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This article is about the civilian hobby. For simulations as military training exercises, see Military exercise. A military exercise (also called war game in American English) is the employment of military resources in training for Military operations either exploring For similar terms, see War Games.

Tactical wargames are a type of wargame that models military conflict at a tactical level, i. A wargame is a Game that simulates or represents a Military operation. e. units range from individual vehicles and squads to platoons or companies. Vehicles, derived from the Latin word vehiculum, are non-living Means of transport. In military terminology a squad is a small Military unit led by a Non-commissioned officer (NCO that is subordinate to an Infantry A platoon is a military unit typically composed of two to four sections or Squads and containing about 30 to 50 soldiers A company is a Military unit, typically consisting of 75-200 Soldiers Most companies are formed of three to five Platoons although the exact number may vary These units are rated based on types and ranges of individual weaponry. The first tactical wargames were board games, and they are now also enjoyed as video games. A video game is a Game that involves interaction with a User interface to generate visual feedback on a video device.

The games are designed so that a knowledge of military tactics will facilitate good gameplay. Military tactics ( Greek: Taktikē, the art of organizing an army are the techniques for using weapons or military units in combination for engaging and defeating Tactical wargames offer more of a challenge to the designer, as fewer variables or characteristics inherent in the units being simulated are directly quantifiable. Modern commercial board wargaming avoided tactical subjects for many years, but since initial attempts at the subject appeared, it has remained a favourite topic among wargamers. Perhaps the most successful board wargaming system ever designed, Advanced Squad Leader, is set at the tactical level. Advanced Squad Leader (ASL is a tactical-level Board wargame that simulates actions of approximately company or Battalion

Contents

Tactical board wargames

History

The genesis of tactical board wargaming goes back to 1969. Up until that time, wargaming - which in the modern, recreational form only dated back to 1958 - tended to concentrate on operational and strategic subjects. A wargame is a Game that simulates or represents a Military operation. A wargame is a Game that simulates or represents a Military operation. Charles S. Roberts of Avalon Hill had developed a wide range of strategic wargames based upon historical battles —the first of these being the 1961 releases of Gettysburg and Chancellorsville, issued to coincide with the beginning of the centennial celebration of the American Civil War. Charles Swann Roberts is a wargame designer, railroad historian and businessman Avalon Hill was a game company that specialized in Wargames and strategic Board games. Gettysburg is a Board wargame produced by Avalon Hill which re-enacts the American Civil War Battle of Gettysburg. Chancellorsville is a two-player Board wargame produced by Avalon Hill which re-enacts the American Civil War Battle of Chancellorsville Causes of the war See also Origins of the American Civil War, Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War The coexistence of a slave-owning South AH issued a wide range of similar games in the years that followed, and established itself as the market leader in board wargames. However, most of these games were at the army, brigade, battalion, or regiment level. An army (from Latin Armata "act of arming" via Old French armée) in the broadest sense is the land-based Armed forces A brigade is a Military unit Echelon: is A battalion is a Military unit of around 500-1500 men usually consisting of between two and seven companies and typically commanded by a Lieutenant Colonel A regiment is a Military unit, composed of a variable number of Battalions – commanded by a Colonel. Few were at the more tactical levels.

Tactical Game 3 was introduced by Strategy & Tactics magazine as a platoon/company level game focusing on tactics on the Eastern Front. Strategy & Tactics ( S&T) is a Wargaming Magazine now published by Decision Games, notable for its groundbreaking move of publishing In 1970, that game's designer, the legendary James F. Dunnigan, sold the rights to the game to Avalon Hill, who quickly released PanzerBlitz. James F Dunnigan (born 8 August 1943) is an author and Wargame designer currently living in New York City, notable for his matter-of-fact approach PanzerBlitz is a tactical-scale Board wargame of Tank, Artillery, and Infantry combat set in the Eastern Front This was the start of the so-called "Second Generation" of wargaming. PanzerBlitz eventually sold 250,000 copies, though it was not without critics (including Dunnigan himself).

