705 Events By Place Asia February 20 Wu Zetian ( (625 – December 16, 705 In 705 she was overthrown in a coup and Emperor Zhongzong was returned to the throne List of current queens regnant A queen regnant (plural "queens regnant" is qualifying reference to a female Monarch possessing and exercising all of the monarchal
The Tang Dynasty, with its capital at Chang'an (present-day Xi'an), the most populous city in the world at the time, is regarded by historians as a high point in Chinese civilization — equal to or surpassing that of the earlier Han Dynasty — as well as a golden age of cosmopolitan culture. Chang'an ( is an ancient Capital of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history. UserEl_C --> Xi'an ( Postal map spelling: Sian is the Capital of the Shaanxi province in the China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. Its territory, acquired through the military campaigns of its early rulers, was greater than that of the Han period, and rivaled that of the later Yuan Dynasty and Qing Dynasty. The Yuan Dynasty ( Pinyin: Yuáncháo Dai Ön Ulus (Дай Юан Улс was a ruling Dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai Not to be confused with Qin Dynasty, the first dynasty of Imperial China The enormous Grand Canal of China, built during the previous Sui Dynasty, facilitated the rise of new urban settlements along its route as well as increased trade between mainland Chinese markets. The Grand Canal of China ( also known as the Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal ( is the longest ancient Canal or artificial River in the world The canal is to this day the longest in the world. In two censuses of the 7th and 8th centuries, the Tang records stated that the population (by number of registered households) was about 50 million people. [2][3][4]a[›] However, even when the central government was breaking down and unable to exact an accurate census of the population in the 9th century, it is estimated that the population in that century had grown to the size of about 80 million people. [5][6] With its large population base, the Tang was able to raise professional and conscripted armies of hundreds of thousands of troops to contend with powers such as Tibet in dominating Inner Asia and the lucrative trade routes along the Silk Road. Definitions of Tibet See also Definitions of Tibet Name In English The English word Tibet, like the word for Tibet in most European The Silk Road, or Silk Routes, are an extensive interconnected network of Trade routes across the Asian continent connecting East South and Western Asia with the Various kingdoms and states paid tribute to the Tang court, while the Tang also conquered or subdued several regions which it indirectly controlled through a protectorate system. The following is a list of tributaries of Imperial China. Chronological list Many entities have paid Tribute to Imperial China Xiyu Protectorate in Han Dynasty Protectorates in Tang Dynasty Overview List of Initial nine Protectorates Besides political hegemony, the Tang also exerted a powerful cultural influence over neighboring states such as those in Korea and Japan. Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics.
In Chinese history, the Tang Dynasty was largely a period of progress and stability, except during the An Shi Rebellion and the decline of central authority in the latter half of the dynasty. Chinese civilization originated in various city-states along the Yellow River ( valley in the Neolithic era The An Shi Rebellion ( took place in China during the Tang Dynasty, from December 16 755 to February 17 763. Like the previous Sui Dynasty, the Tang Dynasty maintained a civil service system by drafting officials through standardized examinations and recommendations to office. See also Bureaucrat The term civil service has two distinct meanings Branch of governmental service in which individuals are hired on the basis Scholar-bureaucrats or scholar-officials were civil servants appointed by the Emperor of China to perform day-to-day governance from the Sui Dynasty to The Imperial examinations ( in Imperial China determined who among the population would be permitted to enter the state's Bureaucracy. This civil order was undermined by the rise of regional military governors known as jiedushi during the 9th century. The Jiedushi ( were regional military governors in China during the Tang Dynasty and the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. Chinese culture flourished and further matured during the Tang era; it is considered the greatest age for Chinese poetry. The Culture of China (traditional Chinese 中國文化 simplified Chinese 中国文化 is home to one of the world's oldest and most complex Civilizations covering a history Chinese Poetry is the most highly regarded literary genre in China. [7] Two of China's most famous historical poets, Du Fu and Li Bai, belonged to this age, as well as the poets Meng Haoran, Du Mu, and Bai Juyi. Du Fu ( 712–770 was a prominent Chinese poet of the Tang Dynasty. Meng Haoran ( 689 or 691 - 740 was a Chinese poet during the Tang Dynasty. Du Mu ( 803—852 was a leading realistic Chinese poet of the late Tang Dynasty. Life Bai Juyi was born in Xinzheng to a poor but scholarly family Many famous visual artists lived during this era, such as the renowned painters Han Gan, Zhang Xuan, and Zhou Fang. Han Gan ( Chinese: 韩干/韓幹 (c 706-783 was a Tang Dynasty painter Zhang Xuan ( (713-755 was a Chinese painter who lived during the Tang Dynasty (618&ndash907 There was a rich variety of historical literature compiled by scholars, as well as encyclopedias and books on geography. Chinese Historiography refers to the study of methods and assumptions made in studying Chinese history. There were many notable innovations during the Tang, including the development of woodblock printing, the escapement mechanism in horology, the government compilations of materia medicas, improvements in cartography and the application of hydraulics to power air conditioning fans. For the use of the technique in art see Woodcut on the technique and Old master print for the history in Europe and Woodblock printing in Japan. In Mechanical watches and Clocks an escapement is a device which converts continuous rotational motion into an oscillating or back and forth motion Horology (from Greek ώρα, "hour time" and λόγος Logos, "study speech" lit Materia medica is a Latin medical term for the body of collected knowledge about the therapeutic properties of any substance used for healing The term air conditioning refers to the cooling and dehumidification of indoor air for Thermal comfort. A mechanical fan is an electrically powered device used to produce an airflow for the purpose of creature comfort (particularly in the heat ventilation, exhaust The religious and philosophical ideology of Buddhism became a major aspect of Chinese culture, with native Chinese sects becoming the most prominent. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Chinese Buddhism ( Pinyin fójiào refers collectively to the various schools of Buddhism that have flourished in China proper since ancient times However, Buddhism would eventually be persecuted by the state and would decline in influence. Although the dynasty and central government were in decline by the 9th century, art and culture continued to flourish. The weakened central government largely withdrew from managing the economy, but the country's mercantile affairs stayed intact and commercial trade continued to thrive regardless. Central government or the national government (or in Federal states the Federal government) is the Government at the level of the Nation-state
Contents |
History
Establishment
The Li family belonged to the northwest military aristocracy prevalent during the reign of the Sui emperors. The transition from Sui to Tang (隋末唐初 refers to a period in which the Chinese dynasty Sui Dynasty disintegrated into a number of short-lived states Li ( pinyin Lǐ Hangul: 이, Lee is a family name of Chinese origin. The Sui Dynasty ( 581 - 618 AD and in the undertaking of other construction projects including the reconstruction of the Great Wall. [8][9] The mothers of both Emperor Yang of Sui (r. Background Yang Guang was born in 569 during the reign of Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou. 604–617) and the founding emperor of Tang were sisters, making these two emperors of different dynasties first cousins. cousin in Kinship terminology is a relative with whom one shares a common Ancestor, but in modern usage the term is rarely used when referring to a [2] Li Yuan (later to become Emperor Gaozu of Tang, r. Background and early career Li Yuan's seventh-generation ancestor was Li Gao, the founder of the Sixteen Kingdoms state Western Liang. 618–626) was the Duke of Tang and former governor of Taiyuan when other government officials were fighting off bandit leaders in the collapse of the Sui Empire, caused in part by a failed Korean campaign. Taiyuan ( lit "Great Plains" is a Prefecture-level city and the capital of Shanxi province China. [8][10] With prestige and military experience, he later rose in rebellion along with his son Li Shimin (later Emperor Taizong, r. Emperor Taizong of Tang ( January 23, 599 &ndash July 10 649) personal name Lǐ Shìmín ( was the second emperor of the 626–649) and his equally militant daughter Princess Pingyang (d. Princess Píngyáng ( formally Princess Zhao of Pingyang (平陽昭公主 (d 623) who raised her own troops and commanded them. [11] In 617, Li Yuan occupied Chang'an and acted as regent over a puppet child emperor of the Sui, relegating Emperor Yang to the position of Taishang Huang, or retired emperor. Chang'an ( is an ancient Capital of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history. A regent, from the Latin regens "who reigns" is a person selected to act as Head of state (ruling or not because the ruler is a minor During Emperor Yang's reign Yang You was born in 605 as a son of Yang Zhao, the son and Crown prince of Emperor Yang. Taishang-huang ( was a Chinese title sometimes translated in English as Retired Emperor, Grand Emperor or Emperor Emeritus used throughout [11] With the news of Emperor Yang's murder by his general Yuwen Huaji (d. Background It is not known when Yuwen Huaji was born He was the oldest son of the Sui Dynasty official Yuwen Shu, a close associate of Yang Guang 619), on June 18, 618, Li Yuan declared himself the emperor of a new dynasty, the Tang. Events 618 - Coronation of the Chinese governor Li Yuan as Emperor Gaozu of Tang, the new Emperor of China, initiating three centuries Events By Place Asia The Sui Dynasty ends and the Tang Dynasty begins in China. [11][12]
Li Yuan ruled until 626 before being forcefully deposed by his son Li Shimin, Prince of Qin. Li Shimin had commanded troops since the age of 18, had prowess with a bow, sword, lance, and was known for his effective cavalry charges. A bow is a Weapon that projects arrows powered by the elasticity of the bow Chinese swords have a long History in China. Stone swords were used in prehistoric times The term lance has become a catchall for a variety of different Pole weapons based on the Spear. The Cavalry (from French cavalerie) is the second oldest of the Combat Arms, and as Soldiers or Warriors who fought mounted on [2][13] Fighting a numerically superior army, he defeated Dou Jiande (573–621) at Luoyang in the Battle of Hulao on May 28, 621. Initial uprising and service under Gao Shida Dou Jiande was born in 573 when his birth area Zhangnan County (漳南縣 in modern Handan, Hebei) was under Luoyang ( is a Prefecture-level city in western Henan province, People's Republic of China. The Battle of Hulao (虎牢之戰 of 28 May 621, located just east of Luoyang, was a decisive victory for Li Shimin, through which he was able Events 585 BC - A Solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling Events By Place Byzantine Empire Byzantine Emperor Heraclius invades Persia. [14][15] In a violent elimination of royal family due to fear of assassination, Li Shimin ambushed and killed two of his brothers, Li Yuanji (b. Li Yuanji (李元吉 ( 603 - July 2, 626) formally Prince La of Chao (巢剌王 more commonly known by the title of Prince of Qi 603) and Crown Prince Li Jiancheng (b. Crown Princess redirects here for the ship see Crown Princess (ship. Li Jiancheng (李建成 ( 589 - July 2, 626) formally Crown Prince Yin (隱太子 literally "the hidden crown prince" nickname 589) in the Incident at Xuanwu Gate on July 2, 626. The Incident at Xuanwu Gate (玄武門之變 refers to an incident on July 2, 626, when Li Shimin the Prince of Qin a son of Emperor Gaozu of Tang Events 310 - Pope Miltiades is elected 626 - In fear of assassination Li Shimin ambushes and kills his rival Events By Place Byzantine Empire The Byzantines defeat the Avars and Slavs, who were besieging Constantinople [16] Shortly after, his father abdicated in favor of him and he ascended the throne as Emperor Taizong. Although killing two brothers and deposing his father contradicted the Confucian value of filial piety,[16] Taizong showed to be a capable leader who listened to the advice of the wisest members of his council. Confucianism ( is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of the fifth century B In Confucian thought filial piety ( is one of the Virtues to be cultivated a love and respect for one's parents and ancestors [2] In 628, Emperor Taizong held a Buddhist memorial service for the casualties of war, and in 629 had Buddhist monasteries erected at the sites of major battles so that monks could pray for the fallen on both sides of the fight. [17] This was during the campaign against Eastern Tujue, a Göktürk khanate that was destroyed after the capture of Jiali Khan Ashini Duobi by the famed Tang military officer Li Jing (571–649), who later became a Chancellor of the Tang Dynasty. Emperor Taizong of Tang (r 626 - 649) the second emperor of Chinese dynasty Tang Dynasty, faced a major threat from Tang's northern Göktürks ( Turkish: Gök Türkler) were a Turkic people of ancient Central Asia. Jiali Khan ( Bagatur-Shad Il-khan Chieli Kara-Khieli Hieli Jiele Duobi 咄苾 Illig-Qaghan Kara Kagan) later Tang posthumous title Prince Huang of Guiyi (歸義荒王 Li Jing (李靖 Pinyin: Lǐ Jìng ( 571 - July 2, 649) né Yaoshi (藥師/药师 Pinyin: Yàoshī formally The chancellor of the Tang Dynasty (唐朝宰相 was an office that was semi-formally designated for a number of high level officials at one time during the Chinese With this victory, the Turks accepted Taizong as their Khagan, or Great Khan, in addition to his rule as the Son of Heaven. For other titles related to and uses of Khan, see that article Origin The title The Emperor of China ( refers to any sovereign of Imperial China reigning since the founding of the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC until the fall of [18][19]
Administration and politics
Initial reforms
Taizong set out to solve internal problems within the government which had constantly plagued past dynasties. Building upon the Sui legal code, he issued a new legal code that subsequent Chinese dynasties would model theirs upon, as well as neighboring polities in Vietnam, Korea, and Japan. A Code is a type of legislation that purports to exhaustively cover a complete system of laws or a particular area of law as it existed at the time the code was enacted by a The Tang Code (唐律 was the criminal or penal code established during the Tang Dynasty in China. Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. [2] The earliest law code to survive though was the one established in the year 653, which was divided into 500 articles specifying different crimes and penalties ranging from ten blows with a light stick, one hundred blows with a heavy rod, exile, penal servitude, or execution. [20] The legal code clearly distinguished different levels of severity in meted punishments when different members of the social and political hierarchy committed the same crime. [21] For example, the severity of punishment was different when a servant or nephew killed a master or an uncle than when a master or uncle killed a servant or nephew. [21] The Tang Code was largely retained by later codes such as the early Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) code of 1397,[22] yet there were several revisions in later times, such as improved property rights for women during the Song Dynasty (960–1279). The Ming Dynasty ( or Empire of the Great Ming ( was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol -led Chinese society during the Song Dynasty (AD 960–1279 was marked by political and legal reforms a philosophical revival of Confucianism, and the development of The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms [23][24]
The Tang had three departments (省, shěng), which were obliged to draft, review, and implement policies respectively. There were also six ministries (部, bù) under the administrations that implemented policy, each of which was assigned different tasks. These divisional state bureaus included the personnel administration, finance, rites, military, justice, and public works — an administrative model which would last until the fall of the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912). The Three Departments and Six Ministries system ( was the main central administrative system adopted in ancient China. Not to be confused with Qin Dynasty, the first dynasty of Imperial China [25] Although the founders of the Tang related to the glory of the earlier Han Dynasty (202 BC–220 AD), the basis for much of their administrative organization was very similar to the previous Southern and Northern Dynasties. The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. This article is about the Southern and Northern Dynasties in China. [2] The Northern Zhou (557–581) divisional militia (fubing) was continued by the Tang government, along with farmer-soldiers serving in rotation from the capital or frontier in order to receive appropriated farmland. The Northern Zhou Dynasty (Chinese北周 followed the Western Wei, and ruled northern China from 557 to 581. The Fubing system (府兵制 also romanized as Fu-ping, was a local militia system existing in China between 6th century and 8th century. The equal-field system of the Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534) was also kept, although there were a few modifications. The Equal-field system ( (Also Land-equalization system land system was a historical system of land ownership and distribution in China used from the Six Dynasties to Mid- The Northern Wei Dynasty (北魏 Pinyin: běi wèi 386 - 534) also known as the Tuoba Wei (拓拔魏 Later Wei (後魏 or [2]
Although the central and local governments kept an enormous number of records about land property in order to assess taxes, it became common practice in the Tang for literate and affluent people to create their own private documents and signed contracts. A contract is an exchange of promises between two or more parties to do or refrain from doing an act which is enforceable in a court of law [26] These had their own signature and that of a witness and scribe in order to prove in court (if necessary) that their claim to property was legitimate. [26] The prototype of this actually existed since the ancient Han Dynasty, while contractual language became even more common and embedded into Chinese literary culture in later dynasties. [26]
The center of the political power of the Tang was the capital city of Chang'an (modern Xi'an), where the emperor maintained his large palace quarters, and entertained political emissaries with music, sports, acrobatic stunts, poetry, paintings, and dramatic theater performances. Chang'an ( is an ancient Capital of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history. UserEl_C --> Xi'an ( Postal map spelling: Sian is the Capital of the Shaanxi province in the Acrobatics (from Greek Akros, high and bat, walking is one of the Performing arts, and is also practiced as a Sport. The Pear Garden or Liyuan ( Chinese: 梨园 the first known royal acting and musical academy in China. The capital was also filled with incredible amounts of riches and resources to spare. When the Chinese prefectural government officials traveled to the capital in the year 643 to give the annual report of the affairs in their districts, Emperor Taizong discovered that many had no proper quarters to rest in, and were renting rooms with merchants. For subsequent types of praefectura, see Prefect. Prefecture (from the Latin Praefectura) indicates the office [27] Therefore, Emperor Taizong ordered the government agencies in charge of municipal construction to build every visiting official his own private mansion in the capital. A township (or Municipality) is a settlement which has the status and powers of a unit of local government A mansion is a large dwelling House. The word itself derives (through Old French) from the Latin word mansus (the perfect passive participle [27]
Imperial examinations
Following the Sui Dynasty's example, the Tang abandoned the nine-rank system in favor of a large civil service system. The Nine rank system ( Pinyin: jiǔ pǐn zhōng zhèng zhī or jiǔ pǐn guǎn rén fǎ or much less commonly Nine grade controller system, was a Civil service See also Bureaucrat The term civil service has two distinct meanings Branch of governmental service in which individuals are hired on the basis [28] Students of Confucian studies were potential candidates for the imperial examinations, the graduates of which could be appointed as state bureaucrats in the local, provincial, and central government. Confucianism ( is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of the fifth century B The Imperial examinations ( in Imperial China determined who among the population would be permitted to enter the state's Bureaucracy. There were two types of exams that were given, mingjing ('illuminating the classics examination') and jinshi ('presented scholar examination'). [29] The mingjing was based upon the Confucian classics, and tested the student's knowledge of a broad variety of texts. Chinese classic texts or Chinese canonical texts ( refer to the pre- Qin Chinese texts especially the Confucian Four Books and Five Classics [29] The jinshi tested a student's literary abilities in writing essay-style responses to questions on matters of governance and politics, as well as their skills in composing poetry. An essay is usually a short piece of writing It is often written from an author's personal point of view. Chinese Poetry is the most highly regarded literary genre in China. [30] Candidates were also judged on their skills of deportment, appearance, speech, and level of skill in calligraphy, all of which were subjective criteria that allowed the already wealthy members of society to be chosen over ones of more modest means who were unable to be educated in rhetoric or fanciful writing skills. Calligraphy (from Greek kallos "beauty" + graphẽ "writing" is the art of writing (Mediavilla 1996 17 Rhetoric has had many definitions no simple definition can do it justice [31] Indeed there was a disproportionate number of civil officials coming from aristocratic as opposed to non-aristocratic families. [31] The exams were open to all male subjects whose fathers were not of the artisan or merchant classes,[32] although having wealth or noble status was not a prerequisite in receiving a recommendation. The four occupations or " four categories of the people " (Chinese 四民 pinyin simin) was a hierarchic social class structure developed in ancient [31] In order to promote widespread Confucian education, the Tang government established state-run schools and issued standard versions of the Five Classics with selected commentaries. The Five Classics ( is a corpus of five ancient Chinese books used by Confucianism as the basis of studies [21]
This competitive procedure was designed to draw the best talent into government. Gilding is the art of applying a thin layer of gold simulated gold or other metal to a surface Silver (ˈsɪlvɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol " Ag " (argentum from the Ancient Greek: ἀργήντος - argēntos gen But perhaps an even greater consideration for the Tang rulers, aware that imperial dependence on powerful aristocratic families and warlords would have destabilizing consequences, was to create a body of career officials having no autonomous territorial or functional power base. A warlord is a person with power who has military control over a subnational area due to Armed forces loyal to the warlord and not to a central authority In Politics, the term base refers to a group of Voters who almost always support a single party 's candidates for elected office The Tang law code ensured equal division of inherited property amongst legitimate heirs, allowing a bit of social mobility and preventing the families of powerful court officials in becoming landed nobility through primogeniture. See also Economic mobility Social mobility is the degree to which in a given society an individual's family's or group's social status Landed nobility is a category of Nobility in various countries over the history for which Landownership was part of their noble privileges Primogeniture is the Common law right of the Firstborn son to inherit the entire estate, to the exclusion of younger siblings [33] As it turned out, these scholar-officials acquired status in their local communities and in family ties, while they also shared values that connected them to the imperial court. From Tang times until the end of the Qing Dynasty in 1912, scholar-officials functioned often as intermediaries between the grassroots level and the government. Scholar-bureaucrats or scholar-officials were civil servants appointed by the Emperor of China to perform day-to-day governance from the Sui Dynasty to For other meanings see Grass roots (disambiguation. A grassroots movement (often referenced in the context of a Political movement Yet the potential of a widespread examination system was not fully realized until the Song Dynasty, where the merit-driven scholar official largely shed his aristocratic habits and defined his social status through the examination system. [34][35][36] As historian Patricia Ebrey states of the Song period scholar-officials:
The examination system, used only on a small scale in Sui and Tang times, played a central role in the fashioning of this new elite. The early Song emperors, concerned above all to avoid domination of the government by military men, greatly expanded the civil service examination system and the government school system. [37]
Nevertheless, the Sui and Tang dynasties institutionalized and set the foundations for the civil service system and this new elite class of exam-drafted scholar-officials.
