The Talmud (Hebrew: תַּלְמוּד) is a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs, and history. Rabbinic literature, in its broadest sense can mean the entire spectrum of Rabbinic writings throughout Jewish history The Mishnah or Mishna (he משנה "repetition" from the verb shanah he שנה or "to study and review" is a major work of Rabbinic Judaism The Tosefta ( Aramaic: תוספתא is a secondary compilation of the Jewish oral law from the period of the Mishnah. The Jerusalem Talmud or Talmud Yerushalmi (תַּלְמוּד יְרוּשָׁלְמִי often the Yerushalmi for short is a collection The minor tractates (Hebrew מסכתות קטנות masechtot qetanot) are essays from the Tannaitic period or later dealing with topics about which no formal The Midrashim are mostly derived from and based upon the teachings of the Tannaim: Mekhilta or Mekilta ( Hebrew: מכילתא) is the Halakic midrash to the Book of Exodus. The Mekhilta de-Rabbi Shimon ( Hebrew: מכילתא דרבי שמעון בר יוחאי) is a Halakic midrash on Exodus from the school of Sifra ( Aramaic: סִפְרָא) is the Halakic midrash to Leviticus. Sifre ( סִפְרֵי siphrēy, Sifre Sifrei, also Sifre debe Rab or Sifre Rabbah) refers to either of two Sifre Zutta ( Hebrew: ספרי זוטא) is a Midrash on the Book of Numbers. The Mekhilta le-Sefer Devarim ( Hebrew: מכילתא לספר דברים) is a Halakic midrash to Deuteronomy from the school of Rabbi Ishmael The Baraita of Rabbi Ishmael ( Hebrew: ברייתא דרבי ישמאל) is a Baraita which explains the 13 rules of R Aggadah ( Aramaic אגדה tales lore pl Aggadot or (Ashkenazi Aggados) refers to the homiletic and non-legalistic exegetical Seder Olam Rabbah ( Hebrew: סדר עולם רבה) is the earliest post-exilic chronicle preserved in the Hebrew language. Alphabet of Akiba ben Joseph, or Otiot (Midrash Aggadah de-Rabbi Akiba ( Hebrew: אותיות דרבי עקיבא) is the title of a Midrash The Baraita of the Forty-nine Rules ( Hebrew: ברייתא מ"ט מדות) is a work of Rabbinical literature which is no longer in existence except The Baraita on the Thirty-two Rules or Baraita of R Eliezer ben Jose ha-Gelili is a Baraita giving the 32 hermeneutic rules according to which the Bible is interpreted Baraita on the Erection of the Tabernacle is a Baraita cited several times by Hai Gaon, by Nathan ben Jehiel in the Aruk, as well as in Genesis Rabba ( Bereshit Rabba in Hebrew: בראשית רבה) is a religious text from Judaism 's classical period The Midrash on Lamentations or Eichah (Lamentations Rabbah ( Hebrew: מדרש איכה רבה) like Bereshit Rabbah and the Pesikta de-Rab Kahana ( Hebrew: פסיקתא דרב כהנא) is a collection of Aggadic midrash which exists in two editions those of Solomon Buber Esther Rabbah ( Hebrew: אסתר רבה) is the Midrash to the Book of Esther in the current Midrash editions Midrash Iyyob ( Hebrew: מדרש איוב) or Midrash to Job is an Aggadic midrash that is no longer extent Leviticus Rabbah, Vayikrah Rabbah, or Wayikra Rabbah is a homiletic Midrash to the Biblical book of Leviticus ( Vayikrah in Hebrew Seder Olam Zutta ( Hebrew: סדר עולם זוטא) is an anonymous chronicle called "Zuṭa" (= "smaller" or "younger" to distinguish Midrash Tanhuma ( Hebrew: מדרש תנחומא) is the name given to three different collections of Pentateuch Haggadot; two are extant while Megillat Antiochus (מגילת אנטיוכוס - "The Scroll of Antiochus " also "Megillat HaHashmonaim" or "Megillat Hanukkah" is a work recounting Avot de-Rabbi Nathan (אבות דרבי נתן) usually printed together with the Minor tractates of the Talmud, is a Jewish Aggadic work probably Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer ( Aramaic: פרקי דרבי אליעזר) is a Aggadic-midrashic work on Genesis, part of Exodus, and a few Tanna Devei Eliyahu ( Hebrew: תנא דבי אליהו; alternate Transliterations include Tana D'vei Eliyahu and Tana D'vei Eliahu The Alphabet of Ben-Sira ( Alphabetum Siracidis, Othijoth ben Sira) is an anonymous Medieval text attributed to Ben Sira (Sirach the author Ecclesiastes Rabbah or Kohelet Rabbah ( קהלת רבה) is an Haggadic commentary on Ecclesiastes, included in the collection of the Midrash Shir ha-Shirim Rabbah ( Hebrew: שיר השירים רבה) is a Haggadic midrash on Canticles, quoted by Rashi under the title "Midrash Deuteronomy Rabbah ( Hebrew: דברים רבה) is an Aggadic midrash or homiletic commentary on the Book of Deuteronomy. Pesikta Rabbati ( Hebrew: פסיקתא רבתי) is a collection of Aggadic Midrash (homilies on the Pentateuchal and prophetic lessons Midrash Samuel ( Hebrew: מדרש שמואל) a Haggadic midrash on the Books of Samuel, is quoted for the first time by Rashi in Midrash Proverbs ( Hebrew: מדרש משלי) is the Haggadic midrash to Book of Proverbs, first mentioned under the title "Midrash Ruth Rabbah ( Hebrew: רות רבה) is an Haggadic and homiletic interpretation of the Book of Ruth, which like that of the four other scrolls A Baraita of Samuel ( Hebrew: בריתא דרבי שמואל) was known to Jewish scholars from Shabbethai Donolo in the 10th century to The Targum Sheni ( "Second Targum") is an Aramaic translation ( Targum) and elaboration of the Book of Esther, that embellishes Midrash Tehillim ( Hebrew: מדרש תהלים) or Midrash to Psalms is a Haggadic midrash known since the 11th century when it was quoted by Midrash Hashkem, also known as Midrash ve-Hizhir is a purely Haggadic midrash on the Pentateuch. Exodus Rabbah ( Hebrew: שמות רבה) is the Midrash to Exodus, containing in the printed editions 52 parashiyyot Shir ha-Shirim Zutta ( Hebrew: שיר השירים זוטא) is a Midrash, or rather homiletic commentary on Canticles; referred to in Midrash Tadshe ( Hebrew: מדרש תדשא) is a Small midrash which begins with an interpretation of Gen Sefer haYashar (midrash, a Hebrew Midrash known in English translation mostly as The Book of Jasher. The Yalkut Shimoni ( Hebrew: ילקוט שמעוני) or simply Yalkut is an Aggadic compilation on the books of the Old Testament Machir ben Abba Mari ( Hebrew: מכיר בן אבא מרי) was the author of a work entitled Yalkut ha-Makiri (ילקוט המכירי but about whom Midrash Jonah is the Midrash to the Book of Jonah, read on the Day of Atonement as Hafṭarah during the Minḥah prayer and containing Ein Yaakov (עין יעקב is a compilation of all the Aggadic material in the Talmud together with commentaries Midrash ha-Gadol or The Great Midrash ( Hebrew: מדרש הגדול) is an anonymous late (14th century compilation of Aggadic midrashim on the Numbers Rabbah (or Bamidbar Rabbah in Hebrew) is a religious text holy to classical Judaism. A number of Midrashim exist which are smaller in size and generally later in date than those dealt with in the articles Midrash Haggadah and Midrash Halakah. A targum ( Hebrew: תרגום plural targumim, lit "translation interpretation" is an Aramaic Translation of the Hebrew term " Torah " ( Hebrew: תּוֹרָה "teaching" or "instruction" sometimes translated as "Law" most commonly refers to Targum Onkelos (or Unkelus) is the official eastern ( Babylonian) Targum to the Torah. Targum Pseudo-Jonathan is a western Targum (translation of the Torah (Pentateuch from the Land of Israel. Nevi'im (נְבִיאִים "Prophets" is the second of the three major sections in the Hebrew Bible, the Tanakh, between the Targum Jonathan (תרגום יונתן בן עוזיאל - otherwise referred to as Targum Yonasan/Yonatan is the official eastern ( Babylonian) Targum Ketuvim (כְּתוּבִים "writings" is the third and final section of the Tanakh ( Hebrew Bible) after Torah and Nevi'im The Targum Sheni ( "Second Targum") is an Aramaic translation ( Targum) and elaboration of the Book of Esther, that embellishes Rabbi (pronunciation, although in English usually) in Judaism, means a religious ‘teacher’ or more literally ‘my great one’ when addressing any master Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law Jewish ethics stands at the intersection of Judaism and the Western philosophical tradition of Ethics. It is a central text of Rabbinic Judaism, second only to the Hebrew Bible in importance. Rabbinic Judaism or Rabbinism ( Hebrew: " Yehadut Rabanit " - יהדות רבנית is the mainstream religious system of post- diaspora The term Hebrew Bible is a generic reference to those books of the Bible originally written in Biblical Hebrew (and the related Biblical Aramaic
The Talmud has two components: the Mishnah (c. The Mishnah or Mishna (he משנה "repetition" from the verb shanah he שנה or "to study and review" is a major work of Rabbinic Judaism 200 CE), the first written compendium of Judaism's Oral Law; and the Gemara (c. The Gemara (also transliterated Gemora or less commonly Gemorra) (from Aramaic גמרא gamar; literally " study" 500 CE), a discussion of the Mishnah and related Tannaitic writings that often ventures onto other subjects and expounds broadly on the Tanakh. word /š n/ and /t n/ --> See also Old testament, Septuagint, Targum, Peshitta The Tanakh (תַּנַ"ךְ (taˈnax or; also Tenakh or Tenak is
The terms Talmud and Gemara are often used interchangeably. The Gemara is the basis for all codes of rabbinic law and is much quoted in other rabbinic literature. Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law Rabbinic literature, in its broadest sense can mean the entire spectrum of Rabbinic writings throughout Jewish history The whole Talmud is also traditionally referred to as Shas (ש"ס), a Hebrew abbreviation of shisha sedarim, the "six orders" of the Mishnah.
Contents |
History
Oral law
Originally, Jewish scholarship was oral. Rabbis expounded and debated the law (that is, the Hebrew Bible) and discussed the Tanakh without the benefit of written works (other than the Biblical books themselves), though some may have made private notes (megillot setarim), for example of court decisions. See also Old testament, Septuagint, Targum, Peshitta The Tanakh (תַּנַ"ךְ (taˈnax or; also Tenakh or Tenak is This situation changed drastically, however, mainly as the result of the destruction of the Jewish commonwealth in the year 70 C. E. and the consequent upheaval of Jewish social and legal norms. As the Rabbis were required to face a new reality—mainly Judaism without a Temple (to serve as the center of teaching and study) and Judea without autonomy—there was a flurry of legal discourse and the old system of oral scholarship could not be maintained. It is during this period that Rabbinic discourse began to be recorded in writing. [1][2] The earliest recorded oral law may have been of the midrashic form, in which halakhic discussion is structured as exegetical commentary on the Pentateuch. Midrash ( Hebrew: מדרש plural midrashim, lit "to repeat" is a Hebrew term referring to the not exact but comparative ( homiletic Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law Exegesis (from the Greek 'to lead out' involves an extensive and critical interpretation of an authoritative text, especially of a Holy term " Torah " ( Hebrew: תּוֹרָה "teaching" or "instruction" sometimes translated as "Law" most commonly refers to But an alternative form, organized by subject matter instead of by biblical verse, became dominant about the year 200 C. E. , when Rabbi Judah haNasi redacted the Mishnah (משנה). The Mishnah or Mishna (he משנה "repetition" from the verb shanah he שנה or "to study and review" is a major work of Rabbinic Judaism
The Oral Law was far from monolithic, but varied among various schools. The most famous two were the School of Shammai and the School of Hillel. Shammai (50 BCE&ndash30 CE Hebrew: שמאי was a Jewish scholar of the 1st century and an important figure in Judaism 's core work of Rabbinic literature Hillel (הלל (born Babylon traditionally c110BCE-10CE in Jerusalem) was a famous Jewish religious leader one of the most important figures in Jewish In general, all opinions, even the non-normative ones, were recorded in the Talmud.