In the early 1970s, several tactical games made their way onto the expanding wargaming market, including Grunt (1971) featuring platoon-level warfare in Vietnam and Combat Command: Platoon-Company Combat, France, 1944 (1972) billed as a western front sequel to PanzerBlitz, and Soldiers (1972) about World War I, all by Dunnigan/SPI. Grunt The Game of Tactical Level Combat in Vietnam was a tactical level Board wargame designed by John Young and released by Simulations Publications Dunnigan then crossed another boundary and became the first publisher to release a game on the then-ongoing Cold War, called Red Star/White Star: Tactical Combat in Western Europe in the 1970s. While the game was successful, Dunnigan was disappointed with it, citing difficulties in realistically portraying tactical combat in a tabletop board game.

Dunnigan tried to take tactical games into a new direction in 1973 with KampfPanzer and Desert War, which featured simultaneous movement, expanding on an optional rule for PanzerBlitz. Unfortunately, the quest for greater realism was having a price in complexity and "bookkeeping", or recording of moves on paper. Nonetheless, other tactical games on a man to man level were released with simultaneous movement, with Sniper! being released by SPI in 1973, Patrol!: Man to Man Combat in the 20th Century and Tank!: Armored Combat in the 20th Century both in 1974. Man-to-man wargames (also known as skirmish wargames) are wargames in which units generally represent single individuals or weapons systems and are rated not only Sniper! was a Board wargame originally released in 1973 Some sources refer to "Sniper/Patrol" as a sort of series of games a similar game by Simulations Patrol was a Board wargame released in the early 1970s as a companion to Sniper! in 1974 by Simulations Publications, Inc That same year, Avalon Hill released Panzer Leader: The Game of Tactical Warfare on the Western Front 1944-45. Panzer Leader is the sequel to Avalon Hill 's Panzerblitz game

The problems with true tactical (company/battalion level) games were all too apparent. According to Lorrin Bird, writing in Special Issue #2 of Campaign Magazine:

The major disappointment with the three major Avalon Hill games (Panzer Leader, PanzerBlitz and Arab-Israeli Wars) was the obvious sequential nature of the whole situation. Panzerfaust was a Wargaming magazine started by Don Greenwood in 1967 and named after the German Panzerfaust, a rocket-based anti-tank weapon A shoots, A moves. B shoots, B moves. With a little opportunity fire thrown in. In situations like the Battle of Kursk in Panzer Blitz confronting the enemy meant possible extinction. The hardest part to accept was the situation where three German tanks block a pass and cannot be seen by the T-34s on their combat phase. On the Russian move they move up to the Mark IVs and have to stop. The T-34 move might have taken only a two-hex advance (500 metres) and then they idle their engines for the next 5 minutes. On the next German move, the Mark IVs cleverly dart away, in and out of cover and take position again. The T-34s. . . move a few hexes, stop and idle, awaiting the German movement which frees up the next few hexes for them. Another funny situation is where a Tiger unit sits in the open and a Sherman comes out of nowhere and ends up adjacent to the Germans. With ideal conditions, the Tiger can decimate the Shermans in no time flat without any "defensive" fire by the M-4s at all, and then move off. . . . While Panzer Blitz, Panzer Leader and Arab-Israeli Wars are wonderful games, and demand a high degree of tactical ability to play, victory can be obtained in a manner very often that runs contrary to reason and a player's intelligence. . .

This much anticipated sequel to PanzerBlitz was successful, and the next year SPI replaced their earlier titles with games featuring a new "Simultaneous-Sequential-Play-System", eliminating the bookkeeping involved in games like KampfPanzer and Tank and attempting to address the problems described by Bird, above. And so MechWar '77 replaced the earlier Red Star/White Star, Panzer '44 replaced Combat Command, and Search & Destroy replaced Grunt. Search & Destroy Tactical Combat Vietnam 1965-1966 was a board tactical level Wargame designed by John Young and released Grunt The Game of Tactical Level Combat in Vietnam was a tactical level Board wargame designed by John Young and released by Simulations Publications

The new Simultaneous-Sequential-Play-System (SSPS) allowed for much greater realism without sacrificing playability, and was considered the new "state of the art" for tactical wargames. The first era of tactical wargaming had come to an end. The new state of the art was extended to Avalon Hill's Tobruk in 1976, as well as SPI's Firefight. But neither game did well, with increased realism in the form of detailed penetration tables in Tobruk and rigid rules for modern Soviet doctrine forced on the players of Firefight making games once again less playable. Tobruk also suffered from an unattractive map surface which depicted basically flat terrain.