Religion and politics
From the onset, religion played a role in Tang politics. Emperor Xuanzong of Tang ( ( September 8, 685 Background Li Longji was born at the Tang Dynasty eastern capital Luoyang In his bid for power, Li Yuan had attracted a following by claiming descent from the Daoist sage Laozi (fl. Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions Laozi ( also Lao Tse, Lao-Tzu, Laotze, Lao Zi, Laocius, and other variations was a philosopher of ancient 6th century BC). [38] People bidding for office would have monks from Buddhist temples pray for them in public in return for cash donations or gifts if the person was to be selected. Before the persecution of Buddhism in the 9th century, Buddhism and Daoism were accepted side by side, and Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (r. Emperor Xuanzong of Tang ( ( September 8, 685 Background Li Longji was born at the Tang Dynasty eastern capital Luoyang 712–756) invited monks and clerics of both religions to his court. [39] At the same time Xuanzong exalted the ancient Laozi by granting him grand titles, wrote commentary on the Daoist Laozi, set up a school to prepare candidates for examinations on Daoist scriptures, and called upon the Indian monk Vajrabodhi (671–741) to perform Tantric rites to avert a drought in the year 726. Vajrabodhi ( 671 - 741) was an Indian Buddhist monk and Shingon teacher in Tang China. Vajrayana Buddhism is also known as Tantric Buddhism, Tantrayāna, Mantrayana, Mantranaya, Secret Mantra, Esoteric Buddhism and [39] In 742 Emperor Xuanzong personally held the incense burner during the ceremony of the Ceylonese monk Amoghavajra (705–774) reciting "mystical incantations to secure the victory of Tang forces. Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ( Sinhalese:, இலங்கை known as Ceylon before 1972 is an Island Amoghavajra (705-774 (in Chinese 不空 Bukong/P'u-k'ung) was a prolific translator who became one of the most politically powerful Buddhist monks in Chinese "[39] In addition, if religion played a role in politics, then politics played a role in religion as well. In the year 714, Emperor Xuanzong forbade shops and vendors in the city of Chang'an to sell copied Buddhist sutras, instead giving the Buddhist clergy of the monasteries the sole right to distribute sutras to the laity. Clergy is the generic term used to describe the formal religious leadership within a given Religion. In religious organizations the laity comprises all persons who are not Clergy. [40] In the previous year of 713, Emperor Xuanzong had liquidated the highly lucrative Inexhaustible Treasury, which was run by a prominent Buddhist monastery in Chang'an. Chang'an ( is an ancient Capital of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history. This monastery collected vast amounts of money, silk, and treasures through multitudes of synonymous people's repentances, leaving the donations on the monastery's premise. [41] Although the monastery was generous in donations, Emperor Xuanzong issued a decree abolishing their treasury on grounds that their banking practices were fraudulent, collected their riches, and distributed the wealth to various other Buddhist monasteries, Daoist abbeys, and to repair statues, halls, and bridges in the city. The history of banking in China includes the business of dealing with Money and credit transactions in China. [41]
Taxes and the census
The Tang Dynasty government attempted to create an accurate census of the size of their empire's population, mostly for effective taxation and matters of military conscription for each region. The early Tang government established both the grain tax and cloth tax at a relatively low rate for each household under the empire. This was meant to encourage households to enroll for taxation and not avoid the authorities, thus providing the government with the most accurate estimate possible. [2] In the census of 609, the population was tallied by efforts of the government at a size of 9 million households, or about 50 million people. [2] Again, the Tang census of the year 742 approximated the size China's population to about 50 million people. [4] Patricia Ebrey writes that even if a rather significant number of people had avoided the registration process of the tax census, the population size during the Tang had not grown significantly since the earlier Han Dynasty (the census of the year 2 recording a population of 59 million people in China). [2] S. A. M. Adshead disagrees, estimating that there was about 75 million people by 750. [42] In the Tang census of the year 754, there were 1,859 cities, 321 prefectures, and 1,538 counties throughout the empire. Prefecture, in the context of China, is used to refer to several unrelated political divisions in both ancient and modern China. In the context of Political divisions of China, county is the standard English translation of 县 ( xiàn) [43] Although there were many large and prominent cities during the Tang, the rural and agrarian areas comprised the majority of China's population at some 80 to 90 percent. [44] There was also a dramatic migratory shift of the population from northern to southern China, as the North held 75% of the overall population at the dynasty's inception, but by its end was reduced to 50%. Alternative meaning In Geology, North China (continent and South China (continent were two ancient landmasses that correspond to modern northern [45]
Chinese population size would not dramatically increase until the Song Dynasty period, where the population doubled to 100 million people due to extensive rice cultivation in central and southern China, coupled with rural farmers holding more abundant yields of food that they could easily provide the growing market. [46]
Military and foreign policy
Protectorates and tributaries
The 7th century and first half of the 8th century is generally considered the zenith era of the Tang Dynasty. Emperor Tang Xuanzong brought the Middle Kingdom to its golden age while the Silk Road thrived, with sway over Indochina in the south, and to the west Tang China was master of the Pamirs (modern-day Tajikistan) and protector of Kashmir bordering Persia. All under heaven, or literally "heaven under" ( is a phrase in the Chinese language and a cultural concept in China. The Silk Road, or Silk Routes, are an extensive interconnected network of Trade routes across the Asian continent connecting East South and Western Asia with the Indochina, or the Indochinese Peninsula, is a region in Southeast Asia. The Pamir Mountains are located in Central Asia and are formed by the junction or Knot of the Tian Shan, Karakoram, Kunlun, and Tajikistan (təˈdʒɪkɨstæn or /təˈdʒiːkɨstæn/ Тоҷикистон tɔʤikɪsˈtɔn or, Persian تاجیکستان taajikestaan officially the Republic of [47] Some of the kingdoms paying tribute to the Tang Dynasty included Kashmir, Nepal, Khotan, Kucha, Kashgar, Japan, Korea, southern Vietnam, and kingdoms located in Amu Darya and Syr Darya valley. This article is about the geographical region of greater Kashmir Nepal (नेपाल) is a Landlocked country in South Asia. Kucha or Kuche (also Kuçar, Kuchar) Uyghur ( كۇچار) Chinese Simplified 库车; Traditional 庫車 Kashgar or Kashi (officially transliterated as Kaxgar in Uyghur; قەشقەر/K̡ǝxk̡ǝr, is an Oasis For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. The kingdom of Champa ( Chăm Pa in Vietnamese or Chiêm Thành in Hán Việt records was an Indianized kingdom and controlled what The Amu Darya (formerly Oxus River the Greeks (Ptolemeus called it Oxiana palus) is the longest river in Central Asia. Syr Darya (Сырдария Сирдарё Sirdaryoسيردريا also transliterated Syrdarya or Sirdaryo) is a River in Central Asia [48][49] Turkic nomads addressed the Emperor of Tang China as Tian Kehan. Tian Kehan ( also translated as Heavenly Khagan, Celestial Khagan or Tengri Khagan, was a title addressed to Emperor Taizong of Tang by various [19] After the widespread Göktürk revolt of Shabolüe Khan (d. Shabolüe Khan (沙缽略可汗 or Shaboluo Khan (沙缽羅可汗 (d 658) was put down at Issyk Kul in 657 by Su Dingfang (591–667), Emperor Gaozong established several protectorates governed by a Protectorate General or Grand Protectorate General, which extended the Chinese sphere of influence as far as Herat in Western Afghanistan. Issyk Kul (also Ysyk Köl, Issyk-kol; Ысыккөл Иссык-Куль is an Endorheic Lake in the northern Tian Shan mountains Su Dingfang ( 591-667 formal name Su Lie (蘇烈 but went by the Courtesy name of Dingfang formally Duke Zhuang of Xing (邢莊公 was a general Xiyu Protectorate in Han Dynasty Protectorates in Tang Dynasty Overview List of Initial nine Protectorates A sphere of influence ( SOI) is an area or region over which an organization or state exerts some kind of indirect cultural economic military or political domination area3018 sq mi Herāt ( classically called the Aria, is a city in western Afghanistan, in the province also known as Herāt. [50] Protectorate Generals were given a great deal of autonomy to handle local crises without waiting for central admission. After Xuanzong's reign, military governors (jiedushi) were given enormous power, including the ability to maintain their own armies, collect taxes, and pass their titles on hereditarily. It was commonly recognized as the beginning of the fall of Tang's central government. [51][52]
Soldiers and conscription
By the year 737, Emperor Xuanzong discarded the policy of conscripting soldiers that were replaced every three years, replacing them with long-service soldiers who were more battle-hardened and efficient. [53] It was more economically feasible as well, since training new recruits and sending them out to the frontier every three years drained the treasury. [53] Plus, by the late 7th century, the fubing troops began abandoning military service and the homes allotted to them in the equal-field system, because the supposed standard 100 mu of land for each family was in fact decreasing in size in places where population expanded and the rich and wealthy bought up most of the land. Chinese units of measurement ( are the customary and traditional units of measure used in the People's Republic of China. [54] Hard-pressed peasants and vagrants were then induced into military service with benefits of exemption from both taxation and corvée labor service, as well as provisions for farmland and dwellings for dependents who accompanied soldiers on the frontier. [55] By the year 742 the total number of enlisted troops in the Tang armies had risen to about 500,000 men. [53]
Turk and Western Regions
The Sui and Tang had one of the most successful military campaigns against the steppe nomads during its history. In terms of foreign policy to the north and west, the Chinese now had to deal with Turkic nomads, who were becoming the most dominant ethnic group in Central Asia. The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south [57][58] To handle and avoid any threats posed by the Turks, the Sui government repaired fortifications and received their trade and tribute missions. [30] They sent royal princesses off to marry Turkic clan leaders, a total four of them in 597, 599, 614, and 617. The Sui stirred trouble and conflict amongst ethnic groups against the Turks. [59][60] As early as the Sui Dynasty the Turks had become a major militarized force employed by the Chinese. When the Khitans began raiding northeast China in 605, a Chinese general led 20,000 Turks against them, distributing Khitan livestock and women to the Turks as a reward. [3] The Tang, unlike the Sui, did not send royal princesses to their leaders; instead they were married to Turk mercenaries or generals in Chinese service, and such marriages only occurred in two rare occasions between 635 and 636. [60] Throughout the Tang Dynasty until the end of 755, there were approximately ten Turkic generals serving under the Tang. [61][62] While most of the Tang army was made of fubing Chinese conscripts, the majority of the army led by Turkic generals was of non-Chinese origin, campaigning largely in the western frontier where the presence of fubing troops was low. [63]
Civil war in China was almost totally diminished by 626, along with the defeat in 628 of the Ordos Chinese warlord Liang Shidu; after these internal conflicts, the Tang began an offensive against the Turks. The Ordos Desert ( is a Desert and Steppe region lying on a Plateau in the south of the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region of the People's Initial uprising Liang Shidu was from a prominent Clan of Xia Province (夏州 roughly modern Yulin, Shaanxi) and during the reign of [64] In the year 630, Tang armies captured areas of the Ordos Desert, modern-day Inner Mongolia province, and southern Mongolia from the Turks. Inner Mongolia ( Mongolian:, Öbür mongɣul; occasionally romanized to Nei Mongol is the Mongol Mongolia (mɒŋˈɡoʊliə, literally Mongol country/nation,) is a Landlocked Country in East [65][3] After this military victory, Emperor Taizong won the title of Great Khan amongst the various Turks in the region who pledged their allegiance to him and the Chinese empire (with several thousand Turks traveling into China to live at Chang'an). On June 11, 631, Emperor Taizong also sent envoys to the Xueyantuo bearing gold and silk in order to persuade the release of enslaved Chinese prisoners who were captured during the transition from Sui to Tang from the northern frontier; this embassy succeeded in freeing 80,000 Chinese men and women who were then returned to China. Events 1184 BC - Trojan War: Troy is sacked and burned according to the calculations of Eratosthenes. Events By Place Europe The Battle of Wogastisburg is fought between the Slavs led by Samo, and the Franks Xueyantuo (薛延陀 or Syr-Tardush were an ancient Tiele people and Khanate in central/northern Asia who were at one point vassals of The transition from Sui to Tang (隋末唐初 refers to a period in which the Chinese dynasty Sui Dynasty disintegrated into a number of short-lived states [66][67] While the Turks were settled in the Ordos region (former territory of the Xiongnu), the Tang government took on the military policy of dominating the central steppe. The Xiongnu ( Turkish: Doğu Hun were a confederation of nomadic tribes from Central Asia with a ruling class of unknown origin and other subjugated tribes In physical Geography, a steppe ( German, from степь - "a flat and arid land" степ - /stɛp/ тал - tal дала - /dɑlɑ/ pronounced Like the earlier Han Dynasty, the Tang Dynasty (along with Turkic allies) conquered and subdued Central Asia during the 640s and 650s. [30] During Emperor Taizong's reign alone, large campaigns were launched against not only the Göktürks, but also separate campaigns against the Tuyuhun, the Tufan, the Xiyu states, and the Xueyantuo. Göktürks ( Turkish: Gök Türkler) were a Turkic people of ancient Central Asia. Emperor Taizong of Tang (r 626 - 649) the second emperor of Chinese dynasty Tang Dynasty, throughout most of his reign faced challenges Emperor Taizong of Tang (r 626 - 649) the second emperor of Chinese dynasty Tang Dynasty, subjugated the Xianbei state Emperor Taizong of Tang (r 626 - 649) of Tang Dynasty China, after subjugating the Eastern Tujue ( Göktürk) Emperor Taizong of Tang (r 626 - 649) the second emperor of Chinese dynasty Tang Dynasty, early in his reign had allied with
The Tang Empire fought with the Tibetan Empire for control of areas in Inner and Central Asia, which was at times settled with marriage alliances such as the marrying of Princess Wencheng (d. Tibetan history is characterized by a special dedication to the Buddhist religion both in the eyes of its own people as well as for the Mongol and Manchu Heqin ( was a term used in ancient China for an alliance by Marriage. Princess Wencheng ( Tibetan: Mung-chang Kungco Chinese: 文成公主 Pinyin: Wénchéng Gōngzhǔ (d 680) to Songtsän Gampo (d. Songtsän Gampo ( Tibetan: སྲོང་བཙན་སྒམ་པོ་ Wylie: Srong-btsan 649). [68][69] There was a long string of conflicts with Tibet over territories in the Tarim Basin between 670–692 and in 763 the Tibetans even captured the capital of China, Chang'an, for fifteen days amidst the An Shi Rebellion. The Tarim Basin ( is a large Endorheic basin occupying an area of more than 400000 km² Chang'an ( is an ancient Capital of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history. The An Shi Rebellion ( took place in China during the Tang Dynasty, from December 16 755 to February 17 763. [70][71] In fact, it was during this rebellion that the Tang withdrew its western garrisons stationed in what is now Gansu and Qinghai, which the Tibetans then occupied along with the territory of what is now Xinjiang. ( is a province located in the northwest of the People's Republic of China. (青海 qīnghǎi is a province of the People's Republic of China, named after Qinghai Lake. Xinjiang ( Uyghur: شىنجاڭ Shinjang;; Postal map spelling: Sinkiang; Turkish: Sincan, Sincan Uygur Özerk [72] Hostilities between the Tang and Tibet continued until they signed a formal peace treaty in 821. [73] The terms of this treaty, including the fixed borders between the two countries, are recorded in a bilingual inscription on a stone pillar outside the Jokhang temple in Lhasa. The Jokhang, () also called the Qokang, Jokang, Jokhang Temple, Jokhang Monastery or Tsuklakang (gTsug lag khang, is the first Lhasa, ( in English l̥ʰásə or in Tibetan; Chinese: 拉萨 Pinyin: Lāsà sometimes spelled Lasa, is the administrative capital of the [74]
During the Islamic conquest of Persia (633–656), the son of the last ruler of the Sassanid Empire, Prince Pirooz, fled to Tang China. The Islamic conquest of Persia (633–656 led to the end of the Sassanid Empire and the eventual extirpation of the Zoroastrian religion in Persia The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire [75][48] According to the Book of Tang, Pirooz was made the head of a Governorate of Persia in what is now Zaranj, Afghanistan. The Book of Tang ( or the Old Book of Tang (舊唐書/旧唐书 is the first classic work about the Tang Dynasty. Zaranj is a town in south-western Afghanistan, with a population of approximately 70000 people Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/ officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan ( Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, During this conquest of Persia, the Islamic Caliph Uthman Ibn Affan (r. Early life Uthman was born in Ta’if, which is situated on a hill and the presumption is that Uthman was born during the summer months since wealthy Meccans 644–656) sent an embassy to the Tang court at Chang'an. [62] By the 740s, the Arabs of Khurasan—by then under Abbasid control—had established a presence in the Ferghana basin and in Sogdiana. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding Fergana or Farghana ( Uzbek: Farg'ona, Persian فرغانه, UniPers "Farqāna", Russian: Фергана History Hellenistic period The Sogdian Rock or Rock of Ariamazes a fortress in Sogdiana was captured in 327 BC by the forces of Alexander the Great At the Battle of Talas in 751, Qarluq mercenaries under the Chinese defected, which forced Tang commander Gao Xianzhi (d. The Battle of Talas in 751 CE was a conflict between the Arab Abbasid Caliphate and the Chinese Tang Dynasty for control The Karluks (obs Qarluqs, Qarluks, Karluqs, Arab/Persian Halluh,, customary phonetic Gelolu, Gelu, Khololo Gao Xianzhi (d January 24, 756) ( Revised Romanization Go Seon-ji) was an ethnic Goguryeo (one of the Three kingdoms of Korea 756) to retreat. Although the battle itself was not of the greatest significance militarily, this was a pivotal moment in history; it marks the spread of Chinese papermaking into regions west of China,[76][77] ultimately reaching Europe by the 12th century. Papermaking is the process of making Paper, a material which is used ubiquitously today for writing and packaging Although they had fought at Talas, on June 11, 758, an Abbasid embassy arrived at Chang'an simultaneously with the Uyghur Turks in order to pay tribute. Events 1184 BC - Trojan War: Troy is sacked and burned according to the calculations of Eratosthenes. Events By Place Asia Emperor Junnin succeeds Empress Kōken on the throne of Japan. [78]
Korea and Japan