Mishnah
The Mishnah is a compilation of legal opinions and debates. The Mishnah or Mishna (he משנה "repetition" from the verb shanah he שנה or "to study and review" is a major work of Rabbinic Judaism Statements in the Mishnah are typically terse, recording brief opinions of the rabbis debating a subject; or recording only an unattributed ruling, apparently representing a consensus view. The rabbis recorded in the Mishnah are known as Tannaim. word /š n/ and /t n/ -->
Since it sequences its laws by subject matter instead of by biblical context, the Mishnah discusses individual subjects more thoroughly than the Midrash, and it includes a much broader selection of halakhic subjects than the Midrash. The Mishna's topical organization thus became the framework of the Talmud as a whole. But not every tractate in the Mishnah has a corresponding Gemara. Also, the order of the tractates in the Talmud differs in some cases from that in the Mishnah (see the discussion on each order).
|
||||||||
| Zeraim (זרעים) | Moed (מועד) | Nashim (נשים) | Nezikin (נזיקין) | Kodashim (קדשים) | Tohorot (טהרות) | |||
| Berakhot · Pe'ah · Demai · Kil'ayim · Shevi'it · Terumot · Ma'aserot · Ma'aser Sheni · Hallah · Orlah · Bikkurim | Shabbat · Eruvin · Pesahim · Shekalim · Yoma · Sukkah · Beitzah · Rosh Hashanah · Ta'anit · Megillah · Mo'ed Katan · Hagigah | Yevamot · Ketubot · Nedarim · Nazir · Sotah · Gittin · Kiddushin | Bava Kamma · Bava Metzia · Bava Batra · Sanhedrin · Makkot · Shevu'ot · Eduyot · Avodah Zarah · Avot · Horayot | Zevahim · Menahot · Hullin · Bekhorot · Arakhin · Temurah · Keritot · Me'ilah · Tamid · Middot · Kinnim | Keilim · Oholot · Nega'im · Parah · Tohorot · Mikva'ot · Niddah · Makhshirin · Zavim · Tevul Yom · Yadayim · Uktzim | |||
Baraita
In addition to the Mishnah, other tannaitic works were recorded at about the same time or shortly thereafter. The Mishnah or Mishna (he משנה "repetition" from the verb shanah he שנה or "to study and review" is a major work of Rabbinic Judaism Seder Zeraim ( Hebrew: סדר זרעים, lit "Order of Seeds" is the first and shortest Seder ("Order" of the Mishnah, Moed ("Festivals" is the second Order of the Mishnah, the first written recording of the Oral Torah of the Jewish people (also the Tosefta and Talmud Nashim ("Women" or "Wives" is the third order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta and Talmud) containing the laws related to women For Jewish law on damages see Damages (Jewish law Nezikin ( Hebrew: נזיקין Damages) or Seder Nezikin This page is about Kodashim a section of the mishnah See Kedoshim (parsha for the Torah portion by that name Tohorot ( Hebrew: טהורת literally "Purities" is the sixth order of the Mishnah (also the Tosefta and Talmud) Berakhot Pe'ah (פֵּאָה lit "Corner" is the second tractate of Seder Zeraim ("Order of Seeds" of the Mishnah and of the Talmud Demai (דמאי lit "Doubtful Produce" is the third tractate of Seder Zeraim ("Order of Seeds" of the Mishnah and of the Talmud Shevi'it ( Hebrew: שביעית lit "Seventh Year" is the fifth tractate of Seder Zeraim ("Order of Seeds" of the Mishnah Terumot ( Hebrew: תרומות lit "Donations" is the sixth tractate of Seder Zeraim ("Order of Seeds" of the Mishnah Ma'aserot (מעשרות lit "Tithes" is the seventh tractate of Seder Zeraim ("Order of Seeds" of the Mishnah and of Ma'aser Sheni ( Hebrew: מעשר שני lit "Second Tithe" is the eighth tractate of Seder Zeraim ("Order of Seeds" of the Hallah ( Hebrew: חלה lit "Glob of Dough" is the ninth tractate of Seder Zeraim ("Order of Seeds" of the Mishnah Orlah ( Hebrew: ערלה lit "Blockage of Trees" is the tenth tractate of Seder Zeraim ("Order of Seeds" of the Mishnah This page is about the book of Bikkurim See First Fruits Old Testament for the offering This is about part of the Talmud; for the Jewish day of rest see Shabbat. Pesahim ( Hebrew: פסחים lit "Passovers" is the third tractate of Seder Moed ("Order of Festivals" of the Mishnah Moed ("Festivals" is the second Order of the Mishnah, the first written recording of the Oral Torah of the Jewish people (also the Tosefta and Talmud For the brush-footed butterfly Genus, see Yoma (butterfly. Yoma ( Hebrew: יומא lit This is about part of the Talmud; for the Jewish festival whose name is the plural of Sukkah, and the buildings constructed for use during it see Sukkot Moed ("Festivals" is the second Order of the Mishnah, the first written recording of the Oral Torah of the Jewish people (also the Tosefta and Talmud Rosh Hashanah (ראש השנה is the name of a text of Jewish law originating in the Mishnah which formed the basis of tractates in both the Babylonian Talmud Ta'anit or Taanis is a volume (or "tractate" of the Mishnah, Tosefta, and both Talmuds In Judaism Megillah is the tenth Tractate of Mishnah in the Order Moed. It and its Gemara deal with the laws of Purim and offers exegetical understandings Mo'ed Katan (Hebrew מועד קטן, lit "little festival" is the eleventh tractate Seder Moed of the Mishnah and the Talmud Nashim ("Women" or "Wives" is the third order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta and Talmud) containing the laws related to women Nashim ("Women" or "Wives" is the third order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta and Talmud) containing the laws related to women Nashim ("Women" or "Wives" is the third order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta and Talmud) containing the laws related to women Nazir (נזיר is a treatise of the Mishnah and the Tosefta and in both Talmuds, devoted chiefly to a discussion of the laws of the Nazirite Nashim ("Women" or "Wives" is the third order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta and Talmud) containing the laws related to women Nashim ("Women" or "Wives" is the third order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta and Talmud) containing the laws related to women Nashim ("Women" or "Wives" is the third order of the Mishnah (also of the Tosefta and Talmud) containing the laws related to women Bava Kamma (Aramaic בבא קמא "The First Gate" often Transliterated Baḇa Ḳamma) is the first of a series of three Talmudic tractates Bava Metzia ( Talmudic Aramaic: בבא מציעא "The Middle Gate" is the second of the three Talmudic Tractates in the order of Nezikin Bava Batra is the third of the three tractates in the Talmud in the order Nezikin; it deals with a person's responsibilities and rights as the owner of property Sanhedrin (סנהדרין is one of ten tractates of the Nezikin (a section of the Talmud that deals with damages ie Makkot ( Hebrew: מכות lashes) is a book of the Mishnah and Talmud This article is about the Talmudic book of Shevu'ot See Shavuot for the Jewish holiday For Jewish law on damages see Damages (Jewish law Nezikin ( Hebrew: נזיקין Damages) or Seder Nezikin Avodah Zarah ( Hebrew: "foreign worship" meaning " Idolatry " is the name of a Tractate in the Talmud, located Pirkei Avot / Ovos (Ethics of the Fathers פרקי אבות is a tractate of the Mishna composed of ethical maxims of the Rabbis of the Mishnaic period Horayot ( Hebrew: הוריות Decisions) is the final tractate of Seder Nezikin in the Talmud. This page is about Kodashim a section of the mishnah See Kedoshim (parsha for the Torah portion by that name This page is about Kodashim a section of the mishnah See Kedoshim (parsha for the Torah portion by that name This page is about Kodashim a section of the mishnah See Kedoshim (parsha for the Torah portion by that name This page is about Kodashim a section of the mishnah See Kedoshim (parsha for the Torah portion by that name Arakhin (Arachin is the fifth tractate in Seder Kodashim. It consists primarily of the laws pertaining to donating one's prescribed value as described at the end of the book In Jewish Law, Temurah ( Hebrew: תמורה literally "exchange" is the prohibition against attempting to switch the sanctity of an animal that has This page is about Kodashim a section of the mishnah See Kedoshim (parsha for the Torah portion by that name This page is about Kodashim a section of the mishnah See Kedoshim (parsha for the Torah portion by that name This page is about Kodashim a section of the mishnah See Kedoshim (parsha for the Torah portion by that name This page is about Kodashim a section of the mishnah See Kedoshim (parsha for the Torah portion by that name Kinnim is a tractate in the Mishna and Talmud. The name means "nests" referring to the tractate's subject matter of errors in bird-offerings Keilim (כלים literally "Vessels" is the first tractate in the Order of Tohorot in the Mishnah. Oholot (אוהלות literally "Tents" is the second tractate of the Order of Tohorot in the Mishnah. Nega'im ( Hebrew: נגעים Blemishes) is the third tractate of the order of Tohorot in the Mishnah. Tohorot ( Hebrew: טהורת literally "Purities" is the sixth order of the Mishnah (also the Tosefta and Talmud) Tohorot ( Hebrew: טהורת literally "Purities" is the sixth order of the Mishnah (also the Tosefta and Talmud) Tractate Mikva'ot ( Hebrew: מקואות lit "pools of water" is a section of the Mishna discussing the laws pertaining to the building and maintenance Niddah (or nidah, nidda, nida; Hebrew:נִדָּה is a Hebrew term which literally means separation, generally considered to refer Tohorot ( Hebrew: טהורת literally "Purities" is the sixth order of the Mishnah (also the Tosefta and Talmud) Tohorot ( Hebrew: טהורת literally "Purities" is the sixth order of the Mishnah (also the Tosefta and Talmud) Tohorot ( Hebrew: טהורת literally "Purities" is the sixth order of the Mishnah (also the Tosefta and Talmud) Tohorot ( Hebrew: טהורת literally "Purities" is the sixth order of the Mishnah (also the Tosefta and Talmud) Uktzim ( Hebrew: עוקצים stems) is the last volume (or " Tractate " of the Order of Tohorot in the Mishnah. The Gemara frequently refers to these tannaitic statements in order to compare them to those contained in the Mishnah and to support or refute the propositions of Amoraim. All such non-Mishnaic tannaitic sources are termed baraitot (lit. Baraita ( Aramaic ברייתא "external" "outside" pl outside material, "Works external to the Mishnah"; sing. baraita ברייתא). The baraitot cited in the Gemara are often quotations from the Tosefta (a tannaitic compendium of halakha parallel to the Mishnah) and the Halakhic Midrashim (specifically Mekhilta, Sifra and Sifre). The Tosefta ( Aramaic: תוספתא is a secondary compilation of the Jewish oral law from the period of the Mishnah. Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law The Midrashim are mostly derived from and based upon the teachings of the Tannaim: Midrash ( Hebrew: מדרש plural midrashim, lit "to repeat" is a Hebrew term referring to the not exact but comparative ( homiletic Some baraitot, however, are known only through traditions cited in the Gemara, and are not part of any other collection.
Gemara
In the three centuries following the redaction of the Mishnah, rabbis throughout Israel and Babylonia analyzed, debated and discussed that work. The Gemara (also transliterated Gemora or less commonly Gemorra) (from Aramaic גמרא gamar; literally " study" These discussions form the Gemara (גמרא). The Gemara (also transliterated Gemora or less commonly Gemorra) (from Aramaic גמרא gamar; literally " study" Gemara means “completion” (from the Hebrew gamar גמר: "to complete") or "learning"( from the Aramaic: "to study"). Aramaic is a Semitic language with The Gemara mainly focuses on elucidating and elaborating the opinions of the Tannaim. The rabbis of the Gemara are known as Amoraim (sing. Amora אמורא).
Much of the Gemara consists of legal analysis. The starting point for the analysis is usually a legal statement found in a Mishnah. The statement is then analyzed and compared with other statements in a dialectical exchange between two (frequently anonymous and sometimes metaphorical) disputants, termed the makshan (questioner) and tartzan (answerer). In classical Philosophy, dialectic (διαλεκτική is controversy the exchange of arguments and counter-arguments respectively advocating Propositions Another important function of Gemara is to identify the correct Biblical basis for a given law presented in the Mishnah and the logical process connecting one with the other: this activity was known as talmud long before the existence of the "Talmud" as a text.
These exchanges form the "building-blocks" of the Gemara; the name for a passage of gemara is a sugya (סוגיא; plural sugyot). The Gemara (also transliterated Gemora or less commonly Gemorra) (from Aramaic גמרא gamar; literally " study" A Sugya will typically comprise a detailed proof-based elaboration of a Mishnaic statement.
In a given sugya, scriptural, Tannaic and Amoraic statements are brought to support the various opinions. In so doing, the Gemara will bring semantic disagreements between Tannaim and Amoraim (often ascribing a view to an earlier authority as to how he may have answered a question), and compare the Mishnaic views with passages from the Baraita. Semantics is the study of meaning in communication The word derives from Greek σημαντικός ( semantikos) "significant" from Baraita ( Aramaic ברייתא "external" "outside" pl Rarely are debates formally closed; in many instances, the final word determines the practical law, although there are many exceptions to this principle.