Another point for players of tactical wargames to consider was the increasing amount of unit data that was being built into the games. Rather than pieces depicting generic "infantry" or "cavalry" units as in Civil War strategy games, for example, games like Tobruk were inundating players with tables of complex ballistics information. Tobruk is a Board wargame set in the North African Desert circa 1942 and was published by Avalon Hill in 1975 Firefight came with a separate booklet on "Reference Data" amounting to 20 pages of information, much of it not immediately necessary for gameplay but certainly useful to defend some of the design decisions which restricted game play.

At this point, Avalon Hill approached developer John Hill to "do a game like Tank! (but) a squad level game. . . . " Hill was well known, and had recently written an article in Moves entitled "Desiging for Playability. Moves was a Wargaming Magazine originally published by SPI (Simulations Publications Inc " He had recently published BarLev and Battle for Hue. [1]

Squad Leader

The result was Squad Leader, which went on to become the best selling tactical wargame ever, spawning three add-ons (called "gamettes" by Avalon Hill) and an Advanced version which produced twelve "official" core modules, several historically based modules, a solitaire version, and hundreds of third party add-ons and variants. Squad Leader is a tactical level Board wargame originally published by Avalon Hill in 1977. Advanced Squad Leader (ASL is a tactical-level Board wargame that simulates actions of approximately company or Battalion

Squad Leader, released in 1977, used a semi-simultaneous system as well, focusing on infantry combat. The physical components for the game were unmatched in terms of quality, using full color painted mapboards on rigid mountings that had the added advantage of being geomorphic. As the Squad Leader game system grew and more boards were added, they could be set up in a variety of configurations and used to represent a wide array of units, as the infantry counters were generic and did not portray specific units. Some innovative rules for such things as leadership and "penetrating fire" (to simulate the ability of automatic weapons on the battlefield to engage more than just one target) were introduced.

Some observers felt Squad Leader was too romantic a view of infantry combat. Bird felt that the game "completely sidesteps the effect of widespread panic and morale breakdowns (contagious hysteria), and treats every soldier as if he were totally dedicated to the cause. . . "[2] Others felt that games like Search & Destroy received short shrift.

Few tactical games during (the 1970s) are comparable to Squad Leader . . . which is quite popular and is of a similar scale (to S&D), but has a needlessly complex combat system, leadership rules that would be more appropriate for 18th Century combat and ridiculously simplistic casualty rules. . . The wargame industry has basically ignored the more accurate portrayal of company level combat in S&D for the more glamorous version portrayed in Squad Leader. [3]

Even the developers of Squad Leader admitted that "our troops assault with a tenacity that would make Kelly's Heroes proud. Kelly's Heroes is an offbeat 1970 War film about a group of enterprising World War II soldiers who set out to rob a bank behind enemy lines "[4]

Squad Leader vs. Tobruk

The Tobruk game released by Avalon Hill prior to Squad Leader got little support from gamers or AH. "With the exception of a few articles and scenarios in The General, there was never a follow-on game or expansion product for Tobruk enthusiasts. The General Magazine (variously called "The Avalon Hill General" "Avalon Hill's General" or simply "The General" was We now have the benefit of hindsight to point to the years between the release of Squad Leader and its progeny Cross of Iron through GI: Anvil of Victory represented AH's commitment to tactical-level World War II gaming. As most readers are aware, that series led to ASL, followed by its own progeny over the years. Thus, one should not be the least bit surprised that Tobruk appeared to be expendable circa 1987, a year that happened to be the height of the ASL craze. " [5]

In fact, Hal Hock (developer of Tobruk) and Don Greenwood and John Hill (developers of Squad Leader) compared the merits of the two games shortly after the release of the latter in the pages of The General. [6] It was made clear that the two game systems were quite different, and as time passed it was clear which game Avalon Hill preferred to support. In July 1987, as alluded to above, Avalon Hill sold the rights to Tobruk back to Hal Hock.