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In terms of foreign policy to the east, the Chinese had more unsuccessful military campaigns as compared with elsewhere. Like the emperors of the Sui Dynasty before him, Taizong established a military campaign in 644 against the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo in the Goguryeo-Tang Wars. Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. Goguryeo or Koguryo was an ancient Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean peninsula, southern Manchuria, and Since the ancient Han and Jin dynasties once had a commandery in ancient northern Korea, the Tang Chinese desired to conquer the region. The Four Commanderies of Han (漢四郡 한사군 are Lelang, Lintun, Xuantu and Zhenfan commanderies in the western Korean peninsula Allying with the Korean Silla Kingdom, the Chinese fought against Baekje and their Yamato Japanese allies in the Battle of Baekgang in August of 663, a decisive Tang-Silla victory. Silla (57 BC – 935 AD was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Baekje (18 BCE – 660 CE or Paekche, was a kingdom located in southwest Korea This is summary of two more detailed articles Kofun period and Asuka period. The Battle of Baekgang, also known as Battle of Baekgang-gu or by the Japanese name Battle of Hakusukinoe (白村江の戦い Hakusuki-no-e no The Tang Dynasty navy had several different ship types at its disposal to engage in naval warfare, these ships described by Li Quan in his Taipai Yinjing (Canon of the White and Gloomy Planet of War) of 759. The naval history of China dates back thousands of years with archives existing since the late Spring and Autumn Period ( 722 BC - 481 BC) about the Naval warfare is Combat in and on Seas Oceans or any other major bodies of water such as large Lakes and wide Rivers History [79] The Battle of Baekgang was actually a restoration movement by remnant forces of Baekje, since their kingdom was toppled in 660 by a joint Tang-Silla invasion, led by notable Korean general Kim Yushin (595–673) and Chinese general Su Dingfang. Kim Yusin (595-673 was a General in 7th-century Silla. He led the unification of the Korean peninsula by Silla under the reign of King In another joint invasion with Silla, the Tang army severely weakened the Goguryeo Kingdom in the north by taking out its outer forts in the year 645. With joint attacks by Silla and Tang armies under commander Li Shiji (594–669), the Kingdom of Goguryeo was destroyed by 668. Li Shiji (李世勣 (594- December 31, 669) né Xu Shiji (徐世勣 later known in the reign of Emperor Gaozong of Tang as Li Ji [47] Although they were formerly enemies, the Tang accepted officials and generals of Goguryeo into their administration and military, such as the brothers Yeon Namsaeng (634–679) and Yeon Namsan (639–701). Yeon Namsaeng (연남생 淵男生 (634-679 was the eldest son of the Goguryeo Dae Mangniji (대막리지 大莫離支 Yeon Gaesomun (603?-665 Yeon Namsan (淵男産 연남산 (639-701 was the third son of the Goguryeo military leader and dictator Yeon Gaesomun (603?-665 From 668 to 676, the Tang Empire would control northern Korea. However, in 671 Silla began fighting the Tang forces there. At the same time the Tang faced threats on its western border when a large Chinese army was defeated by the Tibetans on the Dafei River in 670. [80] By 676, the Tang army was driven out of Korea by Unified Silla. Unified Silla ( 668 CE - 935 CE or Later Silla is the name often applied to the kingdom of Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of [81] Following a revolt of the Eastern Turks in 679, the Tang abandoned its Korean campaigns. [80]
Although the Tang had fought the Japanese, they still held cordial relations with Japan. There were numerous Imperial embassies to China from Japan, diplomatic missions that were not halted until 894 by Emperor Uda (r. was the 59th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession 887–897), upon persuasion by Sugawara no Michizane (845–903). Sugawara no Michizane (菅原道真 845 - March 26, 903) also known as Kan Shōjō (菅丞相 a grandson of Sugawara no Kiyotomo [82] The Japanese Emperor Temmu (r. (c 631 - October 1 686) was the 40th Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession 672–686) even established his conscripted army on that of the Chinese model, his state ceremonies on the Chinese model, and constructed his palace at Fujiwara on the Chinese model of architecture. Fujiwara-kyō (藤原京 in Japanese also Fujiwara no miyako) was the Imperial capital of Japan for sixteen years between 694 and 710 Chinese architecture refers to a style of Architecture that has taken shape in Asia over the centuries [83] Many Chinese Buddhist monks came to Japan to help further the spread of Buddhism as well. Two 7th century monks in particular, Zhi Yu and Zhi You, visited the court of Emperor Tenji (r. Emperor Tenji (天智天皇 Tenji-tennō) also known as Emperor Tenchi ( Tenchi-tennō) ( 626 - January 7, 672 (the 3rd Day of 661–672), whereupon they presented a gift of a South Pointing Chariot that they had crafted. The South Pointing Chariot is widely regarded as one of the most complex Geared mechanism of the ancient Chinese civilization, and was continually used throughout the [84] This 3rd century mechanically-driven directional-compass vehicle (employing a differential gear) was again reproduced in several models for Tenji in 666, as recorded in the Nihon Shoki of 720. A compass, magnetic compass or mariner's compass is a navigational instrument for determining direction relative to the earth's Magnetic poles It consists This article deals with the concept of a differential in mechanical engineering. The, sometimes translated as The Chronicles of Japan, is the second oldest book of classical Japanese history. [84] Japanese monks also visited China; such was the case with Ennin (794–864), who wrote of his travel experiences including travels along China's Grand Canal. Ennin (圓仁 or 円仁 (AD 793 or 794 - 864 who is better known in Japan by his Posthumous name, Jikaku Daishi (慈覺大師 was a priest of the The Grand Canal of China ( also known as the Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal ( is the longest ancient Canal or artificial River in the world [85][86] The Japanese monk Enchin (814–891) stayed in China from 839 to 847 and again from 853 to 858, landing near Fuzhou, Fujian and setting sail for Japan from Taizhou, Zhejiang during his second trip to China. (814 &ndash 891 was a Japanese Buddhist monk the founder of the Jimon School of Tendai Buddhism, and Chief Abbot of Miidera at ( Foochow Romanized: Hók-ciŭ EFEO: Fou-Tcheou also seen as Foochow, Fuchow, Fuh-chau or Hokchew in earlier Western Administration The Prefecture-level city of Taizhou currently administers 3 district, 2 county-level cities and 4 counties. [87][88]
Trade and spread of culture
Through use of the land trade along the Silk Road and maritime trade by sail at sea, the Tang were able to gain many new technologies, cultural practices, rare luxury, and contemporary items. The Silk Road, or Silk Routes, are an extensive interconnected network of Trade routes across the Asian continent connecting East South and Western Asia with the From the Middle East, India, Persia, and Central Asia the Tang were able to acquire new ideas in fashion, new types of ceramics, and improved silver-smithing. [89] The Chinese also gradually adopted the foreign concept of stools and chairs as seating, whereas the Chinese beforehand always sat on mats placed on the floor. [90] To the Middle East, the Islamic world coveted and purchased in bulk Chinese goods such as silks, lacquerwares, and porcelain wares. Silk is a natural Protein Fiber, some forms of which can be woven into Textiles The best-known type of silk is obtained from cocoons Lacquerware is objects which are decoratively covered with Lacquer which is sometimes inlaid or carved Porcelain is a Ceramic material made by heating raw materials generally including Clay in the form of Kaolin, in a Kiln to temperatures [91] Songs, dances, and musical instruments from foreign regions became popular in China during the Tang Dynasty. [92][93] These musical instruments included oboes, flutes, and small lacquered drums from Kucha in the Tarim Basin, and percussion instruments from India such as cymbals. "Hautbois" redirects here for the strawberry variety see Hautbois strawberry. The flute is a Musical instrument of the Woodwind family Unlike other woodwind instruments a flute is a Reedless wind instrument that produces its The drum is a member of the percussion group technically classified as a Membranophone. Kucha or Kuche (also Kuçar, Kuchar) Uyghur ( كۇچار) Chinese Simplified 库车; Traditional 庫車 The Tarim Basin ( is a large Endorheic basin occupying an area of more than 400000 km² Cymbals are a modern percussion instrument Cymbals consist of thin normally round plates of various Cymbal alloys; see Cymbal making for a discussion of their [92] At the court there were nine musical ensembles (expanded from seven in the Sui Dynasty) representing music from throughout Asia. [94]
There was great contact and interest in India as a hub for Buddhist knowledge, with famous travelers such as Xuanzang (d. See also Xuanzang (fictional character Xuanzang ( pronounced Shwan-dzang) was a famous Chinese Buddhist Monk, scholar traveler 664) visiting the South Asian subcontinent. After a 17-year long trip, Xuanzang managed to bring back tons of valuable Sanskrit texts to be translated into Chinese. Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical There was also a Turkic-Chinese dictionary available for serious scholars and students, while Turkic folksongs gave inspiration to some Chinese poetry. The Turkic languages constitute a Language family of some thirty languages spoken by Turkic peoples across a vast area from Eastern Europe and the [95][96] In the interior of China, trade was facilitated by the Grand Canal and the Tang government's rationalization of the greater canal system that reduced costs of transporting grain and other commodities. The Grand Canal of China ( also known as the Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal ( is the longest ancient Canal or artificial River in the world [97] The state also managed roughly 32,100 km (20,000 miles) of postal service routes by horse or boat. [98]
The Silk Road
The Silk Road was the most important pre-modern Eurasian trade route. The Silk Road, or Silk Routes, are an extensive interconnected network of Trade routes across the Asian continent connecting East South and Western Asia with the A trade route is a logistical network identified as a series of pathways and stoppages used for the commercial transport of cargo During this period of the Pax Sinica, the Silk Road reached its golden age, whereby Persian and Sogdian merchants benefited from the commerce between East and West. Pax Sinica ( Latin for " Chinese Peace " is the time of Peace in East Asia, maintained by Chinese Hegemony layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox History Hellenistic period The Sogdian Rock or Rock of Ariamazes a fortress in Sogdiana was captured in 327 BC by the forces of Alexander the Great At the same time, the Chinese empire welcomed foreign cultures, making the Tang capital arguably the most cosmopolitan area in the world.
Although the Silk Road from China to the West was initially formulated during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (141–87 BC), it was reopened by the Tang in 639 when Hou Junji (d. Glaze is a layer or coating of a Vitreous substance which has been fired to fuse to a ceramic object to color decorate strengthen or waterproof it Background birth and years as crown prince Emperor Wu was the tenth child of Emperor Jing, and was born to one of Emperor Jing's favorite Concubines, Hou Junji (侯君集 (d April 29, 643) was a major general and chancellor of the Chinese dynasty Tang Dynasty, particularly known 643) conquered the West, and remained open for almost four decades. It was closed after the Tibetans captured it in 678, but in 699, during Empress Wu's period, the Silk Road reopened when the Tang reconquered the Four Garrisons of Anxi originally installed in 640,[99] once again connecting China directly to the West for land-based trade. The Four Garrisons of Anxi were Chinese military Garrisons installed by Tang Dynasty between 648 and 658 that stationed [100] The Tang captured the vital route through the Gilgit Valley from Tibet in 722, lost it to the Tibetans in 737, and regained it under the command of the Goguryeo-Korean General Gao Xianzhi. Gilgit ( Urdu: گلگت) is the capital city of the Northern Areas, Pakistan and a Tehsil (headquarters of Gilgit District [101] After the An Shi Rebellion ended in 763, the Tang Empire had once again lost control over many of its outer western lands, as the Tibetan Empire largely cut off China's direct access to the Silk Road. [73] An internal rebellion in 848 ousted the Tibetan rulers, while Tang China regained its western territories from Tibet in 851, which contained crucial grazing areas and pastures for raising horses that the Tang Dynasty desperately needed. [73][102]
Despite the many western travelers coming into China to live and trade, many travelers, mainly religious monks, recorded the strict border laws that the Chinese enforced. [91] As the monk Xuanzang and many other monk travelers attested to, there were many Chinese government checkpoints along the Silk Road that examined travel permits into the Tang Empire. It has been suggested to create a new article named Checkpoint (security and that this article should be a sub-article to the new article Introduction In the ticketing system of the British rail network, a Permit to Travel provisionally allows a passenger to travel on a Train [91] Furthermore, banditry was a problem along the checkpoints and oasis towns, as Xuanzang also recorded that his group of travelers were assaulted by bandits on multiple occasions. An outlaw or bandit is a person living the lifestyle of outlawry; the word literally means "outside the Law " by folk-etymology from the original In Geography, an oasis (plural oases) or Cienega ( Southwestern United States) is an isolated area of vegetation in a Desert, typically [91]
Seaports and maritime trade
Chinese envoys had been sailing through the Indian Ocean to India since the 2nd century BC,[103][104] yet it was during the Tang Dynasty that a strong Chinese maritime presence could be found in the Persian Gulf and Red Sea, into Persia, Mesopotamia (sailing up the Euphrates River in modern-day Iraq), Arabia, Egypt, Aksum (Ethiopia), and Somalia in East Africa. The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's Oceanic divisions covering about 20% of the water on the Earth 's surface Kanchipuram, Kanchi, or Kancheepuram is a city and a Municipality in Kanchipuram district in the Indian state of The Persian Gulf, in the Southwest Asian region is an extension of the The Red Sea is a Salt water Inlet of the Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding The Euphrates ( ( Arabic: ar نهر الفرات; Turkish: tr Fırat Syriac: syr ܦܪܬ; Hebrew: he פרת For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻarab) This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Axum, or Aksum, is a City in northern Ethiopia named after the Kingdom of Aksum, a naval and trading power that ruled from the region ca NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page Somalia ( Soomaaliya; الصومال) officially the Somali Republic ( Jamhuuriyadda Soomaaliya, جمهورية الصومال) and formerly known [105] From the same Quraysh tribe of Muhammad, Sa'd ibn Abi-Waqqas sailed from Ethiopia to China during the reign of Emperor Gaozu. Quraish is also the name of a Surah in the Qur'an. Quraysh or Quraish (Arabic ar قريش IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics Sa`ad ibn Abī Waqqās ( was an early convert to Islam and one of the important companions of Muhammad. Background and early career Li Yuan's seventh-generation ancestor was Li Gao, the founder of the Sixteen Kingdoms state Western Liang. He later traveled back to China with a copy of the Quran, establishing China's first mosque, the Mosque of Remembrance, during the reign of Emperor Gaozong. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran The History of Islam in China goes back to the earliest years of Islam. Background and life as Prince of Jin Li Zhi was born in 628 He was the ninth son of his father Emperor Taizong, and the third son of his mother Emperor Taizong's wife To this day he is still buried in a Muslim cemetery at Guangzhou. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Guangzhou ( Jyutping: Gwong²zau¹; Yale: Gwóngjàu) is the Capital and a Sub-provincial city
During the Tang Dynasty, thousands of foreigners came and lived in Guangzhou for trade and commercial ties with China, including Persians, Arabs, Hindu Indians, Malays, Sinhalese, Khmers, Chams, Jews and Nestorian Christians of the Near East, and many others. Guangzhou ( Jyutping: Gwong²zau¹; Yale: Gwóngjàu) is the Capital and a Sub-provincial city A Hindu ( Devanagari: हिन्दू is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of Hinduism, a set of religious, Philosophical Malays (Melayu are an Ethnic group of Austronesian peoples predominantly inhabiting the Malay Peninsula, the east coast of Sumatra, the coast The Sinhalese are the main ethnic group of Sri Lanka. They speak Sinhala, an Indo-Aryan language and number approximately 15 million people with the The Khmer people are the predominant Ethnic group in Cambodia, accounting for approximately 90% of the 14 The Cham people ( Vietnamese: người Chăm or người Chàm) are an ethnic group in Southeast Asia. Jews and Judaism in China' have had a long history Jewish settlers are documented in China as early as the 7th or 8th century CE, but may Nestorius Nestorius (c 386 &ndashc 451) was a pupil of Theodore of Mopsuestia in Antioch in Syria (modern B Syria - Belka Woman from Damascus Arab from Baghdadjpg|thumb|Inhabitants of the Near East late nineteenth century [106][107] In 748, the Buddhist monk Jian Zhen described Guangzhou as a bustling mercantile center where many large and impressive foreign ships came to dock. He wrote that "many big ships came from Borneo, Persia, Qunglun (Indonesia/Java). Borneo is the third largest island in the world and is located at the centre of Maritime Southeast Asia. The Republic of Indonesia ( (Republik Indonesia is a Country in Southeast Asia. Java (Jawa is an Island of Indonesia and the site of its Capital city Jakarta. . . with. . . spices, pearls, and jade piled up mountain high",[108][109] as written in the Yue Jue Shu (Lost Records of the State of Yue). After Arab and Persian pirates burned and looted Guangzhou in 758,[73] the Tang government reacted by shutting the port down for roughly five decades, as foreign vessels docked at Hanoi instead. Piracy is Robbery committed at sea or sometimes on shore without a commission from a sovereign Nation (as distinct from Privateering Hanoi ( Vietnamese: Hà Nội Hán Tự: 河[[wikt 内|内]], estimated population 3398889 (2007, is the Capital of Vietnam [110] However, when the port reopened it continued to thrive. In 851 the Arab merchant Suleiman al-Tajir observed the manufacturing of Chinese porcelain in Guangzhou and admired its transparent quality. Porcelain is a Ceramic material made by heating raw materials generally including Clay in the form of Kaolin, in a Kiln to temperatures [111] He also provided description on the mosque at Guangzhou, its granaries, its local government administration, some of its written records, the treatment of travellers, along with the use of ceramics, rice-wine, and tea. The word ceramic is derived from the Greek word κεραμικός ( keramikos) Tea refers to the cured agricultural product of the leaves leaf buds and internodes of Camellia sinensis, which have been prepared and cured for the market [112] However, in another bloody episode at Guangzhou in 879, the Chinese rebel Huang Chao sacked the city, and purportedly slaughtered thousands of native Chinese, along with foreign Jews, Christians, and Muslims in the process. Huang Chao ( d 884 was the leader of infamous Huang Chao Rebellion (874–884 in China that seriously weakened the once mighty Tang Dynasty of China [113][114][115] Chao's rebellion was eventually suppressed in 884.