Halakha and Aggadah
The Talmud contains a vast amount of material and touches on a great many subjects. Traditionally Talmudic statements can be classified into two broad categories, Halakhic and Aggadic statements. Halakhic statements are those which directly relate to questions of Jewish law and practice (Halakha). Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law Aggadic statements are those which are not legally related, but rather are exegetical, homiletical, ethical or historical in nature. See Aggadah for further discussion. Aggadah ( Aramaic אגדה tales lore pl Aggadot or (Ashkenazi Aggados) refers to the homiletic and non-legalistic exegetical
Bavli and Yerushalmi
The process of "Gemara" proceeded in the two major centers of Jewish scholarship, the Land of Israel and Babylonia. For other uses see Israel (disambiguation The Land of Israel ( Hebrew: אֶרֶץ יִשְׂרָאֵל Eretz Yisrael) is Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital Correspondingly, two bodies of analysis developed, and two works of Talmud were created. The older compilation is called the Jerusalem Talmud or the Talmud Yerushalmi. It was compiled sometime during the fourth century in Israel. The Babylonian Talmud was compiled about the year 500 C. E. , although it continued to be edited later. The word "Talmud", when used without qualification, usually refers to the Babylonian Talmud.
Talmud Yerushalmi (Jerusalem Talmud)
The Jerusalem Talmud, also known as the Palestinian Talmud, was one of the two compilations of Jewish religious teachings and commentary that was transmitted orally for centuries prior to its compilation by Jewish scholars in Palestine. [3] It is a compilation of teachings of the schools of Tiberias, Sepphoris and Caesarea. It is written largely in a western Aramaic dialect that differs from its Babylonian counterpart. Aramaic is a Semitic language with
This Talmud is a synopsis of the analysis of the Mishnah that was developed over the course of nearly 200 years by the Academies in Israel (principally those of Tiberias and Caesaria. Tiberias ( British English: /taɪˈbɪəriæs -əs/ American English: /taɪˈbɪriəs/ טְבֶרְיָה Tverya; طبرية Ṭabariyyah Caesarea (קיסריה Qesarya قيسارية pronounced Kaysaria) is a town in Israel on the outskirts of Caesarea Maritima, the ancient port ) Because of their location, the sages of these Academies devoted considerable attention to analysis of the agricultural laws of the Land of Israel. Traditionally, this Talmud was thought to have been redacted in about the year 350 C. E. by Rav Muna and Rav Yossi in the Land of Israel. It is traditionally known as the Talmud Yerushalmi ("Jerusalem Talmud"), but the name is a misnomer, as it was not prepared in Jerusalem. It has more accurately been called the The Talmud of the Land of Israel. It has also often been referred to as the Palestinian Talmud, especially in sources that predate the Israeli-Palestine conflict.
Its final redaction probably belongs to the end of the fourth century, but the individual scholars who brought it to its present form cannot be fixed with assurance. By this time Christianity had become the state religion of the Roman Empire and Jerusalem the holy city of Christendom. In 325 CE Constantine, the first Christian emperor, said “let us have nothing in common with this odious people”. This policy made a Jew an outcast and pauper. The compilers of the Jerusalem Talmud consequently lacked the time to produce a work of the quality they had intended. The text is evidently incomplete and is not easy to follow. Any further work on the Jerusalem Talmud probably came to an abrupt end in 425 C. E. , when Theodosius II suppressed the Patriarchate and put an end to the practice of formal scholarly ordination. Flavius Theodosius ( 10 April, 401 – July 28, 450) called the Calligrapher, known in English as Theodosius II, was For the Arab month by this name see Nasi (month. Also the Malay/Indonesian word for rice Semicha (סמיכה "leaning the hands" also semichut (סמיכות "ordination" or semicha lerabbanut (סמיכה לרבנות "rabbinical
Despite this, the Jerusalem Talmud remains an indispensable source of knowledge of the development of the Jewish Law in the Holy Land. It was also an important resource in the study of the Babylonian Talmud by the Kairouan school of Hananel ben Hushiel and Nissim Gaon, with the result that opinions ultimately based on the Jerusalem Talmud found their way into both the Tosafot and the Mishneh Torah of Maimonides. Kairouan ( Arabic القيروان (also known as Kirwan, Al Qayrawan) is a Muslim holy city which ranks after Mecca, Medina Chananel ben Chushiel or Hananel ben Hushiel (חננאל בן חושיאל was a Rabbi, Talmudist and a student of one of the last Geonim. Nissim Ben Jacob ( Rav Nissim Gaon, 990-1062 Hebrew: ניסים בן יעקב) was a Rabbi and Talmudist best known today for his Talmudic The Tosafot or Tosafos (תוספות are Mediæval commentaries on the Talmud. The Mishneh Torah ( Hebrew: משנה תורה subtitled Sefer Yad ha-Chazaka (יד החזקה is a code of Jewish Religious law Moses Maimonides ( March 30 1135 – December 13 1204) also known as the Rambam, was a Rabbi, Physician, and
There are traditions that hold that in the Messianic Age the Jerusalem Talmud will have priority over the Babylonian. This may be interpreted as meaning that, following the restoration of the Sanhedrin and the line of ordained scholars, the work will be completed and "out of Zion shall go the Law, and the word of the Lord from Jerusalem". The Sanhedrin (סנהדרין συνέδριον ''synedrion'', "sitting together" hence " assembly " or "council" was an assembly Semicha (סמיכה "leaning the hands" also semichut (סמיכות "ordination" or semicha lerabbanut (סמיכה לרבנות "rabbinical
Talmud Bavli (Babylonian Talmud)
The Talmud Bavli was transmitted orally for centuries prior to its compilation by Jewish scholars in Babylon about the 5th century AD. [4]
Since the Exile to Babylonia in 586 BCE, there had been Jewish communities living in Babylonia as well as in Judea, as many of the captives never returned home. From then till the Talmudic period the Babylonian Jewish population increased through natural growth as well as migration. The most important of the Jewish centres were Nehardea, Nisibis, Mahoza, Pumbeditha and Sura. Nehardea or Nehardeah was a City of Babylonia, situated at or near the junction of the Euphrates with the Nahr Malka (also known as Nâr Sharri Nusaybin ancient Nisibis, Nisibia Nisibin is a city in Mardin Province, southeastern Turkey populated by Turks, Aramean-Syriacs Al-Mada'in ( Arabic المدائن "The cities" also known under the Aramaic name "Mahoze" or as "Madayn" is the name of Pumbedita (sometimes Pumbeditha, Pumpedita, or Pumbedisa) was the name of a city in ancient Babylonia that was a major center of Talmud Sura (sometimes spelt "Surah" ar سورة, plural "Suwar" ar سور is an Arabic term literally meaning "something enclosed or surrounded It was no longer necessary for scholars to travel regularly to Israel to gather authentic traditions.
Talmud Bavli (the "Babylonian Talmud") comprises the Mishnah and the Babylonian Gemara, the latter representing the culmination of more than 300 years of analysis of the Mishnah in the Babylonian Academies. The Talmudic Academies in Babylonia, also known as the Geonic Academies were the center for Jewish scholarship and the development of Jewish law in The foundations of this process of analysis were laid by Rab, a disciple of Rabbi Judah ha-Nasi. Abba Arika (175–247 ( Talmudic Aramaic: tmr אבא אריכא) (born Abba bar Aybo was a Jewish Talmudist who lived in Babylonia Tradition ascribes the compilation of the Babylonian Talmud in its present form to two Babylonian sages, Rav Ashi and Ravina. Rav Ashi ( רב אשי) ("Rabbi Ashi" (352&ndash427 was a celebrated Jewish religious scholar a Babylonian amora, who reestablished Ravina II was a Jewish Talmudist and Rabbi who in 475 AD finished editing the Gemara portion of the ''Talmud Bavli'', completing the Ashi was president of the Sura Academy from 375 to 427 CE. The work begun by Ashi was completed by Ravina, who is traditionally regarded as the final Amoraic expounder. Accordingly, traditionalists argue that Ravina’s death in 499 CE is the latest possible date for the completion of the redaction of the Talmud. However, even on the most traditional view a few passages are regarded as the work of a group of rabbis who edited the Talmud after the end of the Amoraic period, known as the Saboraim or Rabbanan Savora'e (meaning "reasoners" or "considerers").
The question as to when the Gemara was finally put into its present form is not settled among modern scholars. Some, like Louis Jacobs, argue that the main body of the Gemara is not simple reportage of conversations, as it purports to be, but a highly elaborate structure contrived by the Saboraim, who must therefore be regarded as the real authors. Rabbi Dr Louis Jacobs (b Manchester, 17 July[[ 920]] d London, 1 July 2006, 5 Tammuz 5766 in the Hebrew calendar) was On this view the text did not reach its final form until around 700. Some modern scholars use the term Stammaim (from the Hebrew Stam, meaning "closed", "vague" or "unattributed") for the authors of unattributed statements in the Gemara. (See eras within Jewish law. Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law )
Comparison of style and subject matter
There are significant differences between the two Talmud compilations. The language of the Jerusalem Talmud is a western Aramaic dialect which differs from that of the Babylonian. The Talmud Yerushalmi is often fragmentary and difficult to read, even for experienced Talmudists. The redaction of the Talmud Bavli, on the other hand, is more careful and precise. The law as laid down in the two compilations is basically similar, except in emphasis and in minor details. The Jerusalem Talmud has not received much attention from commentators, and such traditional commentaries as exist are mostly concerned with comparing its teachings to those of the Talmud Bavli.
The Jerusalem Talmud was never completed, as work on it was abruptly broken off in 425 C. E. In the Bavli, however, Gemara exists only for 37 out of the 63 tractates of the Mishnah: most laws from the Orders Zeraim (agricultural laws limited to the land of Israel) and Toharot (ritual purity laws related to the Temple and sacrificial system) had little practical relevance in Babylonia and were therefore not included. The Yerushalmi, by contrast, covers all the tractates of Zeraim.
The Babylonian Talmud records the opinions of the rabbis of Israel as well as of those of Babylonia, while the Jerusalem Talmud seldom cites Babylonian authority. The Babylonian version also contains the opinions of more generations because of its later date of completion. For these reasons it is regarded as a more comprehensive collection of the opinions available.
The influence of the Babylonian Talmud has been far greater than that of the Yerushalmi. In the main, this is because the influence and prestige of the Jewish community of Israel steadily declined in contrast with the Babylonian community in the years after the redaction of the Talmud and continuing until the Gaonic era. Geonim ( Hebrew: גאונים also transliterated Gaonim) were the presidents of the two great rabbinical colleges of Sura Furthermore, the editing of the Babylonian Talmud was superior to that of the Jerusalem version, making it more accessible and readily usable. According to Maimonides, all Jewish communities during the Gaonic era formally accepted the Babylonian Talmud as binding upon themselves, and modern Jewish practice follows the Babylonian Talmud's conclusions on all areas in which the two Talmuds are in conflict. Moses Maimonides ( March 30 1135 – December 13 1204) also known as the Rambam, was a Rabbi, Physician, and
Language
The Babylonian Talmud, comprising both the Mishnah and the Gemara, contains large swaths of both Hebrew and Aramaic. The Mishnah or Mishna (he משנה "repetition" from the verb shanah he שנה or "to study and review" is a major work of Rabbinic Judaism The Gemara (also transliterated Gemora or less commonly Gemorra) (from Aramaic גמרא gamar; literally " study" The central portion is in Hebrew. [5]
While Aramaic was spoken for a long time by ancient Jews, Hebrew, in various forms and at various historical stages, was also continuously used. Aramaic is a Semitic language with Hebrew was used for the writing of religious texts, poetry, and so forth, as well as for speech. Even after the introduction of Aramaic, and its influence on Late Biblical Hebrew, Hebrew continued to develop, and today scholars use terms like Mishnaic/Rabbinic Hebrew and Medieval Hebrew. [6]
Not only the Mishnah, but also all the Baraitas quoted and embedded in the Gemara, are in Hebrew, so that Hebrew constitutes somewhat less than half of the text of the Talmud. The rest, including the discussions of the Amoraim and the overall framework, is in a characteristic dialect of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic. Jewish Babylonian Aramaic is the form of Middle Aramaic employed by Jewish writers in Babylonia between the 4th century and the 11th century CE There are occasional quotations from older works in other dialects of Aramaic, such as Megillat Taanit. Megillat Taanit ( Hebrew: מגילת תענית) is chronicle which enumerates 35 eventful days on which the Jewish nation either performed glorious deeds
Printing
The first complete edition of the Babylonian Talmud was printed in Italy by Daniel Bomberg during the 16th century. Printing is a process for reproducing text and image typically with ink on Paper using a printing press Daniel Bomberg (died 1549 was an early printer of Hebrew language Books Christian born in Antwerp, he was primarily active in Venice In addition to the Mishnah and Gemara, Bomberg's edition contained the commentaries of Rashi and Tosafot. For the astrological concept see Rāshi (Jyotiṣa. Rabbi Shlomo Yitzhaki, (רבי שלמה יצחקי better known by the acronym Rashi The Tosafot or Tosafos (תוספות are Mediæval commentaries on the Talmud. Almost all printings since Bomberg have followed the same pagination. The edition of the Talmud published by the Szapira brothers in Slavuta in 1795 is particularly prized by many hasidic rebbes. Slavuta (Славута Sławuta סלאוויטא Slavita) is a City in the Khmelnytskyi Oblast ( province) of western Ukraine, located Hasidic Judaism (also Chasidic, etc from the Hebrew: he '''''חסידות''''', Chassidus, meaning "piety" from the Hebrew Rebbe (רבי (pronounced in English which means master teacher or mentor is a Yiddish word derived from the identical Hebrew word Rabbi In 1835, after an acrimonious dispute with the Szapira family, a new edition of the Talmud was printed by Menachem Romm of Vilna. Known as the Vilna Shas. The Vilna Edition of the Talmud, printed in Vilna (now Vilnius) Lithuania, is by far the most common printed edition of the Talmud still in This edition (and later ones printed by his widow and sons) has been used in the production of more recent editions of Talmud Bavli.