Some of the challenges facing designers of tactical wargames were also made clear in that article, which contrasted Hill's "design for effect" philosophy with the more data-driven philosophy of Hock:

Hill's is the artistic approach akin to the impressionistic school of painting where subjects are abstracted until the overall effect on the viewer is such that the artist can will his impressions upon the viewer. Hence, an artistic designer studies history with concern for the overall battlefield environment and how each specific weapon relates to it, as opposed to proving ground statistics. Regardless of a weapon's value, if the soldier wielding it has confidence in his handling of the weapon and its overall effectiveness, his performance will be greatly enhanced. He subscribes to the opinion in vogue these days in battlefield research that technical differences of weapons is not nearly as important as the psychological perception of the individual using the weapon. . .

Hock is the scientist and indeed has been employed in such a capacity by the government. He believes that since a battle is primarily a clash of technology, it can be measured. Proving ground data is his bible. Armor actions can be studied by careful study of "projectile penetration" vs. armor. . . . The artist responds that this shell vs. armor test does not always hold true in the battlefield environment. . . The artist concludes. . . that when shell hits armor, anything (such as hits on vision ports, slung equipment, oblique angles, variable metal quality of cast armor, etc. ) can happen and that only a most generalized statement of probability can be made.

Other land-based wargames

Nonetheless, while Squad Leader progressed into Advanced Squad Leader ("ASL") in 1985, other titles also appeared, none of whom managed to gain the popularity that Squad Leader/ASL had gained. Advanced Squad Leader (ASL is a tactical-level Board wargame that simulates actions of approximately company or Battalion Perhaps the downturn in the wargaming industry is also to blame for that, as videogame consoles and computer games became more sophisticated and offered greater appeal than previously to those who enjoyed board wargaming as an intellectual challenge. West End Games introduced Eastern Front Tank Leader (also designed by John Hill) in 1986, followed by Western Front Tank Leader in 1987 and Desert Steel in 1989. The same year, Avalon Hill offered up a modern tactical game in MBT, only superficially similar to Squad Leader as it simulated a different era of tactical combat. Avalon Hill was a game company that specialized in Wargames and strategic Board games. Squad Leader is a tactical level Board wargame originally published by Avalon Hill in 1977. Another game, IDF, appeared in 1993 that used the same rules as MBT, changing the setting from a fictional World War Three in Germany to the Middle East and the Arab-Israeli conflicts.

Panzer Command by Victory Games in 1984 tried to address some of the problems Bird had mentioned in the Campaign article mentioned above. Panzer Command is the name of a board wargame released by Victory Games in 1984. Robert Kern reported (in Fire & Movement Number 49 (Jul/Aug 1986)) that: "Experimentation is the main reason why our games have been so successful. Fire & Movement The Forum of Conflict Simulation began publication in 1976 and was founded by Rodger MacGowan Not only do we try to simplify game systems as much as possible, but we also tear systems apart to see if something new can be created from them. Panzer Command, for example, does not use a strict sequence of play; rather, portions of the game turn are on chits which are drawn at random. Chits are a type of wargame counter that are generally not directly representational but used for the following purposes Tracking, being "

Other significant product lines appeared by producers GDW and Clash of Arms Games ("CofA"). Game Designers' Workshop (GDW was a Wargame and Role-playing game publisher from 1973 to 1996. Clash of Arms Games is a Wargaming company best known for a high level of graphics quality and moderately to highly complex games often focusing on the Napoleonic Era but with GDW focused on the Cold War or World War III period with 'Team Yankee', the first product of its 'First Battle Series' line of games. World War III (also WWIII, or Third World War) denotes a successor to World War II (1939&ndash1945 that would be on a global scale with Later offerings moved this system to cover several post-Cold war scenarios, such as Desert Storm, and also back to Second World War. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including CofA produced 'Landships!' which covers the First World War, primarily focusing on the appearance of tanks during the later years on the western front. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All See Western Front (disambiguation for other meanings Western Front was a term used during the First and Second World Subsequent expansions moved the system to cover the Russian Civil War and CofA intends to move the series up to 1939, covering the Chaco War, the Spanish Civil War and the German invasion of Poland in World War II. The Russian Civil War (1917–1923 was a multi-party war that occurred within the former Russian Empire after the Russian provisional government collapsed The Chaco War (1932&ndash1935 was fought between Bolivia and Paraguay over control of a great part of the Gran Chaco region of South America The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict in Spain that started after an attempted Coup d'état committed by parts of the army against the government of