Korean Silla, Manchurian Balhae and Japanese vessels were all involved in the Yellow Sea trade, in which Silla dominated the trade and Japanese vessels ventured into from Hizen. Alternate meaning Bohai Sea Balhae (698 - 926 ( Bohai in Chinese, Пархэ in Russian) was an The Yellow Sea is the name given to the northern part of the East China Sea, which is a Marginal sea of the Pacific Ocean. Hizen (肥前国 Hizen no kuni was an old province of Japan which bordered on Chikuzen and Chikugo. [116] After Silla and Japan reopened renewed hostilities in the late 7th century, most Japanese maritime merchants chose to set sail from Nagasaki towards the mouth of the Huai River, the Yangzi River, and even as far south as the Hangzhou Bay in order to avoid Korean ships in the Yellow Sea. WikipediaWikiProject Japanese prefectures for guidelines --> is a prefecture of Japan located on the island of Kyūshū. The Huai River ( is a major river in China. The Huai River is located about mid-way between the Yellow River and Yangtze River, the two largest rivers Hangzhou Bay or the Bay of Hangzhou is an inlet of the East China Sea, bordered by the province of Zhejiang and the municipality of Shanghai. [116][117] In order to sail back to Japan in 838, the Japanese embassy to China procured nine ships and sixty Korean sailors from the Korean wards of Chuzhou and Lianshui cities along the Huai River. [118] It is also known that Chinese trade ships traveling to Japan set sail from the various ports along the coasts Zhejiang and Fujian provinces. Zhejiang ( is an eastern coastal province of the People's Republic of China. This article is about the People's Republic of China province [119]
The Tang government and Chinese merchants became interested in by-passing the Arab merchants who dominated the trade of the Indian Ocean, to gain access to thriving trade in the vast oceanic region. Beginning in 785, the Chinese began to call regularly at Sufala on the East African coast in order to cut out Arab middlemen,[120] with various contemporary Chinese sources giving detailed descriptions of trade in Africa. The official and geographer Jia Dan (730–805) wrote of two common sea trade routes in his day: one from the coast of the Bohai Sea towards Korea and another from Guangzhou through Malacca towards the Nicobar Islands, Sri Lanka and India, the eastern and northern shores of the Arabian Sea to the Euphrates River. Jia Dan ( 730&ndash805 Courtesy name Dunshi (敦诗 was a Chinese scholar-official, geographer, and cartographer Bo Hai ( also known as Bohai Sea or Bohai Gulf, is the innermost gulf of the Yellow Sea on the coast of northeastern China. The Nicobar Islands are an island chain in the eastern Indian Ocean, and are part of the Union Territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India The Euphrates ( ( Arabic: ar نهر الفرات; Turkish: tr Fırat Syriac: syr ܦܪܬ; Hebrew: he פרת [121] In 863 the Chinese author Duan Chengshi (d. Duan Chengshi ( died 863 was an author and scholar of the Tang Dynasty in China. 863) provided detailed description about the slave trade, ivory trade, and ambergris trade in a country called Bobali, which historians point to the possibility of being Berbera in Somalia. The history of slavery uncovers many different forms of human exploitation across many cultures throughout history Ivory is formed from Dentine and constitutes the bulk of the Teeth and Tusks of animals such as the Elephant, Hippopotamus, Ambergris ( Ambra grisea, Ambre gris, ambergrease, or grey Amber) is a solid waxy flammable substance of a dull gray or blackish History The city was first described in the eighth chapter of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea written by a Greek merchant in the first century CE Somalia ( Soomaaliya; الصومال) officially the Somali Republic ( Jamhuuriyadda Soomaaliya, جمهورية الصومال) and formerly known [122] In Fustat (old Cairo), Egypt, the fame of Chinese ceramics there led to an enormous demand for Chinese goods, hence Chinese often traveled there, also in later periods such as Fatimid Egypt. Fustat (also Fostat, Al Fustat, Misr al-Fustat and Fustat-Misr, and in Arabic الفسطاط was the first Capital of Egypt Cairo () which means "the Vanquisher" or "the Triumphant" is the capital and largest city of Egypt. [123][124] From this time period, the Arab merchant Shulama once wrote of his admiration for Chinese seafaring junks, but noted that the draft was too deep for them to enter the Euphrates River, which forced them to land small boats for passengers and cargo. -HK CityHall Seaview 51217 5png|thumb|300px|A modern junk in Hong Kong]]A junk is a Chinese sailing vessel. [125] Shulama also noted in his writing that Chinese ships were often very large, large enough to carry aboard 600 to 700 passengers each. [125][121]
Empress Wu and Emperor Xuanzong
Usurpation of Wu Zetian
Although she entered Emperor Gaozong's court as the lowly consort Wu Zhao, Wu Zetian would rise to the highest seat of power in 690, establishing the short-lived latter Zhou Dynasty. Wu Zetian ( (625 – December 16, 705 In 705 she was overthrown in a coup and Emperor Zhongzong was returned to the throne Empress Wu's rise to power was achieved through cruel and calculating tactics. For example, she allegedly killed her own baby girl and blamed it on Gaozong's empress so that the empress would be demoted. [31] Emperor Gaozong suffered a stroke in 655, and Wu began to make many of his court decisions for him, discussing affairs of state with his councilors that would take orders from her while she sat behind a screen. A stroke is the rapidly developing loss of brain functions due to a disturbance in the blood vessels supplying blood to the brain [126] When Empress Wu's eldest son and crown prince began to assert his authority and announce his support for issues that were opposed to Empress Wu's ideas, he suddenly died in 675. Many suspected he was poisoned by Empress Wu. Although the next heir apparent kept a lower profile, in 680 he was accused by Wu of plotting a rebellion and was banished (and later forced to commit suicide). [127] After only six weeks on the throne in 683, Emperor Zhongzong was deposed by Empress Wu after his attempt to appoint his wife's father as chancellor. Background Li Xiǎn was born in 656 as the seventh son of his father Emperor Gaozong and the third son of his mother Emperor Gaozong's second wife Empress Wu [127] Because she dominated the court of Emperor Ruizong (r. Background Li Xulun was born in 662 as the youngest son of Emperor Gaozong and his second wife Empress Wu (later known as Wu Zetian 684–690), a group of Tang princes and their allies staged a major rebellion against Empress Wu in 684; yet her armies suppressed their dissent within two months. [127] Becoming China's first female emperor in 690 upon her son's forced abdication, she ruled until shortly before her death in 705, deposed by her own retainers while her designated heir became Emperor Zhongzong again. [128]
In order to legitimize her rule in a religious sense, she circulated a document known as the Great Cloud Sutra, which predicted that a reincarnation of the Maitreya Buddha would be a female monarch who would dispel illness, worry, and disaster from the world. Maitreya ( Sanskrit) or Metteyya ( Pāli) is a future Buddha of this world in Buddhist eschatology. [129][130] She even introduced numerous revised written characters to the written language, which were reversed back to the originals only after her death. Chinese characters of Empress Wu, or the Zetian characters (則天文字 are Chinese characters introduced by Empress Wu Zetian, the only reigning A Chinese character, also known as a Han character ( is a Logogram used in writing Chinese (hanzi Japanese ( [131] Arguably the most important part of her legacy was diminishing the power of the northwest aristocracy, allowing people from other clans and regions of China to become more representative in Chinese politics and government. [132][133]
Rise of Xuanzong
There were many prominent women at court during and after Wu's reign, including Shangguan Wan'er (664–710), a female poet, writer, and trusted official in charge of Wu's private office. Giant Wild Goose Pagoda or Big Wild Goose Pagoda ( is a Buddhist pagoda located in southern Xi'an, Shaanxi province China. Chang'an ( is an ancient Capital of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history. UserEl_C --> Xi'an ( Postal map spelling: Sian is the Capital of the Shaanxi province in the Shangguan Wan'er ( Traditional Chinese: 上官婉兒 Simplified Chinese: 上官婉儿 (664?&ndash July 21, 710) imperial consort rank [134] In 706 the wife of Emperor Zhongzong of Tang, Empress Wei (d. Empress Wei (韋皇后 personal name unknown (died July 21, 710) was an Empress of the Chinese dynasty Tang Dynasty. 710), convinced her husband to staff government offices with his sister and her daughters, and in 709 requested that he grant women the right to bequeath hereditary privileges to their sons (which before was a male right only). [135] Empress Wei eventually poisoned Zhongzong, whereupon she placed his fifteen year old son upon the throne in 710. [39] Two weeks later, Li Longji (the later Emperor Xuanzong) entered the palace with a few followers and slew Empress Wei and her faction. Emperor Xuanzong of Tang ( ( September 8, 685 Background Li Longji was born at the Tang Dynasty eastern capital Luoyang [39] He then installed his father Emperor Ruizong (r. Background Li Xulun was born in 662 as the youngest son of Emperor Gaozong and his second wife Empress Wu (later known as Wu Zetian 710–712) on the throne. [39] Just as Emperor Zhongzong was dominated by Empress Wei, so too was Ruizong dominated by Princess Taiping. Princess Taiping ( personal name unknown (d August 2, 713) was a princess of the Chinese dynasty Tang Dynasty and her mother Wu Zetian [136] This was finally ended when Princess Taiping's coup failed in 712 (she later hanged herself in 713) and Emperor Ruizong abdicated to Emperor Xuanzong. [39][135]
During the 44 year reign of Emperor Xuanzong, the Tang Dynasty was brought to its height, a golden age, a period of low economic inflation, as well as a toning down of the excessively lavish lifestyle of the imperial court. In economics inflation or price inflation is a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services over a period of time [97][133] Seen as a progressive and benevolent ruler, Xuanzong even abolished the death penalty in the year 747, and all executions had to be approved beforehand by the emperor himself (which was relatively few, considering that there were only 24 executions in the year 730 alone). Capital punishment, the death penalty or execution, is the Killing of a person by judicial process as Punishment. [137] Xuanzong bowed to the consensus of his ministers on policy decisions and made efforts to fairly staff government ministries with different political factions. [136] His staunch Confucian chancellor Zhang Jiuling (673–740) worked to reduce deflation and increase the money supply by upholding the use of private coinage, although his aristocratic and technocratic successor Li Linfu (d. Zhang Jiuling ( (673&ndash740 Courtesy name Zishou (子壽 nickname Bowu (博物 formally Count Wenxian of Shixing (始興文獻伯 Deflation is the opposite of Inflation. Therefore under the usual contemporary definition of inflation 'deflation' means a decrease in the general price level. Technocracy: A form of government in which scientists and technical experts are in control "technocracy is described as that society in which those who govern justify themselves Li Linfu (李林甫 (d January 3, 753) nickname Genu (哥奴 formally the Duke of Jin (晉公 was an official of the Chinese 753) favored government monopoly over the issuance of coinage. [138] After 737 most of Xuanzong's confidence rested in his long-standing chancellor Li Linfu, who championed a more aggressive foreign policy employing non-Chinese generals that would cement the conditions for a massive rebellion against Xuanzong. [139]
Decline
Rebellion and catastrophe
The Tang Empire was at its height of power up until the middle of the 8th century, when the An Shi Rebellion (December 16, 755–February 17, 763) destroyed the prosperity of the empire. The An Shi Rebellion ( took place in China during the Tang Dynasty, from December 16 755 to February 17 763. Events 755 - An Lushan revolts against Chancellor Yang Guozhong at Fanyang, initiating the An Shi Rebellion Events By Place Europe Abd-ar-Rahman I lands in Spain, where the next year he will establish a new Umayyad dynasty Events 1500 - Battle of Hemmingstedt. 1600 - Philosopher Giordano Bruno is burned alive at Campo de' Fiori Events By Place Europe Ciniod succeeds Bridei V as king of the Picts. An Lushan was a half-Sogdian, half-Turk Tang commander since 744, had experience fighting the Khitans of Manchuria with a victory in 744,[51][140] yet most of his campaigns against the Khitans were unsuccessful. Background and Name An Lushan's mother was of Tujue ethnicity from the Ashide clan and served as a sorceress History Hellenistic period The Sogdian Rock or Rock of Ariamazes a fortress in Sogdiana was captured in 327 BC by the forces of Alexander the Great The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family The Khitan (or Khitai,) were a Nomadic people, located in Mongolia and modern Manchuria (Northeast China from the 4th century dominating much of it Manchuria ( Romanized Manchu: Manju,, Маньчжурия Mongolian: Манж is a historical name given to a vast geographic region in northeast [141] He was given great responsibility in Hebei, which allowed him to rebel with an army of more than one hundred thousand troops. ( Postal map spelling: Hopeh) is a northern province of the People's Republic of China. [51] After capturing Luoyang, he named himself emperor of a new, but short-lived, Yan Dynasty. [140] Despite early victories scored by Tang General Guo Ziyi (697–781), the newly recruited troops of the army at the capital were no match for An Lushan's die-hard frontier veterans, so the court fled Chang'an. Guo Ziyi ( Traditional Chinese: 郭子儀 Simplified Chinese: 郭子仪 Hanyu Pinyin: Guō Zǐyí Wade-Giles: Kuo Tzu-i (697– July 9 [51] While the heir apparent raised troops in Shanxi and Xuanzong fled to Sichuan province, they called upon the help of the Uyghur Turks in 756. ( Postal map spelling: Shansi) is a province in the northern part of the People's Republic of China. ( Postal map spelling: Szechwan and Szechuan) is a province in western China with its capital in Chengdu. The Uyghur (also spelled Uygur, Uighur, Uigur, Uyghur: ئۇيغۇر) are a Turkic people of Central Asia. [142] The Uyghur khan Moyanchur was greatly excited at this prospect, and even married his own daughter to the Chinese diplomatic envoy once he arrived, yet the Uyghur khan would in turn receive a Chinese princess as his bride. Bayanchur Khan (known also as Moyanchur Khan) ( was an Uyghur Khagan from 747 to 759 AD [142] Although the Uyghurs helped recapture the Tang capital from the rebels, they continued to stay and refused to leave until the Tang paid them an enormous sum of tribute in silk. [51][142] Even Abbasid Arabs assisted the Tang in putting down An Lushan's rebellion. [143][142] The Tibetans took hold of the opportunity and raided many areas under Chinese control, and even after the Tibetan Empire had fallen apart in 842 (and the Uyghurs soon after) the Tang were in no position to reconquer Central Asia after 763. Definitions of Tibet See also Definitions of Tibet Name In English The English word Tibet, like the word for Tibet in most European [51][144] So significant was this loss that half a century later jinshi examination candidates were required to write an essay on the causes of this decline. [145] Although An Lushan was killed by one of his eunuchs in 757,[142] this time of troubles and widespread insurrection continued until rebel Shi Siming was killed by his own son in 763. Background It is not known when Shi Sugan was born other than that he was born one day before his friend An Lushan and that they grew up together [142]
One of the legacies that the Tang government left since 710 was the gradual rise of regional military governors, the jiedushi, who slowly came to challenge the power of the central government. The Jiedushi ( were regional military governors in China during the Tang Dynasty and the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. [52] After the An Shi Rebellion, the autonomous power and authority accumulated by the jiedushi in Hebei went beyond the central government's control. After a series of rebellions between 781 and 784 in today's Hebei, Shandong, Hubei and Henan provinces, the government had to officially acknowledge the jiedushi's hereditary ruling without accreditation. ( is a coastal province of eastern People's Republic of China. ( Postal map spelling: Hupeh) is a central province of the People's Republic of China. Henan ( is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the central part of the country The Tang government relied on these governors and their armies for protection and to suppress locals that would take up arms against the government. In return, the central government would acknowledge the rights of these governors to maintain their army, collect taxes and even to pass on their title to heirs. [51] As time passed on these military governors slowly phased out the prominence of civil officials drafted by exams, and became more autonomous from central authority. [51] The rule of these powerful military governors lasted until 965, when a new civil order under the Song Dynasty was established. Also, the abandonment of the equal-field system meant that people could buy and sell land freely. Many poor fell into debt because of this, forced to sell their land to the wealthy, which led to the exponential growth of large estates. [51]
With the central government collapsing in authority over the various regions of the empire, it was recorded in 845 that bandits and river pirates in parties of 100 or more began plundering settlements along the Yangtze River with little resistance. [146] In 858, enormous floods along the Grand Canal inundated vast tracts of land and terrain of the North China Plain, which drowned tens of thousands of people in the process. The Grand Canal of China ( also known as the Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal ( is the longest ancient Canal or artificial River in the world The North China Plain ( is based on the deposits of the Huang He (Yellow River and is the largest Alluvial plain of eastern Asia. [146] The Chinese belief in the Mandate of Heaven granted to the ailing Tang was also challenged when natural calamities occurred, forcing many to believe the Heavens were displeased and that the Tang had lost their right to rule. The Mandate of Heaven (天命 Pīnyīn: Tiānmìng is a traditional Chinese philosophical concept concerning the legitimacy of rulers Then in 873 a disastrous harvest shook the foundations of the empire, in some areas only half of all agricultural produce being gathered, and tens of thousands faced famine and starvation. [146] In the earlier period of the Tang, the central government was able to meet crisis in the harvest, as it was recorded from 714–719 that the Tang government took assertive action in responding to natural disasters by extending the price-regulation granary system throughout the country. A granary is a storehouse for threshed grain or Animal feed. In ancient or primitive granaries Pottery is the most [146] The central government was able then to build a large surplus stock of foods to meet danger of rising famine and increased agricultural productivity through effective land reclamation,[146][97] yet the Tang government in the 9th century was nearly helpless in dealing with any calamity. Land reclamation is either of two distinct practices One involves creating new land from sea- or riverbeds the other refers to restoring an area to a more natural state (such as after
Rebuilding and recovery
Although these natural calamities and rebellions stained the reputation and hampered the effectiveness of the central government, the early 9th century is nonetheless viewed as a period of recovery for the Tang Dynasty. The Xumi Pagoda ( or Sumeru Pagoda, also known as Summer Pagoda is a Chinese pagoda of the Buddhist Kaiyuan Monastery west of Zhengding [147] The government's withdrawal from its role in managing the economy had the unintended effect of stimulating trade, as more markets with less bureaucratic restrictions were opened up. [148][149] By 780, the old grain tax and labor service of the 7th century was replaced by a semiannual tax paid in cash, signifying the shift to a money economy bolstered by the merchant class. [143] Cities in the Jiangnan region to the south, such as Yangzhou, Suzhou, and Hangzhou prospered the most economically during the late Tang period. Jiangnan or Jiang Nan ( sometimes spelled Kiang-nan) is a geographic area in China referring to lands immediately to the south of the lower reaches of Administration The Prefecture-level city of Yangzhou administers 7 county-level divisions. Suzhou ( ancient name 吳) is a City on the lower reaches of the Yangtze River and on the shores of Lake Taihu in the province of Jiangsu ( Postal map spelling: Hangchow) is a Sub-provincial city located in the Yangtze River Delta in the People's Republic of China, [148] Although weakened after the An Shi Rebellion, in 799 the Tang government's salt monopoly accounted for over half of the government's revenues, while the salt commission became one of the most powerful state agencies, run by capable ministers chosen as specialists in finance. The Salt Commission was an organization in Tang China used to raise Tax revenue from the state Monopoly of the Salt trade [51] S. A. M. Adshead writes that this salt tax represents "the first time that an indirect tax, rather than tribute, levies on land or people, or profit from state enterprises such as mines, had been the primary resource of a major state. "[150] Even after the power of the central government was in decline since the mid 8th century, it was still able to function and give out imperial orders on a massive scale. The Tangshu (Book of Tang) compiled in the year 945 recorded that in 828 the Tang government issued a decree that standardized irrigational square-pallet chain pumps in the country:
In the second year of the Taihe reign period [828 AD], in the second month. The Book of Tang ( or the Old Book of Tang (舊唐書/旧唐书 is the first classic work about the Tang Dynasty. Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil usually for assisting in growing crops The chain pump is a type of water Pump where an endless chain has positioned on it a series of circular discs . . a standard model of the chain pump was issued from the palace, and the people of Jingzhao Fu (d footnote: the capital) were ordered by the emperor to make a considerable number of machines, for distribution to the people along the Zheng Bai Canal, for irrigation purposes. [151]
The last great ambitious ruler of the Tang Dynasty was Emperor Xianzong of Tang (r. Emperor Tang Xianzong (唐宪宗李纯 778 &ndash 820 r 805 &ndash 820 born Li Chun was the 11th emperor of the Tang dynasty of China. 805–820), his reign period aided by the fiscal reforms of the 780s, including the government monopoly on the salt industry. [152] He also had an effective well trained imperial army stationed at the capital led by his court eunuchs; this was the Army of Divine Strategy, numbering 240,000 in strength as recorded in 798. [153] Between the years 806 and 819, Emperor Xianzong conducted seven major military campaigns to quell the rebellious provinces that had claimed autonomy from central authority, managing to subdue all but two of them. [154][88] Under his reign there was a brief end to the hereditary jiedushi, as Xianzong appointed his own military officers and staffed the regional bureaucracies once again with civil officials. [154][88] However, Xianzong's successors proved less capable and more interested in the leisure of hunting, feasting, and playing outdoor sports, allowing eunuchs to amass more power as drafted scholar-officials caused strife in the bureaucracy with factional parties. [154] The eunuchs' power became unchallenged after Emperor Wenzong of Tang's (r. Emperor Tang Wenzong (唐文宗李昂 809&ndash840 born Li Ang was the 14th emperor of the Tang dynasty of China. 826–840) failed plot to have them overthrown; instead the allies of Emperor Wenzong were publicly executed in the West Market of Chang'an, by the eunuch's command. Chang'an ( is an ancient Capital of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history. [148]
Fall of the Tang Dynasty
In addition to natural calamities and jiedushi amassing autonomous control, the Huang Chao Rebellion (874–884) resulted in the sacking of both Chang'an and Luoyang, and took an entire decade to suppress. Wang Wei ( 701–761 sometimes titled the Poet Buddha, was a Tang Dynasty Chinese poet, Musician, painter and statesman Huang Chao ( d 884 was the leader of infamous Huang Chao Rebellion (874–884 in China that seriously weakened the once mighty Tang Dynasty of China [155] Although the rebellion was defeated by the Tang, it never recovered from that crucial blow, weakening it for the future military powers to take over. There were also large groups of bandits, in the size of small armies, that ravaged the countryside in the last years of the Tang, who smuggled illicit salt, ambushed merchants and convoys, and even besieged several walled cities. A convoy is a group of Vehicles (of any type but usually motor vehicles or ships traveling together for mutual support [113]
A certain Zhu Wen (originally a salt smuggler) who had served under the rebel Huang had later surrendered to Tang forces, his military merit in betraying and defeating Huang's forces meaning rapid military promotions for him. Zhu Quanzhong 朱全忠 originally named Zhu Wen 朱温 (852&ndash912 was a Jiedushi (節度使 military governor at the end of the Tang dynasty. [156] In 907, after almost 300 years in power, the dynasty was ended when this military governor, Zhu Wen (known soon after as Taizu of Later Liang), deposed the last emperor of Tang, Emperor Ai of Tang, and took the throne for himself. Emperor Tang Aidi (唐哀帝李祝 892-908 born Li Zhu was the last emperor of the Tang dynasty of China. He established his Later Liang Dynasty, which thereby inaugurated the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. The Later Liang ( 386 - 403) was a State of the Sixteen Kingdoms during the Jin Dynasty (265-420 in China. Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms ( 907-960 was an era of political upheaval in China, beginning in the Tang Dynasty and ending in the Song Dynasty. A year later, the deposed Emperor Ai was poisoned to death by Zhu Wen.