A page number in the Talmud refers to a double-sided page, known as a daf; each daf has two amudim labeled א and ב, sides A and B. The referencing by daf is relatively recent and dates from the early Talmud printings of the 17th century. Earlier rabbinic literature generally only refers to the tractate or chapters within a tractate. Rabbinic literature, in its broadest sense can mean the entire spectrum of Rabbinic writings throughout Jewish history Nowadays, reference is made in format [Tractate daf a/b] (e. g. Berachot 23b). In the Vilna edition of the Talmud there are 5,894 folio pages.
The text of the Vilna editions is considered by scholars not to be uniformly reliable. In the early twentieth century Nathan Rabinowitz published a series of volumes called Dikduke Soferim showing textual variants from early manuscripts and printings, and in recent decades the Institute for the Complete Israeli Talmud has started a similar project under the name of Gemara Shelemah. There have been critical editions of particular tractates (e. g. Henry Malter's edition of Ta'anit), but there is no modern critical edition of the whole Talmud. Henry Malter (born at Zabno, Galicia, March 23[[ 867]] died 1925 was an American Rabbi and scholar The most recent edition is by the Oz ve-Hadar institute: this is basically an updated version of the Vilna edition, but cites variant texts in footnotes.
Commentary and study
From the time of its completion, the Talmud became integral to Jewish scholarship. This section outlines some of the major areas of Talmudic study.
The Geonim
The earliest Talmud commentaries were written by the Geonim (approximately 800-1000, C. Geonim ( Hebrew: גאונים also transliterated Gaonim) were the presidents of the two great rabbinical colleges of Sura E. ) in Babylonia. Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq) with Babylon as its capital Although some direct commentaries on particular treatises are extant, our main knowledge of Gaonic era Talmud scholarship comes from statements embedded in Geonic responsa which shed light on Talmudic passages. Also important are practical abridgments of Jewish law such as Yehudai Gaon's Halachot Pesukot, Achai Gaon's Sheeltot and Simeon Kayyara's Halachot Gedolot. Yehudai ben Nahman or Yehudai Gaon ( Hebrew: יהודאי גאון) was the head of the Yeshiva in Sura from 757 to Achai Gaon (also known as Ahai of Sabha or Aha of Sabha) was one of the Geonim, an 8th-century Talmudist of high renown Simeon Kayyara ( Hebrew: ????? ?????) was a Jewish-Babylonian Halakist of the first half of the 9th century After the death of Hai Gaon, however, the center of Talmud scholarship shifts to Europe and North Africa. Hai ben Sherira, better known as Hai Gaon, was a medieval Jewish theologian Rabbi and scholar who served as Gaon of the Talmudic academy
Halakhic and Aggadic Extractions
One area of Talmudic scholarship developed out of the need to ascertain the Halakha. Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law Early commentators such as Rabbi Isaac Alfasi (North Africa, 1013-1103) attempted to extract and determine the binding legal opinions from the vast corpus of the Talmud. Rabbi Isaac ben Jacob Alfasi (1013 - 1103 - also Isaac Hakohen, Alfasi or the Rif (רי"ף - was a Talmudist and Posek (decisor Alfasi's work was highly influential and later served as a basis for the creation of halakhic codes. Another influential medieval Halakhic commentary was that of Rabbi Asher ben Yechiel (d. Asher ben Jehiel ( Hebrew, אשר בן יחיאל, or Asher ben Yechiel sometimes Asheri) (1250 or 1259 &ndash 1328 was an eminent Rabbi and 1327).
A fifteenth century Spanish rabbi, Jacob ibn Habib (d. Jacob ben Solomon ibn Habib (c 1460 &ndash 1516 ( Hebrew: יעקב בן שלמה אבן חביב) was a Spanish Talmudist born at Zamora. 1516), composed the Ein Yaakov. Ein Yaakov (עין יעקב is a compilation of all the Aggadic material in the Talmud together with commentaries Ein Yaakov (or Ein Ya'aqob) extracts nearly all the Aggadic material from the Talmud. Aggadah ( Aramaic אגדה tales lore pl Aggadot or (Ashkenazi Aggados) refers to the homiletic and non-legalistic exegetical It was intended to familiarize the public with the ethical parts of the Talmud and to dispute many of the accusations surrounding its contents.
Commentaries
The Talmud is often cryptic and difficult to understand. Rabbinic literature, in its broadest sense can mean the entire spectrum of Rabbinic writings throughout Jewish history Its language contains many Greek and Persian words which over time became obscure. A major area of Talmudic scholarship developed in order to explain these passages and words. Some early commentators such as Rabbenu Gershom of Mainz (10th c. Gershom ben Judah, (c 960 -1040? -1028? best known as Rabbeinu Gershom ( Hebrew: רבנו גרשום, "Our teacher Gershom" and also commonly ) and Rabbenu Hananel (early 11th c. Chananel ben Chushiel or Hananel ben Hushiel (חננאל בן חושיאל was a Rabbi, Talmudist and a student of one of the last Geonim. ) produced running commentaries to various tractates. These commentaries could be read with the text of the Talmud and would help explain the meaning of the text. Another important work is the Sefer ha-Mafteach (Book of the Key) by Nissim Gaon, which contains a preface explaining the different forms of Talmudic argumentation and then explains abbreviated passages in the Talmud by cross-referring to parallel passages where the same thought is expressed in full. Nissim Ben Jacob ( Rav Nissim Gaon, 990-1062 Hebrew: ניסים בן יעקב) was a Rabbi and Talmudist best known today for his Talmudic Using a different style, Rabbi Nathan b. Jechiel created a lexicon called the Arukh in the 11th century in order to translate difficult words. Nathan ben Jehiel of Rome ( Hebrew: נתן בן יחיאל מרומי) (c
By far the best known commentary on the Babylonian Talmud is that of Rashi (Rabbi Solomon ben Isaac, 1040-1105). For the astrological concept see Rāshi (Jyotiṣa. Rabbi Shlomo Yitzhaki, (רבי שלמה יצחקי better known by the acronym Rashi The commentary is comprehensive, covering almost the entire Talmud. Written as a running commentary, it provides a full explanation of the words, and explains the logical structure of each Talmudic passage. It is considered indispensable to students of the Talmud.
Medieval Ashkenazic Jewry produced another major commentary known as Tosafot ("additions" or "supplements"). The Tosafot or Tosafos (תוספות are Mediæval commentaries on the Talmud. The Tosafot are collected commentaries by various medieval Ashkenazic Rabbis on the Talmud (known as Tosafists). Tosafists were Medieval Rabbis who created critical and explanatory Glosses on the Talmud. One of the main goals of the Tosafot is to explain and interpret contradictory statements in the Talmud. Unlike Rashi, the Tosafot is not a running commentary, but rather comments on selected matters. Often the explanations of Tosafot differ from those of Rashi.
Among the founders of the Tosafist school were Rabbi Jacob b. Meir (known as Rabbeinu Tam), who was a grandson of Rashi, and, Rabbenu Tam's nephew, Rabbi Isaac ben Samuel. R Tam redirects here For the character in Firefly, see River Tam. Isaac ben Samuel the Elder of Dampierre ( Hebrew: יצחק הזקן בן שמואל), known as the or " Ri " (ר"י הזקן was The Tosafot commentaries were collected in different editions in the various schools. The benchmark collection of Tosafot for Northern France was that of R. Eliezer of Touques. The standard collection for Spain was that of Rabbenu Asher ("Tosafot Harosh"). Asher ben Jehiel ( Hebrew, אשר בן יחיאל, or Asher ben Yechiel sometimes Asheri) (1250 or 1259 &ndash 1328 was an eminent Rabbi and The Tosafot that are printed in the standard Vilna edition of the Talmud are an edited version of one or another of the medieval collections. [7]
Over time, the approach of the Tosafists spread to other Jewish communities, particularly those in Spain. This led to the composition of many other commentaries in similar styles. Among these are the commentaries of Ramban, Rashba, Ritva and Ran. Nahmanides (1194 &ndash c 1270 was a Catalan Rabbi, philosopher, Physician, Kabbalist and biblical commentator. Shlomo ben Aderet ( Hebrew: שלמה בן אדרת) (or Solomon son of Aderet) (1235 — 1310 was a Medieval Rabbi, halakhist Yom Tov Asevilli or Yom Tov ben Avraham Asevilli (or Yom Tov the son of Abraham Asevilli) (1250-1330 who is commonly known to scholars of Judaism as Rabbi Nissim ben Reuven (1320 - 1380 Hebrew: נסים בן ראובן) of Girona, Catalonia was an influential Talmudist and authority A comprehensive anthology consisting of extracts from all these is the Shittah Mekubbetzet of Bezalel Ashkenazi. Bezalel Ashkenazi, (בצלאל בן אברהם אשכנזי a Rabbi and scholar of the Talmud, lived in the Palestine during the Sixteenth century
There were other commentaries produced in Spain and Provence which were not influenced by the Tosafist style. Two of the most significant of these are the Yad Ramah by Rabbi Meir Abulafia (uncle of the mystic Abraham Abulafia) and Bet Habechirah by Rabbi Menahem haMeiri, commonly referred to as "Meiri". Meir Abulafia is commonly known as "the Ramah" ( Hebrew: רמ"ה Rabbi Menachem Meiri (1249 &ndash c 1310 was a famous Provençal rabbi, Talmudist and Maimondean. While the Bet Habechirah is extant for all of Talmud, we only have the Yad Ramah for Tractates Sanhedrin, Baba Batra and Gittin.
In later centuries, focus partially shifted from direct Talmudic interpretation to the analysis of previously written Talmudic commentaries. These later commentaries include "Maharshal" (Solomon Luria), "Maharam" (Meir Lublin) and "Maharsha" (Samuel Edels)
Pilpul
During the 15th and 16th centuries, a new intensive form of Talmud study arose. Solomon Luria ( 1510 - November 7, 1574) ( Hebrew: שלמה לוריא) was one of the great Ashkenazic poskim Meir Lublin or Meir ben Gedalia (1558-1616 was a Polish rabbi Talmudist and Posek ("decisor of Jewish law " Samuel Eidels (1555&ndash1631 (שמואל אליעזר הלוי איידלס was a renowned Rabbi and Talmudist famous for his commentary on the Talmud Chiddushei Complicated logical arguments were used to explain minor points of contradiction within the Talmud. The term pilpul (related to the Hebrew word pilpel, meaning "spice" or "pepper"[8] ) was applied to this type of study. Pilpul ( Hebrew: פלפול loosely meaning "sharp analysis" refers to a method of studying the Talmud through intense textual analysis in attempts to either Usage of pilpul in this sense (that of "sharp analysis") harks back to the Talmudic era and refers to the intellectual sharpness this method demanded.
Pilpul practitioners posited that the Talmud could contain no redundancy or contradiction whatsoever. New categories and distinctions (hillukim) were therefore created, resolving seeming contradictions within the Talmud by novel logical means.