Other producers have also produced small unit tactical board wargames covering earlier eras such as the Roman Empire, the Napoleonic Wars and the American Civil War. However, with the exception of Avalon Hill's 'Siege of Jerusalem', none of these games have met with much success. Note however, grand tactical board war games have extraordinary followings, especially The Gamers' series of games covering the American Civil War and CofA's 'La Bataille' series covering the Napoleonic Wars and the Seven Years War. GMT Games has also had considerable success with its 'Great Battles of History' Series. GMT Games, probably the most prolific of the Wargame companies in the 1990s and 2000s was founded in 1990 These series though use larger units, usually at the battalion or regimental level.

Miniatures-based wargames

Main article: Miniature wargaming

Tactical wargame rules have also appeared for every period of human history and even into the future, however these games do not use boards and are outside the scope of this topic. Miniature wargaming is a form of Wargaming that incorporates Miniature figures and modeled terrain as the main components of play

Land tactical board wargames published 1969-1994

Advanced Tobruk and Advanced Squad Leader

In 2002, Advanced Tobruk was released by game manufacturer Critical Hit, Inc. Sniper! was a Board wargame originally released in 1973 Some sources refer to "Sniper/Patrol" as a sort of series of games a similar game by Simulations Patrol was a Board wargame released in the early 1970s as a companion to Sniper! in 1974 by Simulations Publications, Inc Search & Destroy Tactical Combat Vietnam 1965-1966 was a board tactical level Wargame designed by John Young and released Squad Leader is a tactical level Board wargame originally published by Avalon Hill in 1977. Ambush! is a man-to-man Wargame developed by Avalon Hill. It was released under Avalon's Victory Games label and was developed by Ranger Simulation of Modern Patrolling Operations is a tactical Solitaire board wargame released by Omega Games in 1984. Advanced Squad Leader (ASL is a tactical-level Board wargame that simulates actions of approximately company or Battalion Sniper! was a Board wargame originally released in 1973 Some sources refer to "Sniper/Patrol" as a sort of series of games a similar game by Simulations This game was a makeover from the original, and Raymond J. Tapio, who had been designing third party ASL add-ons for sale by his company Critical Hit, conversed with original designer Hal Hock in 1998 and decided, with Kurt Martin, to re-release the game. Tobruk was expanded into a system covering the entire Second World War at the tactical level, with a game scale similar to Squad Leader, 50 metres per hex and counters depicting individual squads and vehicles. The Advanced Tobruk System ("ATS") proved to be very popular, with several expansion modules being produced. Graphic quality of the components was high. The system has gone on to cover battles from the Spanish Civil War through the Korean War, with rumors of a World War I expansion, and even a version of the American Civil War.

In 2006, the final component for Advanced Squad Leader, Armies of Oblivion, went to press, completing the last of twelve essential "core modules" covering every major combatant army, vehicle and ordnance type of the Second World War. Advanced Squad Leader (ASL is a tactical-level Board wargame that simulates actions of approximately company or Battalion It is unclear which direction new projects will take ASL, although there are some indications are that a modern version may be in the offing, other sources suggest more Historical Advanced Squad Leader modules will be the future direction. HASL modules Historical Advanced Squad Leader modules (HASL modules were addons for the tactical wargame Advanced Squad Leader intended The long rumoured World War I expansion module appears to have been cancelled, however it may eventually be produced by a third party manufacturer. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Critical Hit has however recently produced several unofficial expansion modules, introducing the system to cover the Spanish Civil War, the Arab-Israeli Wars of 1948 and 1956 and the French-Vietnam war during the 1950s. The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict in Spain that started after an attempted Coup d'état committed by parts of the army against the government of The First Indochina War (also known as the French Indochina War, the The Anti-French War, the Franco-Vietnamese War, the Franco-Vietminh War,

Sea board-based tactical wargames

Several game manufacturers have produced tactical wargames covering naval warfare. Due to the scales of these battles, most games tend to be minitaures-based without boards, and several popular rules systems have appeared. However, several board versions have been produced over the past 40 years, with most games focusing either on the Napoleonic Era or the first half of the 20th Century.