Although cast in a negative light by many for usurping power from the Tang, Zhu Wen turned out to be a skilled administrator. Emperor Taizu of Later Liang was also responsible for the building of a large seawall, new walls and roads for the burgeoning city of Hangzhou, which would later become the capital of the Southern Song Dynasty. A seawall is a form of hard and strong Coastal defence constructed on the inland part of a Coast to reduce the effects of strong Waves. ( Postal map spelling: Hangchow) is a Sub-provincial city located in the Yangtze River Delta in the People's Republic of China, The Song Dynasty ( Wade-Giles: Sung Ch'ao was a ruling dynasty in China between 960&ndash1279 CE it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms [156]
Society and culture
- See also: Tang Dynasty art
Both the Sui and Tang Dynasties had turned away from the more feudal culture of the preceding Northern Dynasties, in favor of staunch civil Confucianism. Feudalism, a term first used in the early modern period (17th century in its most classic sense refers to a Medieval Europe Political system composed Confucianism ( is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of the fifth century B [2] The governmental system was supported by a large class of Confucian intellectuals selected through either civil service examinations or recommendations. In the Tang period, Daoism and Buddhism reigned as core ideologies as well, and played a large role in people's daily lives. Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices The Tang Chinese enjoyed feasting, drinking, holidays, sports, and all sorts of entertainment, while Chinese literature blossomed and was more widely accessible with new printing methods. Chinese literature extends back thousands of years from the earliest recorded dynastic court Archives to the mature fictional Novel that arose during the Ming Dynasty Printing is a process for reproducing text and image typically with ink on Paper using a printing press
Leisure in the Tang
Much more than earlier periods, the Tang era was an era renowned for its time reserved for leisure activity, especially for those in the upper classes. [157] Many outdoor sports and activities were enjoyed during the Tang, including archery,[158] hunting,[159] horse polo,[160] cuju football,[161] cockfighting,[162] and even tug of war. Archery is the practice of using a bow or Crossbow to shoot Arrows Archery has historically been used in Hunting and Combat and has Hunting is the practice of pursuing Animals for Food, Recreation, or Trade. Polo is a team sport played outdoors on Horseback in which the objective is to score goals against an opposing team Cuju ( tsʰuː˥˩ tɕy˧˥ is an ancient code of football with similarities to Association football. Football is the word given to a number of similar Team sports all of which involve (to varying degrees kicking a Ball with the foot in an attempt to score a A cockfight is a Blood sport between two Roosters held in a ring called a cockpit Tug of war, tug o' war, or tug war, also known as rope pulling, is a Sport that directly puts two teams against each other in a test of strength [163] Government officials were granted vacations during their tenure in office. Lists of holidays The words holiday or vacation have related meanings in different English-speaking countries and continents but will usually refer to one of Officials were granted 30 days off every three years to visit their parents if they lived 1000 miles/1609 km away, or 15 days off if the parents lived more than 167 miles/268 km away (travel time not included). [157] Officials were granted nine days of vacation time for weddings of a son or daughter, and either five, three, or one days/day off for the nuptials of close relatives (travel time not included). A wedding is the Ceremony in which two people are united in Marriage. [157] Officials also received a total of three days off for their son's capping initiation rite into manhood, and one day off for the ceremony of initiation rite of a close relative's son. [157] Traditional Chinese holidays such as Chinese New Year, Lantern Festival, Cold Food Festival, and others were universal holidays. The Traditional Chinese holidays have been part of Chinese tradition for thousands of years they are an essential part of Chinese culture. Chinese New Year is the most important of the Traditional Chinese holidays. The Lantern Festival a Chinese festival celebrated on the fifteenth day of the first month in the Lunar year in the Chinese calendar. The Cold Food Festival is a Traditional Chinese holiday celebrated for three consecutive days starting the day before the Qingming Festival in the Chinese Calendar In the capital city of Chang'an there was always lively celebration, especially for the Lantern Festival since the city's nighttime curfew was lifted by the government for three days straight. Chang'an ( is an ancient Capital of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history. The Lantern Festival a Chinese festival celebrated on the fifteenth day of the first month in the Lunar year in the Chinese calendar. A curfew can be one of the following An order by a Government for certain persons to return home daily before a certain time [164] Between the years 628 and 758, the imperial throne bestowed a total of sixty-nine grand carnivals nationwide, granted by the emperor in the case of special circumstances like important military victories, abundant harvests after a long drought or famine, the granting of amnesties, the installment of a new crown prince, etc. Carnival is a festival season which occurs immediately before Lent; the main events are usually during February and March In Agriculture, the harvest is the process of Gathering mature crops from the fields Reaping is the cutting of Grain A drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply A famine is a widespread shortage of food that may apply to any Faunal species which phenomenon is usually accompanied by regional Malnutrition, Starvation Amnesty (from the Greek amnestia, oblivion is a legislative or executive act by which a state restores those who may have been guilty of an offense against it to Crown Princess redirects here for the ship see Crown Princess (ship. [165] For special celebration in the Tang era, lavish and gargantuan-sized feasts were sometimes prepared, as the imperial court had staffed agencies to prepare the meals. [166] This included a prepared feast for 1,100 elders of Chang'an in 664, a feast for 3,500 officers of the Divine Strategy Army in 768, and a feast for 1,200 women of the palace and members of the imperial family in the year 826. [166] Drinking wine and alcoholic beverages was heavily ingrained into Chinese culture, as people drank for nearly every social event. Wine is an Alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of Grape juice [167] A court official in the 8th century allegedly had a serpentine-shaped structure called the 'Ale Grotto' built with 50,000 bricks on the groundfloor that each featured a drinking bowl for his friends to drink from. [168]
Chang'an, the Tang capital
Although Chang'an was the site for the capital of the earlier Han and Jin dynasties, after subsequent destruction in warfare, it was the Sui Dynasty model that comprised the Tang era capital. The roughly-square dimensions of the city had six miles (10 km) of outer walls running east to west, and more than five miles (8 km) of outer walls running north to south. [17] From the large Mingde Gates located mid-center of the main southern wall, a wide city avenue stretched from there all the way north to the central administrative city, behind which was the Chentian Gate of the royal palace, or Imperial City. Intersecting this were fourteen main streets running east to west, while eleven main streets ran north to south. These main intersecting roads formed 108 rectangular wards with walls and four gates each, and each ward filled with multiple city blocks. A city block, urban block or simply block is a central element of Urban planning and Urban design. The city was made famous for this checkerboard pattern of main roads with walled and gated districts, its layout even mentioned in one of Du Fu's poems. [169] During the Heian period, the city of Heian kyō (present-day Kyoto) of Japan like many cities was arranged in the checkerboard street grid pattern of the Tang capital and in accordance with traditional geomancy following the model of Chang'an. The is the last division of classical Japanese history, running from 794 to 1185. Heian-kyō (平安京 literally "tranquility and peace capital" was one of several former names for the city now known as Kyoto. (IPA /kʲoːto / is a city in the central part of the island of Honshū, Japan. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. [30] Of these 108 wards in Chang'an, two of them (each the size of two regular city wards) were designated as government-supervised markets, and other space reserved for temples, gardens, ponds, etc. [17] Throughout the entire city, there were 111 Buddhist monasteries, 41 Daoist abbeys, 38 family shrines, 2 official temples, 7 churches of foreign religions, 10 city wards with provincial transmission offices, 12 major inns, and 6 graveyards. [170] Some city wards were literally filled with open public playing fields or the backyards of lavish mansions for playing horse polo and cuju football. Cuju ( tsʰuː˥˩ tɕy˧˥ is an ancient code of football with similarities to Association football. [171]
The Tang capital was the largest city in the world at its time, the population of the city wards and its outlying suburbs reaching 2 million inhabitants. [17] The Tang capital was very cosmopolitan, with ethnicities of Persia, Central Asia, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Tibet, India, and many other places living within. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially Definitions of Tibet See also Definitions of Tibet Name In English The English word Tibet, like the word for Tibet in most European Naturally, with this plethora of different ethnicities living in Chang'an, there were also many different practiced religions, such as Buddhism, Nestorian Christianity, Manichaeism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, and Islam being practiced within. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Nestorius Nestorius (c 386 &ndashc 451) was a pupil of Theodore of Mopsuestia in Antioch in Syria (modern Manichaeism (in Modern Persian fa-Arab آیین مانی Āyin e Māni; Chinese zh 摩尼教 was one of the major Gnostic Religions originating Zoroastrianism (ˌzɔroʊˈæstriəˌnɪzəm is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. With widely open access to China that the Silk Road to the west facilitated, many foreign settlers were able to move east to China, while the city of Chang'an itself had about 25,000 foreigners living within. The Silk Road, or Silk Routes, are an extensive interconnected network of Trade routes across the Asian continent connecting East South and Western Asia with the [91][172] Exotic green-eyed, blond-haired Tocharian ladies serving wine in agate and amber cups, singing, and dancing at taverns attracted customers. The Tocharians were the Tocharian -speaking inhabitants of the Tarim basin, making them the easternmost speakers of an Indo-European language in antiquity This article is about the semi-precious stone For other uses see Agate (disambiguation. Amber is Fossil tree Resin, which is appreciated for its color and beauty [173] If a foreigner in China pursued a Chinese woman for marriage, he was required to stay in China and was unable to take his bride back to his homeland, as stated in a law passed in 628 to protect women from temporary marriages with foreign envoys. [174]
Chang'an was the center of the central government, the home of the imperial family, and was filled with splendor and wealth. However, incidentally it was not the economic hub during the Tang Dynasty. The city of Yangzhou along the Grand Canal and close to the Yangtze River was the greatest economic center during the Tang era. Administration The Prefecture-level city of Yangzhou administers 7 county-level divisions. The Grand Canal of China ( also known as the Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal ( is the longest ancient Canal or artificial River in the world [106][175] Yangzhou was the headquarters for the Tang's government monopoly on salt, and the greatest industrial center of China; it acted as a midpoint in shipping of foreign goods that would be organized and distributed to the major cities of the north. In Economics, government monopoly (or public monopoly) is a form of Coercive monopoly in which a Government agency is the sole provider of a Salt is a Dietary mineral composed primarily of Sodium chloride that is essential for Animal life but toxic to most land plants [106][175] Much like the seaport of Guangzhou in the south, Yangzhou boasted thousands of foreign traders from all across Asia. Guangzhou ( Jyutping: Gwong²zau¹; Yale: Gwóngjàu) is the Capital and a Sub-provincial city [175][176]
There was also the secondary capital city of Luoyang, which was the favored capital of the two by Empress Wu. Zhang Xuan ( (713-755 was a Chinese painter who lived during the Tang Dynasty (618&ndash907 Luoyang ( is a Prefecture-level city in western Henan province, People's Republic of China. Wu Zetian ( (625 – December 16, 705 In 705 she was overthrown in a coup and Emperor Zhongzong was returned to the throne In the year 691 she had more than 100,000 families (more than 500,000 people) from around the region of Chang'an move to populate Luoyang instead. [106] With a population of about a million, Luoyang became the second largest capital in the empire, and with its close proximity to the Luo River it benefited from southern agricultural fertility and trade traffic of the Grand Canal. [106] However, the Tang court eventually demoted its capital status and did not visit Luoyang after the year 743, when Chang'an's problem of acquiring adequate supplies and stores for the year was solved. [106] As early as 736, granaries were built at critical points along the route from Yangzhou to Chang'an, which eliminated shipment delays, spoilage, and pilfering. [177] An artificial lake used as a transshipment pool was dredged east of Chang'an in 743, where curious northerners could finally see the array of boats found in southern China, delivering tax and tribute items to the imperial court. [178]
Literature
The Tang period was a golden age of Chinese literature and art. Chinese literature extends back thousands of years from the earliest recorded dynastic court Archives to the mature fictional Novel that arose during the Ming Dynasty Chinese Poetry is the most highly regarded literary genre in China. The term Golden age is best known from Greek mythology and legend but can also be found in other ancient cultures (see below Chinese art ( Chinese: 中國藝術/中国艺术 has varied throughout its ancient history, divided into periods by the ruling Dynasties of China and changing There are over 48,900 poems penned by some 2,200 Tang authors that have survived until modern times. [179][180] Perfecting one's skills in the composition of poetry became a required study for those wishing to pass imperial examinations,[181] while poetry was also heavily competitive; poetry contests amongst esteemed guests at banquets and courtiers of elite social gatherings was common in the Tang period. A banquet is a large public meal or feast complete with main courses and desserts [182] Poetry styles that were popular in the Tang included gushi and jintishi, with the renowned Tang poet Li Bai (701–762) famous for the former style, and Tang poets like Wang Wei (701–761) and Cui Hao (704–754) famous for their use of the latter. Shi ( is the Chinese word for " Poetry " or "poem" Shi ( is the Chinese word for " Poetry " or "poem" Wang Wei ( 701–761 sometimes titled the Poet Buddha, was a Tang Dynasty Chinese poet, Musician, painter and statesman Cui Hao ( 704 &ndash 754) was a Chinese poet of the Tang Dynasty in China. Jintishi poetry, or regulated verse, is in the form of eight-line stanzas or seven characters per line with a fixed pattern of tones that required the second and third couplets to be antithetical (although the antithesis is often lost in translation to other languages). In Poetry, a stanza is a unit within a larger Poem. In modern poetry the term is often equivalent with Strophe; in popular vocal music a stanza is A Chinese character, also known as a Han character ( is a Logogram used in writing Chinese (hanzi Japanese ( Antithesis ( Greek for "setting opposite" from against + position) is a counter- Propositions and denotes a direct Contrast [183] Tang poems in particular remain the most popular out of every historical era of China. This great emulation of Tang era poetry began in the Song Dynasty period, as it was Yan Yu (active 1194–1245) who asserted that he was the first to designate the poetry of the High Tang (c. 713–766) era as the orthodox material with "canonical status within the classical poetic tradition. "[184] At the pinnacle of all the Tang poets, Yan Yu had reserved the position of highest esteem for that of Du Fu (712–770),[184] a man who would not be viewed as such in his own era of poetic competitors, and branded by his peers as an anti-traditional rebel. Du Fu ( 712–770 was a prominent Chinese poet of the Tang Dynasty. [185] Below is an example of Du Fu's poetry, To My Retired Friend Wei (Chinese: 贈衛八處士). Like many other poems in the Tang it featured the theme of a long parting between friends, which was often due to officials being frequently transferred to the provinces:[179]
 |
人生不相見， It is almost as hard for friends to meet |
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There were other important literary forms besides poetry during the Tang period. Du Fu ( 712–770 was a prominent Chinese poet of the Tang Dynasty. There was Duan Chengshi's (d. Duan Chengshi ( died 863 was an author and scholar of the Tang Dynasty in China. 863) Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang, an entertaining collection of foreign legends and hearsay, reports on natural phenomena, short anecdotes, mythical and mundane tales, as well as notes on various subjects. The Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang ( is a Miscellany of Chinese and foreign legends and hearsay reports on natural phenomena short anecdotes and For other uses see Anecdota. For a comparison of anecdote with other kinds of stories see Myth legend fairy tale and fable. The exact literary category or classification that Duan's large informal narrative would fit into is still debated amongst scholars and historians. [187]
Short story fiction and tales were also popular during the Tang, one of the more famous ones being Yingying's Biography by Yuan Zhen (779–831), which was widely circulated in his own time and by the Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368) became the basis for plays in Chinese opera. Yuan Zhen ( 779–831 Courtesy name Weizhi (微之 was an important Chinese writer and Poet in the middle Tang Dynasty known The Yuan Dynasty ( Pinyin: Yuáncháo Dai Ön Ulus (Дай Юан Улс was a ruling Dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai Chinese Opera ( Chinese: 戏曲/戲曲 Pinyin: xìqǔ is a popular form of Drama and Musical theatre in China with roots going back [188][189] Timothy C. Wong places this story within the wider context of Tang love tales, which often share the plot designs of quick passion, inescapable societal pressure leading to the abandonment of romance, followed by a period of melancholy. [190] Wong states that this scheme lacks the undying vows and total self-commitment to love found in Western romances such as Romeo and Juliet, but that underlying traditional Chinese values of inseparableness of self from one's environment (including human society) served to create the necessary fictional device of romantic tension. Romeo and Juliet is a tragedy written early in the [191]
There were large encyclopedias published in the Tang. An encyclopedia (or '''encyclopædia''') is a comprehensive written Compendium that contains Information on either all branches of Knowledge The Yiwen Leiju encyclopedia was compiled in 624 by the chief editor Ouyang Xun (557–641) as well as Linghu Defen (582–666) and Chen Shuda (d. The Yiwen Leiju ( is a Chinese Encyclopedia completed during the Tang Dynasty by the calligrapher Ouyang Xun. Ouyang Xun ( 557-641 Courtesy name Xinben (信本 was a Confucian Scholar and Calligrapher of the early Tang Dynasty Linghu Defen (令狐德棻 (582-666 formally Duke Xian of Pengyang (彭陽憲公 was an official of the Chinese dynasties Sui Dynasty and Tang Chen Shuda (陳叔達 (died 635 Courtesy name Zicong (子聰 formally initially Duke Miao of Jiang (江繆公 later Duke Zhong of Jiang 635). The encyclopedia Treatise on Astrology of the Kaiyuan Era was fully compiled in 729 by Gautama Siddha (fl. The Treatise on Astrology of the Kaiyuan Era is a Chinese Astrology Encyclopedia compiled by the lead editor Gautama Siddha and numerous Gautama Siddha ( fl 8th century was a Chinese translator Astronomer, Astrologer and compiler of Indian descent known for leading the compilation 8th century), an ethnic Indian astronomer, astrologer, and scholar born in the capital Chang'an.