Among Sephardi and Italian Jews some authorities sought to apply the methods of Aristotelian logic, as reformulated by Averroes. Sephardi Jews ( Hebrew: ספרדי, Standard Səfardi Tiberian Səp̄arədî; plural Italian Jews can be used in a broad sense to mean all Jews living in Italy or in a narrower sense to mean the ancient community who use the Italian rite as distinct from newer The Organon is the name given by Aristotle 's followers the Peripatetics to the standard collection of his six works on Logic. Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European [9] This method was first recorded, though without explicit reference to Aristotle, by Isaac Campanton (d. Isaac ben Jacob Campanton (1360-1463 ( Hebrew: יצחק קנפנטון) was a Spanish rabbi Spain, 1463) in his Darkhei ha-Talmud ("The Ways of the Talmud"), and is also found in the works of Moses Chaim Luzzatto. Moshe Chaim Luzzatto ( Hebrew: משה חיים לוצאטו, also Moses Chaim, Moses Hayyim, also Luzzato) (1707-1746 (26 Iyar
In the Ashkenazi world the founders of pilpul are generally considered to be Jacob Pollak (1460-1541) and Shalom Shachna. Ashkenazi Jews, also known as Ashkenazic Jews or Ashkenazim ( Hebrew: אַשְׁכֲּנָזִים, ˌaʃkəˈnazim sing Rabbi Jacob Pollak (other common spelling Yaakov Pollack) was the founder of the Polish method of halakic and Talmudic study known as the Pilpul; born about Shalom Shachna (d 1558 was a Rabbi and Talmudist and Rosh Yeshiva of several great Acharonim including Moses Isserles, who was This kind of study reached its height in the 16th and 17th centuries when expertise in pilpulistic analysis was considered an art form and became a goal in and of itself within the yeshivot of Poland and Lithuania. But the popular new method of Talmud study was not without critics; already in the 15th century, the ethical tract Orhot Zaddikim ("Lights of the Righteous" in Hebrew) criticized pilpul for an overemphasis on intellectual acuity. Many 16th- and 17th-century rabbis were also critical of pilpul. Among them may be noted Judah Loew b. Bezalel (the Maharal), Isaiah Horowitz, and Jair Hayyim Bacharach. Judah Loew ben Bezalel ("Judah Loewe son of Bezalel" also written as Yehudah ben Bezalel Levai '''Loewe''' '''Löwe''' 1525 &ndash Thursday 7 September Isaiah Horowitz ( Hebrew: ישעיה הלוי הורוביץ; c Rabbi Yair Chayim Bacharach (1639 Lipník nad Bečvou, Moravia &mdash 1702 was a German Rabbi, initially in Koblenz and remainder of his life
By the 18th century, pilpul study waned. Other styles of learning such as that of the school of Elijah b. Solomon, the Vilna Gaon, became popular. Eliyahu ben Shlomo Zalman, known as the Vilna Gaon or Elijah of Vilna and simply by his Hebrew Acronym Gra (" G aon The term "pilpul" was increasingly applied derogatorily to novellae deemed casuistic and hairsplitting. Authors referred to their own commentaries as "al derekh ha-peshat" (by the simple method) to contrast them with pilpul. [10]
Brisker method
In the late nineteenth century another trend in Talmud study arose. Rabbi Hayyim Soloveitchik (1853-1918) of Brisk (Brest-Litovsk) developed and refined this style of study. Chaim (Halevi Soloveitchik ( Hebrew: חיים סולובייצ'יק) also known as Reb Chaim Brisker, ( 1853 - July 30, 1918 Brisker method involves the analysis of rabbinic arguments within the Talmud or among the Rishonim, explaining the differing opinions by placing them within a categorical structure. The Brisker method, or Brisker derech, is an approach to Talmud study innovated by Rabbi Chaim Soloveitchik of Brisk The Brisker method is highly analytical and is often criticized as being a modern-day version of Pilpul. Nevertheless, the influence of the Brisker method is great. Most modern day Yeshivot study the Talmud using the Brisker method in some form. One feature of this method is the use of Maimonides' Mishneh Torah as a guide to Talmudic interpretation, as distinct from its use as a source of practical halakha. Moses Maimonides ( March 30 1135 – December 13 1204) also known as the Rambam, was a Rabbi, Physician, and The Mishneh Torah ( Hebrew: משנה תורה subtitled Sefer Yad ha-Chazaka (יד החזקה is a code of Jewish Religious law Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law
Rival methods were those of the Mir and Telz yeshivas. This article concerns the pre-war Mirrer yeshiva in Poland For the post-war yeshivas see Mir yeshiva (Jerusalem and Mir yeshiva (Brooklyn The Telshe yeshiva was a famous Eastern European Yeshiva founded in the Lithuanian town of Telšiai.
Critical method
As a result of emancipation from the ghetto (1789), Judaism underwent enormous upheaval and transformation during the nineteenth century, (see Reform Judaism, Haskala). Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently subjected to vandalism and the insertion of personal opinions Haskalah ( Hebrew: השכלה "enlightenment" "education" from sekhel " Intellect " "mind") the Jewish Enlightenment Modern methods of textual and historical analysis were applied to the Talmud.
Textual emendations
The text of the Talmud has been subject to some level of critical scrutiny throughout its history. [11]
The emendations of R. Solomon Luria and R. Solomon Luria ( 1510 - November 7, 1574) ( Hebrew: שלמה לוריא) was one of the great Ashkenazic poskim Yoel Sirkis are included in all standard editions of the Talmud. Yoel Sirkis, (1561-1640 also known as the Bach - an abbreviation of his magnum opus Bayit Chadash - was a prominent Jewish Posek and halakhist The Vilna Gaon emended many texts by genius alone. Eliyahu ben Shlomo Zalman, known as the Vilna Gaon or Elijah of Vilna and simply by his Hebrew Acronym Gra (" G aon Many of the Gaon's emendations were later verified by the discovery of the Cairo Genizah. The Cairo Geniza is an accumulation of almost 200000 Jewish manuscripts that were found in the Genizah or store room of the Ben Ezra Synagogue in (See Solomon Schechter, Studies in Judaism. )
In the nineteenth century R. Raphael Nathan Nota Rabinovicz published a multi-volume work entitled Dikdukei Soferim, showing textual variants from the Munich and other early manuscripts of the Talmud, and further variants are recorded in the Gemara Shelemah and Oz ve-Hadar editions (see Printing, above).
Historical analysis
During the early 19th century, leaders of the Reform movement, such as Abraham Geiger and Samuel Holdheim, subjected the Talmud to severe scrutiny as part of an effort to break with traditional rabbinic Judaism. Abraham Geiger (1810&ndash1874 was a German Rabbi and scholar who led in the foundation of Reform Judaism, seeking to remove all nationalistic elements Samuel Holdheim (1806 &ndash 22 August 1860 was a German Rabbi and author and one of the more extreme leaders of the early Reform Judaism movement They insisted that the Talmud was entirely a work of evolution and development. The proponents of the more moderate tendency known as "positive-historical Judaism", notably Nachman Krochmal and Zacharias Frankel, developed a new understanding of the Oral Torah. Nachman Kohen Krochmal (born in Brody, Galicia, on February 17, 1785; died at Tarnopol on July 31, 1840) was Zecharias Frankel ( 30 September, 1801 – 13 February 1875) was a Bohemian-German Rabbi and a historian who studied the historical development They described the Oral Torah as the result of a historical and exegetical process, emerging over time, through the application of authorized exegetical techniques, and more importantly, the subjective dispositions and personalities and current historical conditions, by learned sages. This position was known as the Historical-Critical school. This was later developed more fully in the five volume work Dor Dor ve-Dorshav by Isaac Hirsch Weiss. Isaac Hirsch Weiss ( February 9, 1815 – June 1, 1905) ( Hebrew: יצחק הירש ווייס) was an Austrian (See Jay Harris Guiding the Perplexed in the Modern Age Ch. 5)
Another aspect of this movement is reflected in Graetz's History of the Jews. Graetz attempts to deduce the personality of the Pharisees based on the laws or aggadot that they cite, and show that their personalities influenced the laws they expounded. The word Pharisees ( lat. pharisæ|us, - i) comes from the Hebrew פרושים perushim from פרוש parush, meaning "separated" This is only a valid method if one looks upon the Pharisees as independent exegetes rather than as transmitters of the Oral Law.
This clashes with the traditional understanding of the nature of the Oral Law. The traditional understanding is that in addition to the written law (the Bible), God communicated to Moses additional amplifications and explanations that were passed down orally until written in the Talmud. According to this belief, any attempt to trace a historical "evolution of Halacha" (with the exception of several later enactments) would be erroneous.
See Rashi to Leviticus Ch. For the astrological concept see Rāshi (Jyotiṣa. Rabbi Shlomo Yitzhaki, (רבי שלמה יצחקי better known by the acronym Rashi 25 V. 1 (quoting a Sifra):
"However, this teaches us that just as the Sabbatical year, its general principles and its finer details were all stated at Sinai, likewise, all of the laws were stated, their general principles together with their finer details were stated at Sinai"
Because the modern method of historical study had its origins in the era of religious reform, the method was immediately controversial within the Orthodox world. Sifra ( Aramaic: סִפְרָא) is the Halakic midrash to Leviticus. In reaction, some Orthodox leaders such as Moses Sofer (the Chatam Sofer) became exquisitely sensitive to any change and rejected modern critical methods of Talmud study. Rabbi Moshe Sofer, (Moses Schreiber also known by his main work Chasam Sofer, ( trans
The leader of Orthodox Jewry in Germany Samson Raphael Hirsch, while not rejecting the methods of scholarship in principle, hotly contested the findings of the Historical-Critical method. Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch ( June 20, 1808 – December 31, 1888) was the intellectual founder of the Torah im Derech Eretz In a series of articles in his magazine Jeschurun (reprinted in Collected Writings Vol. 5) Hirsch reiterated the traditional view and pointed out numerous errors in the works of Graetz, Frankel and Geiger.
On the other hand, many of the nineteenth century's strongest critics of Reform, including strictly orthodox Rabbis such as Zvi Hirsch Chajes, utilized this new scientific method. Zvi Hirsch Chajes ( Hebrew: צבי הירש חיות - November 20, 1805 - October 12, 1855; also Chayes or The Orthodox Rabbinical seminary of Azriel Hildesheimer was founded on the idea of creating a "harmony between Judaism and science". Israel Azriel Hildesheimer ( May 20, 1820 &ndash July 12, 1899) was a German Rabbi and leader of Orthodox Judaism. Another Orthodox pioneer of scientific Talmud study was David Zvi Hoffman. For the American documentary filmmaker see David Hoffman David Zvi Hoffmann ( November 24, 1843 &ndash 1921 ( Hebrew
Contemporary scholarship
Some trends within contemporary Talmud scholarship are listed below.
- Orthodox Judaism maintains that the oral law was revealed together with the written law. As such, Orthodox Judaism has resisted any effort to apply the historical method to the Talmud. It also resists imputing motives to the authors of the Talmud.
- Some non-Orthodox scholars hold that there has been extensive editorial reshaping of the stories and statements within the Talmud. Lacking outside confirming texts, they hold that we cannot confirm the origin or date of most statements and laws, and that we can say little for certain about their authorship. In this view, the questions above are impossible to answer. See, for example, the works of Louis Jacobs and Shaye J.D. Cohen. Rabbi Dr Louis Jacobs (b Manchester, 17 July[[ 920]] d London, 1 July 2006, 5 Tammuz 5766 in the Hebrew calendar) was Shaye J D Cohen (b October 21, 1948) is the Littauer Professor of Hebrew Literature and Philosophy in the Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations
- Some scholars hold that the Talmud has been extensively shaped by later editorial redaction, but that it contains sources which we can identify and describe with some level of reliability. In this view, sources can be identified by tracing the history and analyzing the geographical regions of origin. See, for example, the works of Lee I. Levine and David C. Lee I Levine is a Talmud scholar and historian of classical Judaism Kraemer.
- Some scholars hold that many or most the statements and events described in the Talmud usually occurred more or less as described, and that they can be used as serious sources of historical study. In this view, historians do their best to tease out later editorial additions (itself a very difficult task) and skeptically view accounts of miracles, leaving behind a reliable historical text. See, for example, the works of Saul Lieberman, David Weiss Halivni, and Avraham Goldberg. Saul Lieberman (May 28 1898 - March 23 1983 also known as Rabbi Shaul Lieberman or The Gra"sh ( G aon Ra bbeinu Sh aul David Weiss Halivni (1927- is an American Israeli world-acclaimed scholar in the domain of Jewish Sciences and professor of Talmud,born Avraham Goldberg אברהם גולדברג (born 1913 is a well-known and respected Israeli Talmud scholar
Modern academic study attempts to separate the different "strata" within the text, to try to interpret each level on its own, and to identify the correlations between parallel versions of the same tradition.
In recent years, the work of R. David Weiss Halivni and Dr. David Weiss Halivni (1927- is an American Israeli world-acclaimed scholar in the domain of Jewish Sciences and professor of Talmud,born Shamma Friedman has resulted in a paradigm shift in the understanding of the Talmud. (Encyclopedia Judaica 2nd ed. entry Talmud,Babylonian) The traditional understanding was to view the Talmud as a unified homogeneous work. While other scholars had also treated the Talmud as a multi-layered work, Dr. Halivni's innovation (primarily in the second volume of his Mekorot u-Mesorot) was to differentiate between the Amoraic statements which are generally brief Halachic decisions or inquiries, and the writings of the later "Stammaitic" (or Saboraic) authors which are characterised by a much longer analysis often consisting of lengthy dialectic discussion. It has been noted that the Jerusalem Talmud is in fact very similar to the Babylonian Talmud minus Stammaitic activity (Encyclopaedia Judaica (2nd ed. ), entry "Jerusalem Talmud").
Shamma Y. Friedman's Talmud Aruch on the sixth chapter of Bava Metzia (1996) is the first example of a complete analysis of a Talmudic text using this method. S. Wald has followed with works on Pesachim ch. 3 (2000) and Shabbat ch. 7 (2006).
Role of the Talmud in Judaism
The Talmud is the written record of an oral tradition. It became the basis for many rabbinic legal codes and customs, of which the most important are the Mishneh Torah and the Shulchan Aruch. The Mishneh Torah ( Hebrew: משנה תורה subtitled Sefer Yad ha-Chazaka (יד החזקה is a code of Jewish Religious law The Shulchan Aruch (שולחן ערוך literally " Set Table " (also Shulhan Aruch or Shulchan Arukh) is a Codification Orthodox and, to a lesser extent, Conservative Judaism accept the Talmud as authoritative, while Reconstructionist and Reform Judaism do not. This section briefly outlines past and current movements and their view of the Talmud's role.