Chinese geographers such as Jia Dan wrote accurate descriptions of places far abroad. This article explores the History of Geography. Ancient geography See also Ancient Greek geography Ancient Greeks environment Jia Dan ( 730&ndash805 Courtesy name Dunshi (敦诗 was a Chinese scholar-official, geographer, and cartographer In his work written between 785 and 805, he described the sea route going into the mouth of the Persian Gulf, and that the medieval Iranians (whom he called the people of Luo-He-Yi) had erected 'ornamental pillars' in the sea that acted as lighthouse beacons for ships that might go astray. The Persian Gulf, in the Southwest Asian region is an extension of the The Iranian people are a collection of Ethnic groups defined along linguistic lines as speaking Iranian languages. A lighthouse is a Tower, building or framework designed to emit light from a system of lamps and lenses or in older times from a fire and used as an [193] Confirming Jia's reports about lighthouses in the Persian Gulf, Arabic writers a century after Jia wrote of the same structures, writers such as al-Mas'udi and al-Muqaddasi. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn al-Husayn íbn Ali al-Mas'udi (transl) (born c Muhammad ibn Ahmad Shams al-Din Al-Muqaddasi (محمد بن أحمد شمس الدين المقدسي also Transliterated as Al-Maqdisi and el-Mukaddasi The Tang Dynasty Chinese diplomat Wang Xuance traveled to Magadha (modern northeastern India) during the 7th century. Wang Xuance ( fl 7th century) was a Tang Dynasty guard officer and diplomat Magadha (मगध formed one of the sixteen Mahājanapadas ( Sanskrit, "great countries" or regions in ancient India. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country [194] Afterwards he wrote the book Zhang Tianzhu Guotu (Illustrated Accounts of Central India), which included a wealth of geographical information. [195]
Many histories of previous dynasties were compiled between 636 and 659 by court officials during and shortly after the reign of Emperor Taizong of Tang. Emperor Taizong of Tang ( January 23, 599 &ndash July 10 649) personal name Lǐ Shìmín ( was the second emperor of the These included the Book of Liang, Book of Chen, Book of Northern Qi, Book of Zhou, Book of Sui, Book of Jin, History of Northern Dynasties and the History of Southern Dynasties. The Book of Liang ( was compiled under Yao Silian, completed in 635. The Book of Chen ( Traditional Chinese: 陳書 Pinyin: Chén Shū was the official history of the Chinese dynasty Chen Dynasty. The Book of Northern Qi ( Chinese: 北齊書 Pinyin Běi Qí Shū was the official history of the Chinese dynasty Northern Qi. The Book of Zhou ( Traditional Chinese: 周書 Pinyin Zhōu Shū was the official history of the Chinese / Xianbei dynasty Northern The Book of Sui ( was the official history of the Chinese dynasty Sui Dynasty, and it ranks among the official Twenty-Four Histories of imperial The Book of Jin ( is one of the official Chinese historical works The History of Northern Dynasties ( is one of the official Chinese historical works in the Twenty-Four Histories canon The History of Southern Dynasties ( is one of the official Chinese historical works in the Twenty-Four Histories canon Although not included in the official Twenty-Four Histories, the Tongdian and Tang Huiyao were nonetheless valuable written historical works of the Tang period. The Twenty-Four Histories ( is a collection of Chinese Historical books covering a period of history from 3000 BC to the Ming Dynasty in the The Tongdian ( is an important Chinese institutional history and encyclopedia text The Tang Huiyao ( is an institutional history of Tang Dynasty compiled by Wang Pu and presented it to Emperor Taizu of Song in 961 The Shitong written by Liu Zhiji in 710 was a meta-history, as it covered the history of Chinese historiography in past centuries until his time. The Shitong ( is the first Chinese work about Historiography compiled by Liu Zhiji between 708 and 710 Liu Zhiji ( 661–721 Courtesy name Zixuan (子玄 was a Chinese Historian and author of the Shitong born in present-day Chinese Historiography refers to the study of methods and assumptions made in studying Chinese history. The Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, compiled by Bianji, recounted the journey of Xuanzang, the Tang era's most renowned Buddhist monk. The Great Tang Records on the Western Regions ( is a narrative of Xuanzang 's nineteen year journey through Chang'an to India between Bianji ( fl 7th century) was a Chinese Buddhist Monk, Translator and the Author of Great Tang Records on the Western Regions See also Xuanzang (fictional character Xuanzang ( pronounced Shwan-dzang) was a famous Chinese Buddhist Monk, scholar traveler A Bhikkhu ( Pāli) or Bhiksu ( Sanskrit) is a fully ordained male Buddhist Monastic.
The Classical Prose Movement was spurred large in part by the writings of Tang authors Liu Zongyuan (773–819) and Han Yu (768–824). The Classical Prose Movement ( Chinese 古文運動 Pinyin guwen yundong) of the late Tang dynasty and the Song dynasty in China Liu Zongyuan ( 773–819 Courtesy name Zihou (子厚 was a Chinese writer who lived in Chang'an during the Tang Dynasty. Quote "It is universally admitted that the unicorn is a supernatural being of good omen such is declared in all the odes annals biographies of illustrious This new prose style broke away from the poetry tradition of the 'piantiwen' style begun in the ancient Han Dynasty. Although writers of the Classical Prose Movement imitated 'piantiwen', they criticized it for its often vague content and lack of colloquial language, focusing more on clarity and precision to make their writing more direct. [196] This guwen (archaic prose) style can be traced back to Han Yu, and would become largely associated with orthodox Neo-Confucianism. Neo-Confucianism (/( is a form of Confucianism that was primarily developed during the Song Dynasty, but which can be traced back to Han Yu and Li [197]
Religion and philosophy
Since ancient times, the Chinese believed in a folk religion that incorporated many deities. Religion in China has been characterized by Pluralism since the beginning of Chinese history. Chinese philosophy is Philosophy written in the Chinese tradition of thought In the Buddhist context a bodhisattva (बोधिसत्त्व bodhisattva;; Vietnamese Bồ Tát; बोधिसत्त bodhisatta Chinese folk religion is a collective label given to various folkloric beliefs that draws heavily from Chinese mythology. The Chinese believed that the afterlife was a reality parallel to the living world, complete with its own bureaucracy and afterlife currency needed by dead ancestors. [198] This is reflected in many short stories written in the Tang about people accidentally winding up in the realm of the dead, only to come back and report their experiences. [198]
Buddhism, originating in India around the time of Confucius, continued to flourish during the Tang period and was adopted by the imperial family, becoming thoroughly sinicized and a permanent part of Chinese traditional culture. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Confucius ( lit " Master Kung " September 28, 551 BC - 479 BC) was a Chinese thinker and social philosopher In an age before Neo-Confucianism and figures such as Zhu Xi (1130–1200), Buddhism had begun to flourish in China during the Southern and Northern Dynasties, and became the dominant ideology during the prosperous Tang. Neo-Confucianism (/( is a form of Confucianism that was primarily developed during the Song Dynasty, but which can be traced back to Han Yu and Li Zhu Xi or Chu Hsi (朱熹 born October 18, 1130, Yuxi, Fujian province China &ndash died April 23, 1200 This article is about the Southern and Northern Dynasties in China. Buddhist monasteries played an integral role in Chinese society, offering lodging for travelers in remote areas, schools for children throughout the country, and a place for urban literati to stage social events and gatherings such as going-away parties. [199] Buddhist monasteries were also engaged in the economy, since their land property and serfs gave them enough revenues to set up mills, oil presses, and other enterprises. [200][201][202] Although the monasteries retained 'serfs', these monastery dependents could actually own property and employ others to help them in their work, including their own slaves. [203]
The prominent status of Buddhism in Chinese culture began to decline as the dynasty and central government declined as well during the late 8th century to 9th century. Buddhist convents and temples that were exempt from state taxes beforehand were targeted by the state for taxation. A convent is a community of Priests religious brothers religious sisters or Nuns or the building used by the community particularly in the Roman Catholic Church Buddhist Temples monasteries, Stupas and Pagodas sorted by location In 845 Emperor Wuzong of Tang finally shut down 4,600 Buddhist monasteries along with 40,000 temples and shrines, forcing 260,000 Buddhist monks and nuns to return to secular life;[28][204] this episode would later be dubbed one of the Four Buddhist Persecutions in China. Emperor Tang Wuzong (ca 810 – 846 born Li Yan, was the fifteenth emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, reigning from 840 to 846 Secularity ( adjective form secular) is the state of being separate from Religion. The Four Buddhist Persecutions in China was the wholesale suppression of Buddhism carried out on four occasions from the fifth through the tenth century by four Chinese emperors Although the ban would be lifted just a few years after, Buddhism never regained its once dominant status in Chinese culture. [28][204][205][206] This situation also came about through new revival of interest in native Chinese philosophies, such as Confucianism and Daoism. Han Yu (786–824)—who Arthur F. Quote "It is universally admitted that the unicorn is a supernatural being of good omen such is declared in all the odes annals biographies of illustrious Wright stated was a "brilliant polemicist and ardent xenophobe"—was one of the first men of the Tang to denounce Buddhism. Polemics (pəˈlɛmɪks/ /poʊ- is the practice of disputing or controverting religious, philosophical, or political matters Xenophobia is an intense and/or irrational dislike and sometimes fear of people from other countries [207] Although his contemporaries found him crude and obnoxious, he would foreshadow the later persecution of Buddhism in the Tang, as well as the revival of Confucian theory with the rise of Neo-Confucianism of the Song Dynasty. [207] Nonetheless, Chán Buddhism gained popularity amongst the educated elite. Zen is a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism, referred to in Chinese as Chan. [28] There were also many famous Chan monks from the Tang era, such as Mazu Daoyi, Baizhang, and Huangbo Xiyun. Also "Baso" redirects here For the island see Baso (island. Baizhang Huaihai ( Chinese: 百丈懷海 Pinyin: Huángbò Xīyùn (simplified Chinese 黄檗希运 traditional 黄檗希運 Wade-Giles Huang-po Hsi-yün Japanese: Ōbaku Kiun) (died 850 was an influential The sect of Pure Land Buddhism initiated by the Chinese monk Huiyuan (334–416) was also just as popular as Chan Buddhism during the Tang. Pure Land Buddhism ( Jìngtǔzōng; 浄土教 Jōdokyō; Korean: ko-Hang 정토종 jeongtojong; Vietnamese: 浄土宗 vi [208]
Rivaling Buddhism was Daoism, a native Chinese philosophical and religious belief system that found its roots in the book of the Daodejing (attributed to Laozi in the 6th century BC) and the Zhuangzi. Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions The Tao Te Ching or Dao De Jing ( originally known as Laozi or Lao tzu ( is a Chinese classic Laozi ( also Lao Tse, Lao-Tzu, Laotze, Lao Zi, Laocius, and other variations was a philosopher of ancient For the book with the same name see Zhuangzi (book Zhuangzi ( was an influential Chinese philosopher who lived around the 4th The ruling Li family of the Tang Dynasty actually claimed descent from the ancient Laozi. [209] On numerous occasions where Tang princes would become crown prince or Tang princesses taking vows as Daoist priestesses, their lavish former mansions would be converted into Daoist abbeys and places of worship. An abbey (from Latin abbatia derived from Syriac abba "father" is a Christian Monastery or [209] Many Daoists were associated with alchemy in their pursuits to find an elixir of immortality and a means to create gold from concocted mixtures of many other elements. Alchemy a part of the Occult Tradition is both a philosophy and a practice with an ultimately unknown aim involving the improvement of the alchemist as well as the making of The elixir of life, from Arabic الإكسير also known as the elixir of immortality or Dancing Water or Persian: Aab-e-Hayaat آب حیات [210] Although they never achieved their goals in either of these futile pursuits, they did contribute to the discovery of new metal alloys, porcelain products, and new dyes. [210] The historian Joseph Needham labeled the work of the Daoist alchemists as "proto-science rather than pseudo-science. "[210]
The Tang Dynasty also officially recognized various foreign religions. The Assyrian Church of the East, otherwise known as the Nestorian Christian Church, was given recognition by the Tang court. The Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East (ܥܕܬܐ ܩܕܝܫܬܐ ܘܫܠܝܚܝܬܐ ܩܬܘܠܝܩܝ ܕܡܕܢܚܐ ܕܐܬܘܪ̈ܝܐ ‘Ittā Qaddishtā wa-Shlikhāitā Qattoliqi See also Christianity in China First Centuries Some Christian tradition suggests that St In 781, the Nestorian Stele was created in order to honor the achievements of their community in China. The Nestorian Stele or Nestorian Stone, formally the Memorial of the Propagation in China of the Luminous Religion from Daqin (大秦景教流行中國碑 Pinyin A Christian monastery was established in Shaanxi province where the Daqin Pagoda still stands, and inside the pagoda there is Christian-themed artwork. Daqin Pagoda (大秦塔 in Chang'an, Shaanxi Province located by Louguan temple China, is the remnant of the earliest surviving Christian Although the religion largely died out after the Tang, it was revived in China following the Mongol invasions of the 13th century. [211]
Innovations
Woodblock printing made the written word available to vastly greater audiences. For the use of the technique in art see Woodcut on the technique and Old master print for the history in Europe and Woodblock printing in Japan. The text of the Diamond Sutra is an early example of Chinese woodblock printing, complete with illustrations embedded with the text. The Diamond Sutra is a short Mahayana Sutra of the Perfection of Wisdom genre which teaches the practice of the avoidance of abiding in extremes Among the earliest documents to be printed were Buddhist texts as well as calendars, the latter essential for calculating and marking which days were auspicious and which days were not. [212] With so many books coming into circulation for the general public, literacy rates could improve, along with the lower classes being able to obtain cheaper sources of study. Therefore, there was more lower class people seen entering the Imperial Examinations and passing them by the later Song Dynasty. [213][214][34] Although the later Bi Sheng's movable type printing in the 11th century was innovative for his period, woodblock printing that became widespread in the Tang would remain the dominant printing type in China until the more advanced printing press from Europe became widely accepted and used in East Asia. Bì Shēng ( 990-1051 AD was the inventor of the first known Movable type Printing system Movable type is the system of Printing and Typography that uses movable components to reproduce the elements of a document (usually individual letters or punctuation Printing is a process for reproducing text and image typically with ink on Paper using a printing press For the article on the development of printing in Europe see History of western typography. A printing press is a mechanical device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a medium (such as paper or cloth thereby transferring an image
Technology during the Tang period was built also upon the precedents of the past. The mechanical gear systems of Zhang Heng (78–139) and Ma Jun (fl. Zhang Heng ( (CE 78–139 was an astronomer, mathematician, inventor, geographer, cartographer, artist, poet Ma Jun (fl 220&ndash265 styled Deheng (徳衡 was a Chinese Mechanical Engineer and government official during the Three Kingdoms 3rd century) gave the Tang engineer, astronomer, and monk Yi Xing (683–727) a great source of influence when he invented the world's first clockwork escapement mechanism in 725. Yi Xing ( 683–727 born Zhang Sui (张遂 was a Chinese Astronomer, Mathematician, mechanical engineer, and Buddhist monk In Mechanical watches and Clocks an escapement is a device which converts continuous rotational motion into an oscillating or back and forth motion [215] This was used alongside a clepsydra clock and waterwheel to power a rotating armillary sphere in representation of astronomical observation. A water clock or clepsydra ( Greek kleptein to steal; hydro water) is any timekeeper operated by means of a regulated flow of liquid into (inflow A water wheel is a means of extracting power from the flow (or fall of water otherwise known as Hydropower. Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study [216] Yi Xing's device also had a mechanically-timed bell that was struck automatically every hour, and a drum that was struck automatically every quarter hour; essentially, a striking clock. A striking clock is a Clock that sounds the Hours audibly on a bell or Gong. [217] Yi's astronomical clock and water-powered armillary sphere became well known throughout the country, since students attempting to pass the imperial examinations by 730 had to write an essay on the device as an exam requirement. An astronomical clock is a Clock with special Mechanisms and Dials to display Astronomical information such as the relative positions of [218] However, the most common type of public and palace timekeeping device was the inflow clepsydra, improved in about 610 by the Sui Dynasty engineers Geng Xun and Yuwen Kai when they provided a steelyard balance that allowed seasonal adjustment in the pressure head of the compensating tank and could then control the rate of flow for different lengths of day and night. A steelyard balance or steelyard is a straight-beam balance with arms of unequal length Pressure head is a term used in Fluid mechanics to represent the Internal energy of a Fluid due to the Pressure exerted on its container [219]
There were many other technically impressive inventions during the Tang era. This included a 0. 91 m (3 ft) tall mechanical wine server of the early 8th century that was in the shape of an artificial mountain, carved out of iron and rested on a lacquered-wooden tortoise frame. In a general sense lacquer is a clear or coloured Varnish, that dries by solvent evaporation and often a curing process as well that produces a hard durable finish in any [220] This intricate device used a hydraulic pump that siphoned wine out of metal dragon-headed faucets, as well as tilting bowls that were timed to dip wine down, by force of gravity when filled, into an artificial lake that had intricate iron leaves popping up as trays for placing party treats. The Chinese Dragon or Oriental dragon is a mythical creature in East Asian culture with a Chinese origin Gravitation is a natural Phenomenon by which objects with Mass attract one another [220] Furthermore, as the historian Charles Benn describes it:
Midway up the southern side of the mountain was a dragon. . . the beast opened its mouth and spit brew into a goblet seated on a large [iron] lotus leaf beneath. When the cup was 80 percent full, the dragon ceased spewing ale, and a guest immediately seized the goblet. If he was slow in draining the cup and returning it to the leaf, the door of a pavilion at the top of the mountain opened and a mechanical wine server, dressed in a cap and gown, emerged with a wooden bat in his hand. As soon as the guest returned the goblet, the dragon refilled it, the wine server withdrew, and the doors of the pavilion closed. . . A pump siphoned the ale that flowed into the ale pool through a hidden hole and returned the brew to the reservoir [holding more than 16 quarts/15 liters of wine] inside the mountain. [220]
Although the use of a teasing mechanical puppet in this wine-serving device was certainly ingenious, the use of mechanical puppets in China date back to the Qin Dynasty (221–207 BC)[221] while Ma Jun in the 3rd century had an entire mechanical puppet theater operated by the rotation of a waterwheel. Not to be confused with the Qing Dynasty, the last dynasty of China Ma Jun (fl 220&ndash265 styled Deheng (徳衡 was a Chinese Mechanical Engineer and government official during the Three Kingdoms [221] There was also an automatic wine-server known in the ancient Greco-Roman world, a design of Heron of Alexandria that employed an urn with an inner valve and a lever device similar to the one described above. In modern Olympic and amateur Wrestling, Greco-Roman wrestling is a particular style and variation Hero (or Heron) of Alexandria ( Ήρων ο Αλεξανδρεύς) (c
The Chinese of the Tang era were also very interested in the benefits of officially classifying all of the medicines used in pharmacology. Traditional Chinese medicine (also known as TCM,) includes a range of traditional medical practices originating in China. Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs In 657, Emperor Gaozong of Tang (r. Background and life as Prince of Jin Li Zhi was born in 628 He was the ninth son of his father Emperor Taizong, and the third son of his mother Emperor Taizong's wife 649–683) commissioned the literary project of publishing an official materia medica, complete with text and aid of illustrated drawing for 833 different medicinal substances taken from different stones, minerals, metals, plants, herbs, animals, vegetables, fruits, and cereal crops. Materia medica is a Latin medical term for the body of collected knowledge about the therapeutic properties of any substance used for healing [222] In addition to compiling pharmacopeias, the Tang fostered learning in medicine by upholding imperial medical colleges, state examinations for doctors, and publishing forensic manuals for physicians. [223] Beyond medicine, the Chinese of the Tang period employed complex chemical formulas for an array of different purposes, often found through experiments of Daoist alchemy. Alchemy a part of the Occult Tradition is both a philosophy and a practice with an ultimately unknown aim involving the improvement of the alchemist as well as the making of These included a waterproof and dust-repelling cream or varnish for clothes and weapons, fireproof cement for glass and porcelain wares, a waterproof cream applied to silk clothes of underwater divers, a cream designated for polishing bronze mirrors, and many other useful formulas. Waterproof or water-resistant describes objects unaffected by water or resisting water passage or which are covered with a material that resists or does not allow water passage Varnish is a transparent, hard protective finish or film primarily used in Wood finishing but also for other materials "Fireproof" redirects here For the album see Fireproof (album. In the most general sense of the word a cement is a binder a substance which sets and hardens independently and can bind other materials together [224]
In the realm of technical Chinese architecture, there were also government standard building codes, outlined in the early Tang book of the Yingshan Ling (National Building Law). Chinese architecture refers to a style of Architecture that has taken shape in Asia over the centuries [226] Fragments of this book have survived in the Tang Lü (The Tang Code),[227] while the Song Dynasty architectural manual of the Yingzao Fashi (State Building Standards) by Li Jie (1065–1101) in 1103 is the oldest existing technical treatise on Chinese architecture that has survived in full. The Yingzao Fashi (營造法式 'Treatise on Architectural Methods' or 'State Building Standards' is a technical treatise on architecture and craftsmanship written by the The architecture of the Song Dynasty (960–1279 was based upon the accomplishments of its predecessors much like every subsequent dynastic period of China. [226] During the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (712–756) there were 34,850 registered craftsmen serving the state, managed by the Agency of Palace Buildings (Jingzuo Jian). Emperor Xuanzong of Tang ( ( September 8, 685 Background Li Longji was born at the Tang Dynasty eastern capital Luoyang An artisan, also called a Craftsman, is a skilled manual worker who crafts items that may be functional or strictly decorative including furniture clothing [227]
In the realm of cartography, there were further advancements since the map-makers of the Han Dynasty. When the Tang chancellor Pei Ju (547–627) was working for the Sui Dynasty as a Commercial Commissioner in 605, he created a well-known gridded map with a graduated scale in the tradition of Pei Xiu (224–271). Pei Ju (裴矩 (547?-627 Courtesy name Hongda (弘大 formally Duke Jing of Anyi (安邑敬公 was a high level official during the Chinese The scale of a Map is the ratio of a single unit of distance on the map to the equivalent distance on the ground Pei Xiu (224&ndash271 was a minister geographer, and cartographer of the Kingdom of Wei during the Three Kingdoms Period of China [228][229] The Tang chancellor Xu Jingzong (592–672) was also known for his map of China drawn in the year 658. Xu Jingzong (許敬宗 ( 592 - September 20, 672) Courtesy name Yanzu (延族 formally Duke Gong of Gaoyang (高陽恭公 [229] In the year 785 the Emperor Dezong had the geographer and cartographer Jia Dan (730–805) complete a map of China and her former colonies in Central Asia. Emperor Dezong of Tang (唐德宗 ( May 27, 742) Cui Yanfu (779-780 Qiao Lin (779 Yang Yan Jia Dan ( 730&ndash805 Courtesy name Dunshi (敦诗 was a Chinese scholar-official, geographer, and cartographer [229] Upon its completion in 801, the map was 9. 1 m (30 ft) in length and 10 m (33 ft) in height, mapped out on a grid scale of one inch equaling one hundred li (Chinese unit of measuring distance). This article is about two traditional Chinese units of length [229] A Chinese map of 1137 is similar in complexity to the one made by Jia Dan, carved on a stone stele with a grid scale of 100 li. [230] However, the only type of map that has survived from the Tang period are star charts. A star chart is a map of the Night sky. Astronomers divide these into grids to easily use them Despite this, the earliest extant terrain maps of China come from the ancient State of Qin; maps from the 4th century BC that were excavated in 1986. Cartography or mapmaking (in Greek chartis = map and graphein = write has been an integral part of the human story for a long time (maybe 8000 years Qín or Ch'in ( Wade-Giles) (秦 ( 778 BC - 207 BC) was a State during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods [231]
The 2nd century inventor Ding Huan (fl. 180) of the Han Dynasty invented a rotary fan for air conditioning, with seven wheels 3 m (10 ft) in diameter and manually powered. The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. A mechanical fan is an electrically powered device used to produce an airflow for the purpose of creature comfort (particularly in the heat ventilation, exhaust The term air conditioning refers to the cooling and dehumidification of indoor air for Thermal comfort. [232] In 747, Emperor Xuanzong had the Cool Hall (Liang Tian) built in the imperial palace, which the Tang Yulin describes as having water-powered fan wheels for air conditioning as well as rising jet streams of water from fountains. [233] During the subsequent Song Dynasty, written sources mentioned the air conditioning rotary fan as even more widely used. [234]
Tang women
Women's social rights and social status during the Tang era were incredibly liberal-minded for the medieval period. However, this was largely reserved for urbane women of elite status, as men and women in the rural countryside labored hard in their different set of tasks; with wives and daughters responsible for more domestic tasks of weaving textiles and rearing of silk worms, while men tended to farming in the fields. A textile is a flexible material comprised of a network of natural or artificial Fibres often referred to as thread or Yarn. [44] There were many women in the Tang era who gained access to religious authority by taking vows as Daoist priestesses. [209] The head mistresses of the bordellos in the North Hamlet (also known as the Gay Quarters) of the capital Chang'an acquired large amounts of wealth and power. For the 2008 film of this name see The Brothel. For the television series of this name see Cathouse The Series. Chang'an ( is an ancient Capital of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history. The situation of Homosexuality in Chinese culture is relatively ambiguous in the contemporary context although many instances have been recorded in the dynastic [235] Their high-class courtesans, who very much resembled Japanese geishas,[236] were well respected. A courtesan in mid-16th century usage referred to a mistress or trained artisan of dance and singing especially one associated with wealthy powerful or upper-class or are traditional female Japanese Entertainers whose skills include performing various Japanese arts such as classical music and dance These courtesans were known as great singers and poets, supervised banquets and feasts, knew the rules to all the drinking games, and were trained to have the utmost respectable table manners. Drinking games are Games which involve the drinking of Beer or other Alcoholic beverages These games commonly take place at house parties public bars or Table manners are the Etiquette used when Eating. This includes the appropriate use of utensils. [236][237] Although they were renowned for their polite behavior, the courtesans were known to dominate the conversation amongst elite men, and were not afraid to openly castigate or criticize prominent male guests who talked too much or too loudly, boasted too much of their accomplishments, or had in some way ruined dinner for everyone by rude behavior (on one occasion a courtesan even beat up a drunken man who had insulted her). [237] When singing to entertain guests, courtesans not only composed the lyrics to their own songs, but they popularized a new form of lyrical verse by singing lines written by various renowned and famous men in Chinese history. [179]
Women who were full-figured (even plump) were considered attractive by men, as men also enjoyed the presence of assertive, active women. [238][239] In example of the latter, the foreign horse-riding sport of polo from Persia became a wildly popular trend amongst the Chinese elite, as women often played the sport (as glazed earthenware figurines from the time period portray). Polo is a team sport played outdoors on Horseback in which the objective is to score goals against an opposing team Earthenware is a common Ceramic material which is used extensively for Pottery tableware and decorative objects [238] The preferred hairstyle for women was to bunch their hair up like "an elaborate edifice above the forehead,"[239] while affluent ladies wore extravagant head ornaments, combs, pearl necklaces, face powders, and perfumes. [240] A law was passed in 671 which attempted to force women to wear hats with veils again in order to promote decency, but these laws were ignored as some women started wearing caps and even no hats at all, as well as men's riding clothes and boots, and tight-sleeved bodices. [241]
There were some prominent court women after the era of Empress Wu, such as Yang Guifei (719–756), who had Emperor Xuanzong appoint some of her friends and cronies in important ministerial and martial positions. Consort Yang Yuhuan (楊玉環 ( June 1, 719 &mdash July 15, 756) often known as Yáng Guìfēi ( (with Guifei being the highest [39]
Tea, food, and necessities
During the earlier Southern and Northern Dynasties (420–589), and perhaps even earlier, the drink of tea had become popular in southern China. "Lu Yu" could also refer to the Song dynasty poet Lu You. The Classic of Tea ( is the very first Monograph on Tea in the world written by Chinese writer Lu Yu between 760 CE and This article is about the Southern and Northern Dynasties in China. Tea refers to the cured agricultural product of the leaves leaf buds and internodes of Camellia sinensis, which have been prepared and cured for the market Tea comes from the leaf buds of Camelia sinensis, native to southwestern China. Camellia sinensis is the tea plant, the Plant Species whose leaves and leaf buds are used to produce Tea. Tea was viewed then as a beverage of tasteful pleasure and looked upon with pharmacological purpose as well. [179] During the Tang Dynasty, tea was synonymous with everything sophisticated in society. The Tang poet Lu Tong (790–835) devoted most of his poetry to his love of tea. Lu Tong ( 790 – 835) was a Chinese Poet of Tang Dynasty known for his lifelong study of the " Tea Culture " The 8th century author Lu Yu (known as the Sage of Tea) even wrote a treatise on the art of drinking tea, called the Classic of Tea (Chájīng). "Lu Yu" could also refer to the Song dynasty poet Lu You. The Classic of Tea ( is the very first Monograph on Tea in the world written by Chinese writer Lu Yu between 760 CE and [242] Tea was also enjoyed by Uyghur Turks; when riding into town, the first places they visited were the tea shops. [107] Although wrapping paper had been used in China since the 2nd century BC,[243] during the Tang Dynasty the Chinese were using wrapping paper as folded and sewn square bags to hold and preserve the flavor of tea leaves. Gift wrapping refers to the act of enclosing a Gift in some sort of material A bag (also known as a Sack) is a non- rigid or semi-rigid container made of Paper, Cloth, Plastic, Leather, [243] Indeed, paper found many other uses besides writing and wrapping during the Tang era. Earlier, the first recorded use of toilet paper was made in 589 by the scholar-official Yan Zhitui (531–591),[244] and in 851 an Arab Muslim traveler commented on how the Tang era Chinese were not careful about cleanliness because they did not wash with water when going to the bathroom; instead, he said, the Chinese simply used paper to wipe with. Toilet paper is a soft paper product used to maintain Personal hygiene after human Defecation or Urination. Yan Zhitui ( 531–591 was a Chinese scholar calligrapher, painter, musician and government official who served four different Chinese states during The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion [244]
In ancient times, the Chinese had outlined the five most basic foodstuffs known as the five grains: sesamum, legumes, wheat, panicled millet, and glutinous millet. Sesamum is a genus of approximately 20 species in the flowering plant family Pedaliaceae. A legume is a Plant in the family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae or a Fruit of these specific plants Wheat ( Triticum spp is a worldwide cultivated grass from the Levant area of the Middle East. A panicle is a compound Raceme, a loose much-branched indeterminate Inflorescence with pedicellate Flowers (and Fruit The millets are a group of small- Seeded Species of Cereal crops or grains widely grown around the world for Food and Fodder Gluten is a composite of the proteins Gliadin and Glutenin. These exist conjoined with Starch, in the Endosperms of some [245] The Ming Dynasty encyclopedist Song Yingxing (1587–1666) noted that rice was not counted amongst the five grains from the time of the legendary and deified Chinese sage Shennong (the existence of whom Yingxing wrote was "an uncertain matter") into the 2nd millenniums BC, because the properly wet and humid climate in southern China for growing rice was not yet fully settled or cultivated by the Chinese. The Ming Dynasty ( or Empire of the Great Ming ( was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol -led An encyclopedia (or '''encyclopædia''') is a comprehensive written Compendium that contains Information on either all branches of Knowledge Song Yingxing ( Traditional Chinese:宋應星 Simplified Chinese:宋应星 Wade Giles: Sung Ying-Hsing; 1587-1666 AD was a Chinese Rice is a Cereal foodstuff which forms an important part of the diet of many people worldwide and as such it is a staple food for many Shennong ( also known as the Yan Emperor (炎帝 or the Emperor of the Five Grains ( is a Legendary ruler of China and Culture hero Alternative meaning In Geology, North China (continent and South China (continent were two ancient landmasses that correspond to modern northern [245]