Sadducees
The Sadducees were a Jewish sect which flourished during the Second Temple period. The Sadducees were members of a Jewish sect founded in the second century BC, possibly as a political party One of their main arguments with the Pharisees (later known as Rabbinic Judaism) was over their rejection of an Oral Law as well as denying a resurrection after death. The word Pharisees ( lat. pharisæ|us, - i) comes from the Hebrew פרושים perushim from פרוש parush, meaning "separated" The disagreement was not strictly speaking about the Talmud, as this had not been written at the time.
Karaism
Another movement which rejected the oral law was Karaism. Karaite Judaism or Karaism (ˈkærəˌaɪt ˈkærəˌɪzəm) is a Jewish movement NOTE The word sect should not be used without defining it first and It arose within two centuries of the completion of the Talmud. Karaism developed as a reaction against the Talmudic Judaism of Babylonia. The central concept of Karaism is the rejection of the Oral Torah, as embodied in the Talmud, in favor of a strict adherence to the Written Law only. According to Rabbinic Judaism, the oral Torah, oral Law, or oral tradition ( is the oral tradition received in conjunction with the written Torah This opposes the fundamental Rabbinic concept that the Oral Law was given to Moses on Mount Sinai together with the Written Law. Rabbinic Judaism or Rabbinism ( Hebrew: " Yehadut Rabanit " - יהדות רבנית is the mainstream religious system of post- diaspora Moses ( Latin: Moyses,; Greek: grc Mωυσής in both the Septuagint and the New Testament; Arabic: ar موسىٰ For other places named Mount Sinai see Mount Sinai (disambiguation Mount Sinai (Arabic طور سيناء, Hebrew הר סיני also Karaism has virtually disappeared, declining from a high of nearly 10% of the Jewish population to a current estimated 0. 2%.
Reform Judaism
With the rise of Reform Judaism, during the nineteenth century, the authority of the Talmud was again questioned. The Talmud was seen by Reform Jews as a product of late antiquity having relevance merely as a historical document. In some cases a similar view was taken of the written law as well, while others appeared to adopt a neo-Karaite "back to the Bible" approach, though often with greater emphasis on the prophetic than on the legal books. Karaite Judaism or Karaism (ˈkærəˌaɪt ˈkærəˌɪzəm) is a Jewish movement NOTE The word sect should not be used without defining it first and
Present day
- See also Halakha: How Halakha is viewed today and Halakha: The sources and process of Halakha. Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law
Orthodox Judaism continues to stress the importance of Talmud study and it is a central component of Yeshiva curriculum, in particular for those training to be Rabbis. Orthodox Judaism is the formulation of Judaism that adheres to a relatively strict interpretation and application of the laws and ethics first canonized Yeshiva or yeshivah (jəʃi'və ( Hebrew: ישיבה "sitting (n This is so even though Halakha is generally studied from the medieval codes and not directly from the Talmud. Talmudic study among the Jewish laity was not widespread prior to the 20th century, but changes in education and leisure, the publication of study editions with translations and accessible commentaries in recent decades, and particularly the rise of Yeshiva and Jewish day school education among the Jewish laity, have made reading the Talmud more widespread in Orthodox Judaism, with daily or weekly Talmud study particularly common in Haredi Judaism and with Talmud study a central part of the curriculum in Orthodox Yeshivas and day schools. Yeshiva or yeshivah (jəʃi'və ( Hebrew: ישיבה "sitting (n See Yeshiva and Bais Yaakov about strictly Orthodox (mostly Haredi) Jewish schools Orthodox Judaism is the formulation of Judaism that adheres to a relatively strict interpretation and application of the laws and ethics first canonized Haredi or Chareidi Judaism is the most theologically conservative form of Orthodox Judaism. The regular study of Talmud among laymen has been popularized by the Daf Yomi, a daily course of Talmud study initiated by Rabbi Meir Shapiro in 1923; its 12th cycle of study began on March 2, 2005. Daf Yomi (דף יומי "page the day" or "daily Folio " is a daily regimen undertaken to study the Babylonian Talmud one folio (a For other people with a similar name see Meyer Shapiro Yehuda Meir Shapiro, ( March 3, 1887 - October 27, 1933 Events 986 - Louis V becomes King of the Franks. 1127 - Assassination of Charles the Good Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. See also: Orthodox beliefs about Jewish law and tradition. Orthodox Judaism is the formulation of Judaism that adheres to a relatively strict interpretation and application of the laws and ethics first canonized
Conservative Judaism similarly emphasizes the study of Talmud within its religious and rabbinic education. Conservative Judaism (also known as Masorti Judaism in Israel and Europe) is a modern stream of Judaism that arose out Generally, however, the Talmud is studied as a historical source-text for Halakha. Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law The Conservative approach to legal decision-making emphasizes placing classic texts and prior decisions in historical and cultural context, and examining the historical development of Halakha. Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law This approach has resulted in greater practical flexibility than that of the Orthodox. Talmud study is part of the curriculum of Conservative parochial education at many Conservative day schools and an increase in Conservative day school enrollments has resulted in an increase in Talmud study as part of Conservative Jewish education among a minority of Conservative Jews. The Solomon Schechter Day School Association is an organization associated with Conservative Judaism. See also: The Conservative Jewish view of the Halakha. Conservative Judaism (also known as Masorti Judaism in Israel and Europe) is a modern stream of Judaism that arose out
Reform Judaism does not emphasize the study of Talmud to the same degree in their Hebrew schools, but they do teach it in their rabbinical seminaries; the world view of liberal Judaism rejects the idea of binding Jewish law, and uses the Talmud as a source of inspiration and moral instruction. Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently subjected to vandalism and the insertion of personal opinions Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law Ownership and reading of the Talmud is not widespread among Reform and Reconstructionist Jews, who usually place more emphasis on the study of the Hebrew Bible or Tanakh. Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently subjected to vandalism and the insertion of personal opinions See also Old testament, Septuagint, Targum, Peshitta The Tanakh (תַּנַ"ךְ (taˈnax or; also Tenakh or Tenak is See also: The Reform Jewish view of the Halakha and view of the Talmud. Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently subjected to vandalism and the insertion of personal opinions Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently subjected to vandalism and the insertion of personal opinions
External accusations
Accusations against the Talmud tend to fall into the following categories:[12]
- Anti-Christian or anti-Gentile content
- Insults against Jesus or the Virgin Mary
- Absurd or sexually immoral content
- Falsification of scripture
Such accusations often shade into attacks on Jews or Judaism generally, and should be distinguished from criticisms of the Talmud (including some criticism by Jews) on grounds such as excessive legalism, strained reasoning, unhistoric content and superstitious beliefs.
Middle ages
The history of the Talmud reflects in part the history of Judaism persisting in a world of hostility and persecution. Almost at the very time that the Babylonian savoraim put the finishing touches to the redaction of the Talmud, the emperor Justinian issued his edict against the abolition of the Greek translation of the Bible in the service of the Synagogue. Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus ( Greek: Φλάβιος Πέτρος Σαββάτιος Ιουστινιανός; known in English as Justinian I or Since the Old Testament of the Bible is the Hebrew Bible, Justinian I's edict essentially banned Jews from using their own Hebrew Bible in their synagogues, at least in a commonly-understood language. This edict, dictated by Christian zeal and anti-Jewish feeling, was the prelude to attacks on the Talmud, conceived in the same spirit, and beginning in the thirteenth century in France, where Talmudic study was then flourishing. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics.
The charge against the Talmud brought by the convert Nicholas Donin led to the first public disputation between Jews and Christians and to the first burning of copies of the Talmud (Paris, Place de Grève, 1242). Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city The Talmud was likewise the subject of a disputation at Barcelona in 1263 between Nahmanides (Rabbi Moses ben Nahman) and Pablo Christiani. Barcelona ( Catalan bəɾsəˈlonə Spanish baɾθeˈlona is the capital and most populous city of the Autonomous Community of Catalonia Nahmanides (1194 &ndash c 1270 was a Catalan Rabbi, philosopher, Physician, Kabbalist and biblical commentator. This same Pablo Christiani made an attack on the Talmud which resulted in a papal bull against the Talmud and in the first censorship, which was undertaken at Barcelona by a commission of Dominicans, who ordered the cancellation of passages deemed objectionable from a Christian perspective (1264). A Papal bull is a particular type of Letters patent or charter issued by a Pope. The Order of Preachers ( Latin: Ordo Praedicatorum) after the 15th century more commonly known as the Dominican Order or Dominicans, is Censorship of many topics by the Church was widespread during these centuries, such as Catholic censorship of the findings of Galileo. Galileo Galilei (15 February 1564 &ndash 8 January 1642 was a Tuscan ( Italian) Physicist, Mathematician, Astronomer, and Philosopher
At the disputation of Tortosa in 1413, Geronimo de Santa Fé brought forward a number of accusations, including the fateful assertion that the condemnations of "pagans," "heathens," and "apostates" found in the Talmud were in reality veiled references to Christians. Tortosa ( Latin: Dertusa or Dertosa, Arabic: طرطوشة Ṭurṭūšah) is the capital of the comarca These assertion were denied by the Jewish community and its scholars, who contended that Judaic thought made a sharp distinction between those classified as heathen or pagan, being polytheistic, and those who acknowledge one true God (such as the Christians) even while worshipping the true monotheistic God incorrectly. Thus, Jews viewed Christians as misguided and in error, but not among the "heathens" or "pagans" discussed in the Talmud. Nevertheless, in the anti-semitic climate of the age, accusations against Jews were widely accepted without the need for proof.
Both Pablo Christiani and Geronimo de Santa Fé, in addition to criticizing the Talmud, also regarded it as a source of authentic traditions some of which could be used as arguments in favour of Christianity. Examples of such traditions were statements that the Messiah was born around the time of the destruction of the Temple, and that the Messiah sat at the right hand of God. [13]
In like manner, references in the Talmud to various historical figures were said to be coded references to Jesus, despite Jewish insistence that the Talmud refers to other, actual persons. A prominent example is Balaam Son of Beor, a pagan prophet who lived approximately 1000 years before Jesus, whose actions are portrayed in the Bible, in Numbers 22 through 31. The Talmud's harsh words against Balaam echo the Bible's own condemnation in Deuteronomy 23 and Nehemiah 13. Yet, these references were said to be secretly about Jesus.
Two years later, Pope Martin V, who had convened this disputation, issued a bull (which was destined, however, to remain inoperative) forbidding the Jews to read the Talmud, and ordering the destruction of all copies of it. Pope Martin V (c 1368 &ndash February 20, 1431) born Odo (or Far more important were the charges made in the early part of the sixteenth century by the convert Johannes Pfefferkorn, the agent of the Dominicans. Johannes (Josef Pfefferkorn (1469 &ndash 1523 was a Jewish German Catholic Theologian and writer who converted from Judaism The result of these accusations was a struggle in which the emperor and the pope acted as judges, the advocate of the Jews being Johann Reuchlin, who was opposed by the obscurantists; and this controversy, which was carried on for the most part by means of pamphlets, became the precursor of the Reformation. Johann Reuchlin ( January 29, 1455 - June 30 1522) was a German humanist and a scholar of Greek and The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time
An unexpected result of this affair was the complete printed edition of the Babylonian Talmud issued in 1520 by Daniel Bomberg at Venice, under the protection of a papal privilege. Daniel Bomberg (died 1549 was an early printer of Hebrew language Books Christian born in Antwerp, he was primarily active in Venice Venice ( Italian: Venezia, Venetian: Venesia or Venexia) is a city in Northern Italy, the capital of the Three years later, in 1523, Bomberg published the first edition of the Jerusalem Talmud. After thirty years the Vatican, which had first permitted the Talmud to appear in print, undertook a campaign of destruction against it. On the New Year (September 9, 1553) the copies of the Talmud which had been confiscated in compliance with a decree of the Inquisition were burned at Rome; and similar burnings took place in other Italian cities, as at Cremona in 1559. Events 1000 - Battle of Svolder, Viking Age. 1379 - Treaty of Neuberg, splitting the Austrian The term Inquisition can refer to any one of several institutions charged with trying and convicting heretics within the Roman Catholic Church and Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Cremonese redirects here For the football team see US Cremonese Cremona is a City in northern Italy, situated The Censorship of the Talmud and other Hebrew works was introduced by a papal bull issued in 1554; five years later the Talmud was included in the first Index Expurgatorius; and Pope Pius IV commanded, in 1565, that the Talmud be deprived of its very name. The Index Librorum Prohibitorum ("List of Prohibited Books" was a list of publications prohibited by the Roman Catholic Church. Pope Pius IV ( March 31, 1499 &ndash December 9, 1565) born Giovanni Angelo Medici, was Pope from 1559 to 1565
The first edition of the expurgated Talmud, on which most subsequent editions were based, appeared at Basel (1578-1581) with the omission of the entire treatise of 'Abodah Zarah and of passages considered inimical to Christianity, together with modifications of certain phrases. "Basilia" redirects here For the Fly Genus, see Basilia (fly. A fresh attack on the Talmud was decreed by Pope Gregory XIII (1575-85), and in 1593 Clement VIII renewed the old interdiction against reading or owning it. Pope Gregory XIII (January 7 1502 &ndash April 10 1585 born Ugo Boncompagni, was Pope from 1572 to 1585 Not to be confused with Antipope Clement VIII. Pope Clement VIII ( February 24, 1536 &ndash March 3, 1605 The increasing study of the Talmud in Poland led to the issue of a complete edition (Kraków, 1602-5), with a restoration of the original text; an edition containing, so far as known, only two treatises had previously been published at Lublin (1559-76). Kraków, in English also spelled Krakow or Cracow (ˈkrækaʊ M-W: krăk'ou krāk'ō is one of the largest and oldest cities in Poland Lublin is the largest city in eastern Poland and the capital of Lublin Voivodeship with a population of 355954 In 1707 some copies of the Talmud were confiscated in the province of Brandenburg, but were restored to their owners by command of Frederick, the first king of Prussia. Brandenburg ( Lower Sorbian: Bramborska; Upper Sorbian: Braniborska) is one of the sixteen states of Germany. Biography Born in Königsberg, he was the third son of Frederick William Elector of Brandenburg by his father's first marriage to Louise Henriette The last attack on the Talmud took place in Poland in 1757, when Bishop Dembowski, at the instigation of the Frankists, convened a public disputation at Kamenets-Podolsk, and ordered all copies of the work found in his bishopric to be confiscated and burned by the hangman. Jacob Frank (יעקב פרנק Ya'akov Frank, Jakob Frank; 1726 - 1791 was an 18th century Jewish religious leader who claimed to be the reincarnation of
The external history of the Talmud includes also the literary attacks made upon it by Christian theologians after the Reformation, since these onslaughts on Judaism were directed primarily against that work, even though it was made a subject of study by the Christian theologians of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In 1830, during a debate in the French Chamber of Peers regarding state recognition of the Jewish faith, Admiral Verhuell declared himself unable to forgive the Jews whom he had met during his travels throughout the world either for their refusal to recognize Jesus as the Messiah or for their possession of the Talmud. Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) This article is about the concept of a Messiah in religion notably in the Christian Islamic and Jewish traditions In the same year the Abbé Chiarini published at Paris a voluminous work entitled "Théorie du Judaïsme," in which he announced a translation of the Talmud, advocating for the first time a version which should make the work generally accessible, and thus serve for attacks on Judaism. In a like spirit nineteenth century anti-Semitic agitators often urged that a translation be made; and this demand was even brought before legislative bodies, as in Vienna. The Talmud and the "Talmud Jew" thus became objects of anti-Semitic attacks, for example in August Rohling's Der Talmudjude, although, on the other hand, they were defended by many Christian students of the Talmud. August Rohling (born in 1839 at Neuenkirchen, province of Hanover, Prussia; died 1931 was a German Catholic theologian scholar of Hebrew archeology and
Despite the numerous mentions of Edom which may refer to Christendom, the Talmud makes little mention of Jesus directly or the early Christians. There are a number of quotes about one or more individuals designated "Yeshu" that once existed in editions of the Talmud, although details about Yeshu do not match the known facts about Jesus' trial and death. This article is about references to the designation Yeshu in classical Jewish Rabbinic literature. The Talmud says Yeshu was hanged, not crucified, on the eve of (before) Passover, whereas Jesus was crucified after Passover, not before. Yeshu had 5 disciples, whose names are different from the 12 apostles of Jesus, except for Matthias (a very common name). The Talmud primarily discusses the legal requirements of how to conduct a trial, and mentions the trial of Yeshu as an example of how a trial should be conducted. In giving those details, a trial that bears no resemblance to the trial of Jesus is described.
These quotes were long ago removed from the main text due to accusations that they referred to Jesus, and are no longer used in Talmud study. However, these removed quotes were preserved through rare printings of lists of errata, known as Hashmatot Hashas ("Omissions of the Talmud"). Some modern editions of the Talmud contain some or all of this material, either at the back of the book, in the margin, or in alternate print. These passages do not necessarily refer to a single individual and many of the stories are far removed from anything written in the New Testament.
Contemporary accusations
Criticism of the Talmud is widespread today, including on the internet. [14]
The Anti-Defamation League's report on this topic states:
By selectively citing various passages from the Talmud and Midrash, polemicists have sought to demonstrate that Judaism espouses hatred for non-Jews (and specifically for Christians), and promotes obscenity, sexual perversion, and other immoral behavior. The Anti-Defamation League ( ADL) is an Interest group founded in 1913 by B'nai B'rith in the United States whose stated aim is "to stop Midrash ( Hebrew: מדרש plural midrashim, lit "to repeat" is a Hebrew term referring to the not exact but comparative ( homiletic To make these passages serve their purposes, these polemicists frequently mistranslate them or cite them out of context (wholesale fabrication of passages is not unknown). . .
In distorting the normative meanings of rabbinic texts, anti-Talmud writers frequently remove passages from their textual and historical contexts. Even when they present their citations accurately, they judge the passages based on contemporary moral standards, ignoring the fact that the majority of these passages were composed close to two thousand years ago by people living in cultures radically different from our own. They are thus able to ignore Judaism's long history of social progress and paint it instead as a primitive and parochial religion.
Those who attack the Talmud frequently cite ancient rabbinic sources without noting subsequent developments in Jewish thought, and without making a good-faith effort to consult with contemporary Jewish authorities who can explain the role of these sources in normative Jewish thought and practice.
Rabbi Gil Student, a prolific Internet author, writes:
Anti-Talmud accusations have a long history dating back to the 13th century when the associates of the Inquisition attempted to defame Jews and their religion [see Yitzchak Baer, A History of Jews in Christian Spain, vol. The Anti-Defamation League ( ADL) is an Interest group founded in 1913 by B'nai B'rith in the United States whose stated aim is "to stop Gil O Student (born August 8, 1972) is an ordained but non-pulpit serving American Orthodox Rabbi. I pp. 150-185]. The early material compiled by hateful preachers like Raymond Martini and Nicholas Donin remain the basis of all subsequent accusations against the Talmud. Some are true, most are false and based on quotations taken out of context, and some are total fabrications [see Baer, ch. 4 f. 54, 82 that it has been proven that Raymond Martini forged quotations]. On the Internet today we can find many of these old accusations being rehashed. . .
Translations
Translations of Talmud Bavli
There are five contemporary translations of the Talmud into English:
- The Schottenstein Edition of the Talmud, Mesorah Publications. Gil O Student (born August 8, 1972) is an ordained but non-pulpit serving American Orthodox Rabbi. ArtScroll is an Imprint of translations books and commentaries from an Orthodox Jewish perspective published by Mesorah Publications Ltd In this translation, each English page faces the Aramaic/Hebrew page. The English pages are elucidated and heavily annotated; each Aramaic/Hebrew page of Talmud typically requires three English pages of translation. See also: Mesorah Talmud site.
- The Soncino Talmud, Isidore Epstein, Soncino Press. Rabbi Dr Isidore Epstein (1894-1962 was an Orthodox Rabbi and rabbinical scholar in England, who served as the longtime principal of Jews' College Notes on each page provide additional background material. This translation is published both on its own and in a parallel text edition, in which each English page faces the Aramaic/Hebrew page. It also exists on CD-ROM. See also Soncino Talmud site.
- The Talmud of Babylonia. An American Translation, Jacob Neusner, Tzvee Zahavy, others. Jacob Neusner (born July 28, 1932, Hartford, Connecticut) is an academic scholar of Judaism who lives in Rhinebeck, Atlanta: 1984-1995: Scholars Press for Brown Judaic Studies. Complete.
- The Talmud: The Steinsaltz Edition Adin Steinsaltz, Random House (incomplete). Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz (Hebrew עדין שטיינזלץ or Adin Even Yisrael (Hebrew עדין אבן ישראל (born 1937 is most commonly known for his popular commentary This work is in fact a translation of Rabbi Steinsaltz' Hebrew language translation of and commentary on the entire Talmud. See also: Steinsaltz Talmud site.
- The Babylonian Talmud, translated by Michael L. Rodkinson (incomplete). Michael Levi Rodkinson (1845-1904 was an American-Jewish publisher known for being the first to translate the Babylonian Talmud to English. This ten volume translation (1918) is also available on the internet. http://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/talmud.htm
Translations of Talmud Yerushalmi
Talmud of the Land of Israel: A Preliminary Translation and Explanation Jacob Neusner, Tzvee Zahavy, others. Jacob Neusner (born July 28, 1932, Hartford, Connecticut) is an academic scholar of Judaism who lives in Rhinebeck, University of Chicago Press. This translation uses a form-analytical presentation which makes the logical units of discourse easier to identify and follow. This work has received many positive reviews. However, some consider Neusner's translation methodology idiosyncratic. One volume was negatively reviewed by Saul Lieberman of the Jewish Theological Seminary. Saul Lieberman (May 28 1898 - March 23 1983 also known as Rabbi Shaul Lieberman or The Gra"sh ( G aon Ra bbeinu Sh aul
Schottenstein Edition of the Yerushalmi Talmud Mesorah/Artscroll. This translation is the counterpart to Mesorah/Artscroll's Schottenstein Edition of the Talmud (i. e. Babylonian Talmud). Mesorah/Artscroll's website for the Schottenstein Edition of the Yerushalmi Talmud
See also
- Jerusalem Talmud
- Mishnah
- Minor Tractates
- Tosefta
- Baraita
- Gemara
- Ein Yaakov
- Rabbinic literature
- Yeshiva
Notes
- ^ See, Strack, Hermann, Introduction to the Talmud and Midrash, Jewish Publication Society, 1945. The Jerusalem Talmud or Talmud Yerushalmi (תַּלְמוּד יְרוּשָׁלְמִי often the Yerushalmi for short is a collection The Mishnah or Mishna (he משנה "repetition" from the verb shanah he שנה or "to study and review" is a major work of Rabbinic Judaism The minor tractates (Hebrew מסכתות קטנות masechtot qetanot) are essays from the Tannaitic period or later dealing with topics about which no formal The Tosefta ( Aramaic: תוספתא is a secondary compilation of the Jewish oral law from the period of the Mishnah. Baraita ( Aramaic ברייתא "external" "outside" pl The Gemara (also transliterated Gemora or less commonly Gemorra) (from Aramaic גמרא gamar; literally " study" Ein Yaakov (עין יעקב is a compilation of all the Aggadic material in the Talmud together with commentaries Rabbinic literature, in its broadest sense can mean the entire spectrum of Rabbinic writings throughout Jewish history Yeshiva or yeshivah (jəʃi'və ( Hebrew: ישיבה "sitting (n pp. 11-12. "[The Oral Law] was handed down by word of mouth during a long period. . . The first attempts to write down the traditional matter, there is reason to believe, date from the first half of the second post-Christian century. " Strack theorizes that the growth of a Christian canon (the New Testament) was a factor that influenced the Rabbis to record the oral law in writing.
- ^ The theory that the destruction of the Temple and subsequent upheaval led to the commiting of Oral Law into writing was first explained in the Epistle of Sherira Gaon and often repeated. Rav Sherira Gaon ( Hebrew: רב שרירא גאון) was the head of the Yeshiva in Pumbeditha. See, for example, Grayzel, A History of the Jews, Penguin Books, 1984, p. 193.
- ^ "Palestinian Talmud". Encyclopædia Britannica. (2008). Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2008-03-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 37 - Roman Emperor Caligula accepts the titles of the Principate, entitled to him by the Senate.
- ^ "Babylonian Talmud". Encyclopædia Britannica. (2008). Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved on 2008-03-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 37 - Roman Emperor Caligula accepts the titles of the Principate, entitled to him by the Senate.
- ^ Judaic Treasures of the Library of Congress: The Talmud. American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise.
- ^ Angel Sáenz-Badillos (1993). A History of the Hebrew Language. Tr. John Elwolde. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- ^ For a list see Ephraim Urbach, s. v. "Tosafot," in Encyclopedia of Religion.
- ^ See, Pilpul, Mordechai Breuer, in Encyclopedia Judaica, Vol. 16, 2nd Ed (2007), Macmillan Reference, USA.
- ^ Kol Melechet Higgayon, the Hebrew translation of Averroes' epitome of Aristotle's logical works, was widely studied in northern Italy, particularly Padua. Padua ( Padova 'padova Latin: Patavium, Padoa) is a city in the Veneto, northern Italy.
- ^ On Pilpul, see Pilpul, Mordechai Breuer, Encyclopedia Judaica and H. H. Ben Sasson, A History of the Jewish People, p. 627, 717.