During the Tang, the many common foodstuffs and cooking ingredients in addition to those already listed were barley, garlic, salt, turnips, soybeans, pears, apricots, peaches, apples, pomegranates, jujubes, rhubarb, hazelnuts, pine nuts, chestnuts, walnuts, yams, taro, etc. Barley ( Hordeum vulgare) is an annual Cereal Grain, which serves as a major animal Feed crop, with smaller amounts used for Allium sativum L, commonly known as garlic, is a species in the Onion family Alliaceae. Salt is a Dietary mineral composed primarily of Sodium chloride that is essential for Animal life but toxic to most land plants For similar vegetables also called "turnip" see Turnip (disambiguation. A pear is a pomaceous Fruit produced by a tree of Genus Pyrus. The Apricot ( Prunus armeniaca, "Armenian plum" in Latin syn The peach ( Prunus persica) is a species of Prunus native to China that bears an edible juicy fruit also called a peach The apple is the pomaceous Fruit of the apple tree Species Malus domestica in the Rose family Rosaceae. The pomegranate ( Punica granatum) is a Fruit -bearing Deciduous Shrub or small Tree growing to between five and eight metres tall Ziziphus zizyphus (from Greek ζίζυφον - zizuphon, syn Z Rheum is a genus of Perennial plants that grows from thick short Rhizomes The genus is in the family Polygonaceae, and includes the vegetable The Common Hazel ( Corylus avellana) is a species of Hazel native to Europe and western Asia, from the British Isles Pine nuts are the edible Seeds of Pines (family Pinaceae, genus Pinus) Chestnut ( Castanea) (including some chinkapin or Chinquapin) is a Genus of eight or nine Species of Deciduous Walnuts (genus Juglans) are Plants in the family Juglandaceae. Yam is the common name for some species in the genus Dioscorea (family Dioscoreaceae) Taro (from Tahitian or other Polynesian languages) more rarely kalo (from Hawaiian) and gabi in The Philippines, is a [246] The various meats that were consumed included pork, chicken, lamb (especially preferred in the north), sea otter, bear (which was hard to catch, but there were recipes for steamed, boiled, and marinated bear), and even bactrian camels. Pork' is the Culinary name for Meat from the domestic Pig ( Sus scrofa) often specifically the fresh meat but can be used as an all-inclusive The chicken ( Gallus gallus, sometimes G gallus domesticus) is a domesticated Fowl which is traditionally believed to have descended from Lamb, hogget, and mutton are the meat of Domestic sheep. The meat of an animal in its first year is lamb; that of an older sheep is hogget The sea otter ( Enhydra lutris) is a Marine mammal native to the coasts of the northern and eastern North Pacific Ocean. Marination, also known as marinating, is the process of soaking foods in a seasoned often acidic liquid before cooking The Bactrian Camel ( Camelus bactrianus) is a large Even-toed ungulate native to the Steppes of north eastern Asia. [246] In the south along the coast meat from seafood was by default the most common, as the Chinese enjoyed eating cooked jellyfish with cinnamon, Sichuan pepper, cardamom, and ginger, as well as oysters with wine, fried squid with ginger and vinegar, horseshoe crabs and red crabs, shrimp, and pufferfish, which the Chinese called 'river piglet'. Jellyfish are free-swimming members of the phylum Cnidaria. They have several different basic morphologies that represent several different cnidarian classes including the Cinnamon ( Cinnamomum verum, synonym C zeylanicum) is a small Evergreen Tree 10–15 metres (32 Sichuan pepper (or Szechuan pepper) is the outer pod of the tiny Fruit of a number of species in the genus Zanthoxylum (most commonly The name cardamom (or cardamon is used for herbs within two genera of the Ginger family Zingiberaceae, namely Elettaria and Amomum Ginger is commonly used as a cooking spice throughout the world The common name oyster is used for a number of different groups of Bivalve Mollusks most of which live in marine habitats or Brackish water. Wine is an Alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of Grape juice Squid are marine Cephalopods of the order Teuthida, which comprises around 300 species Vinegar is an acidic liquid processed from the Fermentation of Ethanol in a process that yields its key ingredient Acetic acid (also called ethanoic acid The horseshoe crab or Atlantic horseshoe crab ( Limulus polyphemus) is a marine Chelicerate Arthropod. Crabs are decapod Crustaceans of the infraorder Brachyura, which typically have a very short projecting "tail" (βραχύ / brachy True shrimp are swimming decapod Crustaceans classified in the Infraorder Caridea, found widely around the world in both fresh Tetraodontidae is a family of primarily marine and estuarine fish [247] Some foods were also off-limits, as the Tang court encouraged people not to eat beef (since the bull was a valuable draft animal), and from 831 to 833 Emperor Wenzong of Tang even banned the slaughter of cattle on the grounds of his religious convictions to Buddhism. Beef is the Culinary name for Meat from Bovines especially domestic Cattle (cows Cattle, colloquially referred to as cows, are domesticated Ungulates a member of the Subfamily Bovinae of the family A working animal is an animal that is kept by humans and trained to perform tasks Emperor Tang Wenzong (唐文宗李昂 809&ndash840 born Li Ang was the 14th emperor of the Tang dynasty of China. Cattle, colloquially referred to as cows, are domesticated Ungulates a member of the Subfamily Bovinae of the family [248] From the trade overseas and over land, the Chinese acquired golden peaches from Samarkand, date palms, pistachios, and figs from Persia, pine seeds and ginseng roots from Korea, and mangoes from Southeast Asia. The peach ( Prunus persica) is a species of Prunus native to China that bears an edible juicy fruit also called a peach Samarkand (Samarqand Самарқанд سمرقند UniPers: "Samarqand" is the second-largest city in Uzbekistan and the capital of The Date Palm ( Phoenix dactylifera) is a palm in the genus Phoenix, extensively cultivated for its edible Fruit. The pistachio ( Pistacia vera L Anacardiaceae or sometimes Pistaciaceae) is a small Tree native to mountainous regions of Ficus is a Genus of about 850 Species of woody Trees Shrubs Vines Epiphytes and hemi-epiphytes in the family Ginseng refers to species within Panax, a genus of 11 species of slow-growing Perennial plants with fleshy roots in the family Araliaceae. Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. Mangoes belong to the genus Mangifera, consisting of numerous species of tropical fruiting Trees in the Flowering plant family Anacardiaceae [249][250] In China, there was a great demand for sugar; during the reign of Harsha (r. Sugar is a class of edible Crystalline substances mainly Sucrose, Lactose, and Fructose. Harsha or Harshavardhana (हर्षवर्धन or "Harsha vardhan" ( 590 &ndash 647) was an Indian emperor who ruled Northern India 606–647) over North India, Indian envoys to Tang China brought two makers of sugar who successfully taught the Chinese how to cultivate sugarcane. Geography Northern India lies mainly on continental India and a very small part of it lies on the Indian peninsula Sugarcane ( Saccharum) is a genus of 6 to 37 species (depending on taxonomic interpretation of tall perennial grasses (family Poaceae tribe Andropogoneae [251][252] Cotton also came from India as a finished product from Bengal, although it was during the Tang that the Chinese began to grow and process cotton, and by the Yuan Dynasty it became the prime textile fabric in China. Cotton is a soft staple Fibre that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant ( Gossypium sp Etymology and ethnology The exact origin of the word Bangla or Bengal is unknown though it is believed to be derived from the Dravidian-speaking tribe Bang [223]
Methods of food preservation were important and practiced throughout China. Food preservation is the process of treating and handling Food in a way that preserves its edibility and nutrition value The common people used simple methods of preservation, such as digging deep ditches and trenches, brining, and salting their foods. In Cooking, brining is a process similar to Marination in which Meat is soaked in a salt solution (the Brine) before cooking [253] The emperor had large ice pits located in the parks in and around Chang'an for preserving food, while the wealthy and elite had their own smaller ice pits. [254] Each year the emperor had laborers carve 1000 blocks of ice from frozen creeks in mountain valleys, each block with the dimension of 3 ft (0. 91 m) by 3 ft (0. 91 m) and 3½ ft. [254] There were many frozen delicacies enjoyed during the summer, especially chilled melon. Melon is a term used for various members of the Cucurbitaceae family with fleshy fruit [254]
Historiography
The first classic work about the Tang is the Book of Tang by Liu Xu (887–946) et al of the Later Jin, who redacted it during the last years of his life. Chinese Historiography refers to the study of methods and assumptions made in studying Chinese history. The Book of Tang ( or the Old Book of Tang (舊唐書/旧唐书 is the first classic work about the Tang Dynasty. Note that there are four periods of Chinese history using the name "Jin" (see clarification here. This was edited into another history (labelled the New Book of Tang) in order to distinguish it, which was a work by the Song historians Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072), Song Qi (998–1061), et al of the Song Dynasty (between the years 1044 and 1060). The New Book of Tang ( is a classic work of history about the Tang Dynasty edited by Ouyang Xiu and Song Qi (宋祁 and other official scholars of the Early life He was born in Mingyang, Sichuan where his father was a judge though his family comes from present day Jishui (then known as Luling Both of them were based upon earlier annals, yet those are now lost. [255] Both of them also rank among the Twenty-Four Histories of China. The Twenty-Four Histories ( is a collection of Chinese Historical books covering a period of history from 3000 BC to the Ming Dynasty in the One of the surviving sources of the Book of Tang, primarily covering up to 756, is the Tongdian, which Du You presented to the emperor in 801. The Tongdian ( is an important Chinese institutional history and encyclopedia text Du You ( 735–812 Courtesy name Junqing (君卿 was a Chinese scholar, Historian and Prime minister of the Tang Dynasty The Tang period was again placed into the enormous universal history text of the Zizhi Tongjian, edited, compiled, and completed in 1084 by a team of scholars under the Song Dynasty Chancellor Sima Guang (1019–1086). The Zizhi Tongjian ( was a pioneering reference work in Chinese historiography. Life profession and works He was born in 1019 in present-day Yuncheng Shanxi to a wealthy family and obtained early success as a scholar and officer This historical text, written with 3 million Chinese characters in 294 volumes, covered the history of China from the beginning of the Warring States (403 BC) until the beginning of the Song Dynasty (960). A Chinese character, also known as a Han character ( is a Logogram used in writing Chinese (hanzi Japanese ( The Warring States Period ( also known as the Era of Warring States covers the period from some time in the 5th century BC to the unification of China by the
See also
- List of Tang Emperors
- Tang Dynasty family tree
- Tang Dynasty art
- Di Renjie
- Wei Zheng
- List of tributaries of Imperial China
- Imperial embassies to China
- Eight Immortals of the Wine Cup
- I Ching (monk)
- Yan Zhenqing
- Kai Yuan Za Bao (government newspaper for officials)
- Qianling Mausoleum
Notes
^ a: During the reign of the Tang the world population grew from about 190 million to approximately 240 million, a difference of 50 million. This is a list of emperors from the Tang Dynasty ( 618 - 907) of China. The following is a simplified family tree for the Tang Dynasty, which ruled China between AD 618 and 907. Tang Dynasty art ( Chinese: 唐朝艺术 Pinyin: Tángcháo Yìshù refers to the Art in China during the Tang Dynasty ( Dí Rénjié ( ( 630 - August 15, 700) Courtesy name Huaiying (懷英 formally Duke Wenhui of Liang (梁文惠公 was Wei Zheng ( 580-643 Courtesy name Xuancheng (玄成 formally Duke Wenzhen of Zheng (鄭文貞公 was a Chinese politician and the lead editor The following is a list of tributaries of Imperial China. Chronological list Many entities have paid Tribute to Imperial China The Eight Immortals of the Wine Cup or Eight Immortals Indulged in Wine ( were a group of Tang Dynasty scholars who are known for their love of Alcoholic beverages Journey to Srivijaya and Nalanda Zhang Wen Ming became a monk at age 14 and was an admirer of Fa Xian and Xuanzang, both famous monks of his childhood Biography Early life Yan Zhenqing was born in Linyi of Shandong Province to a reputed academic family which served the court for many generations Kaiyuan Za Bao, or Kaiyuan Chao Pao, Bulletin of the Court, was one of the world's first Newspapers It was first published A newspaper is a written Publication containing News, information and Advertising, usually printed on low-cost paper called Newsprint. The Qianling Mausoleum ( is a Tang Dynasty (618&ndash907 tomb site located in Qian County, Shaanxi province China, and is 85 km (53 miles See also medieval demography. Medieval Demography is the study of human Demography in Europe during the Middle Ages.
- ^ Karlgren, Grammata serica recensa, 1996.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Ebrey (2006), 91.
- ^ a b c Ebrey (1999), 111.
- ^ a b Ebrey (1999), 141.
- ^ Du, p. 37
- ^ Fairbank, 106.
- ^ Yu, 73-87.
- ^ a b Ebrey (2006), 90–91.
- ^ Adshead, 40–41.
- ^ Graff (2000), 78 & 93.
- ^ a b c Adshead, 40.
- ^ Graff (2000), 78.
- ^ Graff (2000), 80.
- ^ Adshead, 40–42.
- ^ Graff (2000), 78, 82, 85–86, & 95.
- ^ a b Adshead, 42.
- ^ a b c d Ebrey (2006), 93.
- ^ Adshead, 42–43.
- ^ a b Twitchett, 124.
- ^ Ebrey (1999), 111–112.
- ^ a b c Ebrey (1999), 112.
- ^ Andrew & Rapp, 25.
- ^ Ebrey (1999), 158.
- ^ Bernhardt, 274–275.
- ^ Fairbank, 78.
- ^ a b c Brook, 59.
- ^ a b Benn, 59.
- ^ a b c d Ebrey (2006), 96.
- ^ a b Ebrey (2006), 91–92.
- ^ a b c d Ebrey (2006), 92.
- ^ a b c d Ebrey (2006), 97.
- ^ Gascoigne & Gascoigne, 95.
- ^ Fairbank, 83.
- ^ a b Ebrey (2006), 159.
- ^ Fairbank, 95.
- ^ Adshead, 54.
- ^ Ebrey (1999), 145–146.
- ^ Graff (2000), 79.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Ebrey (2006), 99.
- ^ Benn, 57.
- ^ a b Benn, 61.
- ^ Adshead, 72.
- ^ Benn, 45.
- ^ a b Benn, 32.
- ^ Adshead, 75.
- ^ Ebrey (2006), 156.
- ^ a b Benn, 4.
- ^ a b Whitfield, 47.
- ^ Twitchett, 116–118.
- ^ Twitchett, 118 & 122.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Ebrey (2006), 100.
- ^ a b Wang, 91.
- ^ a b c Benn, 9.
- ^ Graff (2002), 208.
- ^ Graff (2002), 209.
- ^ a b Ebrey (1999), 127.
- ^ Ebrey (2006), 113.
- ^ Xue, 149-152, 257-264.
- ^ Benn, 2-3.
- ^ a b Cui, 655-659.
- ^ Xue, 788.
- ^ a b Twitchett, 125.
- ^ Liu (2000), 85–95.
- ^ Xue, p. 226-227
- ^ Xue, p. 380-386
- ^ Benn 2.
- ^ Xue, p. 222-225
- ^ Whitfield, 193.
- ^ Sen, 24, 30–31.
- ^ Beckwith, 146.
- ^ Stein, 65.
- ^ Twitchett, 109.
- ^ a b c d Benn, 11.
- ^ Richardson, 106-143.
- ^ Schafer, 10 & 25–26.
- ^ Bai, 242-243.
- ^ Eberhard, 183.
- ^ Schafer, 26.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 685-687.
- ^ a b Graff (2002), 201.
- ^ Kang, 54.
- ^ Kitagawa, 222.
- ^ Ebrey (2006), 144.
- ^ a b Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 289.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 308.
- ^ Reischauer, 152.
- ^ Reischauer, 155.
- ^ a b c Adshead, 51.
- ^ Ebrey (1999), 118–119.
- ^ Ebrey (1999), 119.
- ^ a b c d e Ebrey (2006), 112.
- ^ a b Ebrey (2006), 114.
- ^ Whitfield, 255.
- ^ Benn, 134.
- ^ Schafer, 28.
- ^ Eberhard, 182.
- ^ a b c Benn, 7.
- ^ Adshead, 90.
- ^ Twitchett, 118.
- ^ Eberhard, 179.
- ^ Sen, 30–32.
- ^ Whitfield, 57 & 228.
- ^ Sun, 161-167.
- ^ Chen, 67-71.
- ^ Bowman, 104-105.
- ^ a b c d e f Benn, 46.
- ^ a b Schafer, 20.
- ^ Tang, 61.
- ^ Schafer, 15.
- ^ Schafer, 16.
- ^ Shen, 163.
- ^ Woods, 143.
- ^ a b Ebrey (2006), 108.
- ^ Schafer, 10 & 16.
- ^ Eberhard, 190.
- ^ a b Schafer, 11.
- ^ Reischauer, 157.
- ^ Reischauer, 162.
- ^ Reischauer, 155–156.
- ^ Shen, 155.
- ^ a b Hsu (1988), 96.
- ^ Levathes, 38.
- ^ Shen, 158.
- ^ Adshead, 80.
- ^ a b Liu (1991), 178.
- ^ Ebrey (2006), 97–98.
- ^ a b c Ebrey (2006), 98.
- ^ Adshead, 45.
- ^ Ebrey (1999), 116.
- ^ Sen, 97–98.
- ^ Whitfield, 74.
- ^ Fairbank, 82.
- ^ a b Schafer, 8.
- ^ Adshead, 46.
- ^ a b Benn, 6.
- ^ a b Adshead, 47.
- ^ Benn, 47.
- ^ Adshead, 89.
- ^ Adshead, 47–48.
- ^ a b Eberhard, 184.
- ^ Xu et al, p. 455-467
- ^ a b c d e f Eberhard, 185.
- ^ a b Schafer, 9.
- ^ Sen, 34.
- ^ Gascoigne & Gascoigne, 97.
- ^ a b c d e Bowman, 105.
- ^ Benn, 15-17.
- ^ a b c Ebrey (2006), 101.
- ^ Fairbank, 85.
- ^ Adshead, 50.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 347.
- ^ Benn, 14-15.
- ^ Benn, 15.
- ^ a b c Benn, 16.
- ^ Eberhard, 189–190.
- ^ a b Needham, 320-321, footnote h.
- ^ a b c d Benn 149.
- ^ Benn, 170.
- ^ Benn, 22, 32.
- ^ Benn, 16, 90.
- ^ Benn, 151-152.
- ^ Benn, 173-174.
- ^ Benn, 152.
- ^ Benn, 150-154.
- ^ Benn, 154-155.
- ^ a b Benn, 132.
- ^ Benn, 142-147.
- ^ Benn, 143.
- ^ Ebrey, 103.
- ^ Benn, xiii.
- ^ Benn, xiv, xv, xvi, xvii, xviii
- ^ Studwell, 4.
- ^ Schafer, 21.
- ^ Schafer, 25.
- ^ a b c Schafer, 17–18.
- ^ Reischauer, 143–144.
- ^ Schafer, 18–19.
- ^ Schafer, 19–20.
- ^ a b c d Ebrey (1999), 120.
- ^ Harper, 33.
- ^ Benn, 259.
- ^ Benn, 137.
- ^ Ebrey (2006), 102.
- ^ a b Yu, 76.
- ^ Yu, 75.
- ^ University of Virginia's 300 Tang Poems
- ^ Reed, 121.
- ^ Ebrey (2006), 104–105.
- ^ Wong (1979), 97.
- ^ Wong (1979), 95–100.
- ^ Wong (1979), 98–99.
- ^ Kiang, 12.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 661.
- ^ Sen, 9, 22–24.
- ^ Needham, Volume 3, 511.
- ^ Ebrey (2006), 106.
- ^ Huters, 52.
- ^ a b Whitfield, 333.
- ^ Ebrey (1999), 121.
- ^ Ebrey (1999), 122.
- ^ Eberhard, 181.
- ^ Adshead, 86.
- ^ Ebrey (1999), 126.
- ^ a b Fairbank, 86.
- ^ Ebrey (1999), 124.
- ^ Harper, 34.
- ^ a b Wright, 88.
- ^ Ebrey (1999), 123.
- ^ a b c Benn, 60.
- ^ a b c Fairbank, 81.
- ^ Gernet, 215.
- ^ Ebrey (1999), 124–125.
- ^ Fairbank, 94.
- ^ Ebrey (1999), 147.
- ^ Needham, Volume 3, 319.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 473-475.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 473-474.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 475.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 480.
- ^ a b c Benn, 144.
- ^ a b Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 158.
- ^ Benn, 235.
- ^ a b Adshead, 83.
- ^ Needham, Volume 5, Part 4, 452.
- ^ Xi (1981), 464.
- ^ a b Guo, 1.
- ^ a b Guo, 3.
- ^ Needham, Volume 3, 538–540.
- ^ a b c d Needham, Volume 3, 543.
- ^ Needham, Volume 3, Plate LXXXI.
- ^ Hsu (1993), 90.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 99, 151, 233.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 134 & 151.
- ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 151.
- ^ Benn, 64-66.
- ^ a b Benn, 64.
- ^ a b Benn, 66.
- ^ a b Ebrey (1999), 114–115.
- ^ a b Gernet, 165–166.
- ^ Gernet, 165.
- ^ Schafer, 28–29.
- ^ Ebrey (1999), 95.
- ^ a b Needham, Volume 5, Part 1, 122
- ^ a b Needham, Volume 5, Part 1, 123.
- ^ a b Song, 3-4.
- ^ a b Benn, 120.
- ^ Benn, 121.
- ^ Benn, 125.
- ^ Benn, 123.
- ^ Schafer, 1–2.
- ^ Sen, 38–40.
- ^ Adshead, 76, 83–84.
- ^ Benn, 126-127.
- ^ a b c Benn, 126.
- ^ Chronicles of the Chinese DynastiesPDF (25. 9 KiB))
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Further reading
- Chen, Guocan. "Hebei Sanzhen" ("Three Jiedushi of Hebei"). Encyclopedia of China, 1st ed. The Encyclopedia of China ( "China Great Encyclopedia" is the first large-entry modern Encyclopedia in the Chinese language.
- Chen, Zhen. "Jiedushi". Encyclopedia of China, 1st ed. The Encyclopedia of China ( "China Great Encyclopedia" is the first large-entry modern Encyclopedia in the Chinese language.
- de la Vaissière, E, Sogdian Traders. A History, Leiden : Brill, 2005. ISBN 90-04-14252-5
- Schafer, Edward H. (1967). The Vermilion Bird: T’ang Images of the South. University of California Press. Berkeley and Los Angeles.
- The “New T’ang History” (Hsin T’ang-shu) on the History of the Uighurs. Translated and annotated by Colin Mackerras.
External links
- The Tang Dynasty, Minnesota State University Emuseum
- The Tang Dynasty at the Metropolitan Museum of Art
- Home of 300 Tang Poems, University of Virginia
- The Tang Dynasty at AsianSpiritGallery.
- Paintings of Sui and Tang dynasities
| Preceded by Sui Dynasty |
Dynasties in Chinese history 618 – 907 |
Succeeded by Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms |
The Sui Dynasty ( 581 - 618 AD and in the undertaking of other construction projects including the reconstruction of the Great Wall. The following is a Chronology of the dynasties in Chinese history. Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms ( 907-960 was an era of political upheaval in China, beginning in the Tang Dynasty and ending in the Song Dynasty.
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