- ^ As Yonah Fraenkel shows in his book Darko Shel Rashi be-Ferusho la-Talmud ha-Bavli, one of Rashi's major accomplishments was textual emendation. For the astrological concept see Rāshi (Jyotiṣa. Rabbi Shlomo Yitzhaki, (רבי שלמה יצחקי better known by the acronym Rashi Rabbenu Tam, Rashi's grandson and one of the central figures in the Tosafist academies, polemicizes against textual emendation in his less studied work Sefer ha-Yashar. However, the Tosafists, too, emended the Talmudic text (See e. g. Baba Kamma 83b s. v. af haka'ah ha'amurah or Gittin 32a s. v. mevutelet) as did many other medieval commentators (see e. g. R. Shlomo ben Aderet, Hidushei ha-Rashb"a al ha-Sha"s to Baba Kamma 83b, or Rabbenu Nissim's commentary to Alfasi on Gittin 32a).
- ^ Hyam Maccoby, Judaism on Trial. Hyam Maccoby (1924-2004 was a British Jewish scholar and dramatist specializing in the study of the Jewish and Christian religious tradition
- ^ Hyam Maccoby, op. Hyam Maccoby (1924-2004 was a British Jewish scholar and dramatist specializing in the study of the Jewish and Christian religious tradition cit.
- ^ Jones, Jeremy. "Talmudic Terrors", Australia/Israel Review. Retrieved on 2008-06-12. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1381 - Peasants' Revolt: in England, rebels arrive at Blackheath. "If any reader doubts the maliciousness, virulence and prevalence of such material in cyber-space, it is well worth a visit to the Internet site known as Talmud Expose (www. geocities. com/Athens/Cyprus/8815), in which Melbourne's David Maddison has performed the Herculean task of responding, one by one, to the hundreds of "anti-Talmud" quotes, lies and themes he has encountered on the Internet. "
References
General
- Maimonides Introduction to the Mishneh Torah (English translation)
- Maimonides Introduction to the Commentary on the Mishnah (Hebrew Fulltext), transl. Moses Maimonides ( March 30 1135 – December 13 1204) also known as the Rambam, was a Rabbi, Physician, and The Mishneh Torah ( Hebrew: משנה תורה subtitled Sefer Yad ha-Chazaka (יד החזקה is a code of Jewish Religious law Moses Maimonides ( March 30 1135 – December 13 1204) also known as the Rambam, was a Rabbi, Physician, and Moses Maimonides ( March 30 1135 – December 13 1204) also known as the Rambam, was a Rabbi, Physician, and Zvi Lampel (Judaica Press, 1998). ISBN 1-880582-28-7
- Adin Steinsaltz The Essential Talmud: Thirtieth Anniversary Edition (Basic Books, 2006). Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz (Hebrew עדין שטיינזלץ or Adin Even Yisrael (Hebrew עדין אבן ישראל (born 1937 is most commonly known for his popular commentary ISBN 0-465-08273-4. Read more here. See also here.
- Adin Steinsaltz The Talmud: A Reference Guide (Random House, 1996). Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz (Hebrew עדין שטיינזלץ or Adin Even Yisrael (Hebrew עדין אבן ישראל (born 1937 is most commonly known for his popular commentary ISBN 0-679-77367-3
- Zvi Hirsch Chajes "Mevo Hatalmud", transl. Zvi Hirsch Chajes ( Hebrew: צבי הירש חיות - November 20, 1805 - October 12, 1855; also Chayes or Jacob Shachter: The Students' Guide Through The Talmud (Yashar Books, 2005). ISBN 1-933143-05-3
- Shmuel Hanagid Introduction to the Talmud, in Aryeh Carmell Aiding Talmud Study (Philipp Feldheim, 1986). Samuel ibn Naghrela (שמואל הלוי בן יוסף הנגיד Sh'muel HaLevi ben Yosef HaNagid; أبو إسحاق إسماعيل بن النغريلة Abu Ishaq Isma'il ISBN 0-87306-428-3
- Nathan T. Lopes Cardozo The Infinite Chain : Torah, Masorah, and Man (Philipp Feldheim, 1989). ISBN 0-944070-15-9
- D. Landesman A Practical Guide to Torah Learning (Jason Aronson, 1995). Jason Aronson is an American Publisher of Books in the field of Psychotherapy. ISBN 1-56821-320-4
- Aaron Parry The Complete Idiot's Guide to The Talmud (Alpha Books, 2004). Rabbi Aaron Parry is the author of The Complete Idiot's guide to Understanding the Talmud, and The Complete Idiot's Guide to Hebrew Scripture. ISBN 1-59257-202-2
- R. Travers Herford Christianity in Talmud and Midrash (Ktav Pub Inc, 1975). ISBN 0-87068-483-3
- Carmell, Aryeh, Aiding Talmud Study: Feldheim, 5th ed. 1986 ISBN-10: 0873064283, ISBN-13: 978-0873064286
Talmudic logic and methodology
- Samuel ha-Nagid, Mevo ha-Talmud
- Samson of Chinon, Sefer ha-Keritut
- anon. Samuel ibn Naghrela (שמואל הלוי בן יוסף הנגיד Sh'muel HaLevi ben Yosef HaNagid; أبو إسحاق إسماعيل بن النغريلة Abu Ishaq Isma'il , Meharere Nemarim
- Isaac Campanton, Darche ha-Talmud
- David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra, Kelale ha-Gemara
- Bezalel Ashkenazi, Kelale ha-Gemara
- Yeshu’ah b. Isaac ben Jacob Campanton (1360-1463 ( Hebrew: יצחק קנפנטון) was a Spanish rabbi Rabbi David ben Solomon ibn (Abi Zimra (דוד בן שלמה אבן אבי זמרא also called Radbaz ( רדב"ז) after the initials of his name R Bezalel Ashkenazi, (בצלאל בן אברהם אשכנזי a Rabbi and scholar of the Talmud, lived in the Palestine during the Sixteenth century Yosef ha-Levi, Halichot Olam
- Joseph Caro, Kelale ha-Gemara (commentary on Halichot Olam)
- Solomon Algazi, Yavin Shemu’ah (commentary on Halichot Olam)
- Serillo, Samuel, Kelale Shemuel
- Horowitz, Isaiah, Shene Luchot ha-Berit (section on Torah she-be-al-Pe)
- Moses Chaim Luzzatto, Derech Tevunot and Sefer ha-Higgayon
- de Oliveira, Solomon, Darche Noam
- Malachi ha-Cohen, Yad Malachi
- Aryeh Leib HaCohen Heller, Shev Shema'tata
- Goitein, B. Yosef ben Ephraim Caro (sometimes Joseph Caro) (1488 ( Portugal) - March 24, 1575 ( Safed, Ottoman Empire) was one of the Isaiah Horowitz ( Hebrew: ישעיה הלוי הורוביץ; c Moshe Chaim Luzzatto ( Hebrew: משה חיים לוצאטו, also Moses Chaim, Moses Hayyim, also Luzzato) (1707-1746 (26 Iyar Aryeh Leib Hacohen Heller ( 1745 - 1813) (אריה לייב בן יוסף הכהן הלר was a Rabbi, Talmudist and Halachist in Shev Shema'tata (שב שמעתתא sometimes pronounced Shev Shmaytsa, is a work on Talmudic logic and methodology by R , Kesef Nivhar
- Moshe Amiel, Ha-Middot le-Heker ha-Halachah
Modern scholarly works
- Y. N. Epstein, Mevo-ot le-Sifrut haTalmudim
- Hanoch Albeck, Mavo la-talmudim
- Louis Jacobs, "How Much of the Babylonian Talmud is Pseudepigraphic?" Journal of Jewish Studies 28, No. Rabbi Dr Louis Jacobs (b Manchester, 17 July[[ 920]] d London, 1 July 2006, 5 Tammuz 5766 in the Hebrew calendar) was 1 (1977), pp. 46-59
- Saul Lieberman, Hellenism in Jewish Palestine (New York: Jewish Theological Seminary, 1950)
- Jacob Neusner, Sources and Traditions: Types of Compositions in the Talmud of Babylonia (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992). Saul Lieberman (May 28 1898 - March 23 1983 also known as Rabbi Shaul Lieberman or The Gra"sh ( G aon Ra bbeinu Sh aul Jacob Neusner (born July 28, 1932, Hartford, Connecticut) is an academic scholar of Judaism who lives in Rhinebeck,
- David Weiss Halivni, Mekorot u-Mesorot: Eruvin-Pesahim (Jerusalem: Jewish Theological Seminary, 1982)
- Yaakov Elman, "Order, Sequence, and Selection: The Mishnah’s Anthological Choices,” in David Stern, ed. David Weiss Halivni (1927- is an American Israeli world-acclaimed scholar in the domain of Jewish Sciences and professor of Talmud,born The Anthology in Jewish Literature (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004) 53-80
- Strack, Herman L. and Stemberger, Gunter, Introduction to the Talmud and Midrash, tr. Hermann Leberecht Strack (1848-1922 was a German Protestant Theologian and Orientalist; born at Berlin May 6, 1848. Markus Bockmuehl: repr. 1992, hardback ISBN-10: 0567095096, ISBN-13: 978-0567095091, paperback ISBN-10: 0800625242, ISBN-13: 978-0800625245
- Moses Mielziner, Introduction to the Talmud: repr. Moses Mielziner ( August 12[[ 828]] in Czerniejewo, Poznan Province, Poland - February 18[[ 903]] in Cincinnati) was an 1997, hardback ISBN-10: 0819701564, ISBN-13: 978-0819701565, paperback ISBN-10: 0819700150, ISBN-13: 978-0819700155
Historical study
- Shalom Carmy (Ed. ) Modern Scholarship in the Study of Torah: Contributions and Limitations Jason Aronson, Inc.
- Richard Kalmin Sages, Stories, Authors and Editors in Rabbinic Babylonia Brown Judaic Studies
- David C. Kraemer, On the Reliability of Attributions in the Babylonian Talmud, Hebrew Union College Annual 60 (1989), pp. 175-90
- Lee Levine, Ma'amad ha-Hakhamim be-Erez Yisrael (Jerusalem: Yad Yizhak Ben-Zvi, 1985), (=The Rabbinic Class of Roman Palestine in Late Antiquity)
- Saul Lieberman Hellenism in Jewish Palestine (New York: Jewish Theological Seminary, 1950)
- John W. Saul Lieberman (May 28 1898 - March 23 1983 also known as Rabbi Shaul Lieberman or The Gra"sh ( G aon Ra bbeinu Sh aul McGinley " 'The Written' as the Vocation of Conceiving Jewishly". ISBN 0-595-40488-X
- David Bigman, Finding A Home for Critical Talmud Study
External links
General
- Talmud, jewishencyclopedia. com
- Talmud Commentaries, jewishencyclopedia. com
- Jewish History: Talmud, aish. com
- Talmud/Mishnah/Gemara, jewishvirtuallibrary. org
- Jewish Law Research Guide, University of Miami Law Library
- A survey of rabbinic literature, Ohr Somayach
- Introduction To The Talmud For The Novice,Rabbi M. The University of Miami (also known as Miami of Florida, UM, or just The U) is a private non-sectarian University founded in 1925 Taub
Full text resources
- Mishnah (Hebrew)
- Tosefta (Hebrew)
- Talmud Yerushalmi (Hebrew)
- Talmud Bavli (Hebrew)
- Full searchable Talmud on Snunit (Hebrew)
- Complete Soncino English Translation of the Babylonian Talmud
- Rodkinson English translation (1903, contains all of the tractates in the Orders of Mo'ed/Festivals and Nezikin/Damages, plus some additional material related to these Orders).
- Images of each page of the Babylonian Talmud.
Manuscripts
Talmudic layout
- "A Page from the Babylonian Talmud" image map from Prof. In HTML and XHTML, an image map is a list of coordinates relating to a specific Image, created in order to Hyperlink areas of the image to various Eliezer Segal
- Talmud and its Shape: colour coded daf, upenn. edu
- A Tour of the English-language Steinsaltz Edition of the Talmud page
Pertaining to the "Daf Yomi" program
- Sephardic Rabbi Eli Mansour's Daily Gemara Page - Daf Yomi
- A general resource for Daf Yomi
- point by point summary and discussion by daf
- Calendar for this Daf Yomi cycle
- Daf-A-Week: A project to study a daf per week
- Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz's Daily Insights on Daf Yomi
Refutation of allegations concerning the Talmud
- The Talmud in Anti-Semitic Polemics, Anti-Defamation League. The Anti-Defamation League ( ADL) is an Interest group founded in 1913 by B'nai B'rith in the United States whose stated aim is "to stop
- The Real Truth about the Talmud
- Talmud Exposed
- Falsifiers of the Talmud
Audio
- Shiurim on the Talmud, mp3shiur. com
- MP3 Talmud Shiurim by Rav Nissan Kaplan of Mir Yeshiva, Jerusalem
Dictionary
Talmud
-noun
- A collection of Jewish writings related to the practical application of Judaic law and tradition (may refer to either the Babylonian Talmud or the shorter Jerusalem Talmud).
Dapyx Software network: MP3 Explorer | Ebook Manager | Zenithic