Pre-1750

Napoleonic Era (1750-1850)

American Civil War/Industrialized Era (1850-1898)

World War I Era (1898-1930)

World War II Era (1930-1945)

Post-war Era (1945-Present)

Air tactical board wargames

Several board-based tactical wargames have also appeared for aerial warfare, although popularity for this genre is low due to the amount of rules and plotting required. Jutland is a Wargame designed by Jim Dunnigan and published by Avalon Hill Game Company in 1967. The Great War at Sea series of Board wargames released by Avalanche Press features operational and tactical -level Naval The Great War at Sea series of Board wargames released by Avalanche Press features operational and tactical -level Naval The Great War at Sea series of Board wargames released by Avalanche Press features operational and tactical -level Naval The Great War at Sea series of Board wargames released by Avalanche Press features operational and tactical -level Naval The Great War at Sea series of Board wargames released by Avalanche Press features operational and tactical -level Naval The Great War at Sea series of Board wargames released by Avalanche Press features operational and tactical -level Naval The Great War at Sea series of Board wargames released by Avalanche Press features operational and tactical -level Naval The Great War at Sea series of Board wargames released by Avalanche Press features operational and tactical -level Naval The Great War at Sea series of Board wargames released by Avalanche Press features operational and tactical -level Naval The Great War at Sea series of Board wargames released by Avalanche Press features operational and tactical -level Naval The Great War at Sea series of Board wargames released by Avalanche Press features operational and tactical -level Naval Second World War at Sea is a game series produced by Avalanche Press covering naval combat during World War II. Second World War at Sea is a game series produced by Avalanche Press covering naval combat during World War II. Second World War at Sea is a game series produced by Avalanche Press covering naval combat during World War II. Second World War at Sea is a game series produced by Avalanche Press covering naval combat during World War II. Second World War at Sea is a game series produced by Avalanche Press covering naval combat during World War II. Second World War at Sea is a game series produced by Avalanche Press covering naval combat during World War II.

Tactical computer wargames

Tactical computer wargames are classified based on whether they are real-time or turn-based. Fight In The Skies, also known as Dawn Patrol, is a Board wargame written by Mike Carr which models World War I style air Richthofen's War was Avalon Hill 's Board wargame treatment of the air war over France during World War I. Wargames are a Subgenre of Strategy video games that emphasize strategic or tactical warfare on a map In Computer science, real-time computing (RTC is the study of hardware and software systems that are subject to a "real-time constraint"—i A turn-based game is a Game where the game flow is partitioned into well-defined and visible parts called turns or rounds See real-time tactics and turn-based tactics. Real-time tactics ( RTT) is a computer game Genre of Tactical wargames played in Real-time simulating the considerations and Turn-based tactics ( TBT) or tactical turn-based ( TTB) is a computer and video game genre of Strategy video games that through stop-action

Fusion

An additional category of tactical wargames would be direct translation of board wargames for play on the computer, but with manual input by players. The Vassal game engine designed by Rodney Kinney, as well as "Aide-de-Camp" and "Cyberboard" are three examples of this. Using Java or similar technology, graphical versions of boards and counters can be manipulated in cyberspace as if a manual version of the game was being played. Dice rolling, chit drawing, and other game functions are all recreated in these systems, which can be played solo, by email, or live multi-player over the Internet, including the option of spectators. A large proportion of published board games have been converted for play in this manner, extending the lives of old boardgames (to avoid copyright infringement, it is expected that players of these games provide their own rulebooks and other physical components only obtainable by purchasing the games. )

Some companies are now releasing games meant solely for play via this medium, such as Dan Verssen's Special Forces, a traditional counter and hex-map board game played strictly in the medium of Vassal.

Notes

1 ^  Information in this section condensed from the article "20 Years Later and 10 Years After Squad Leader" by Rodger B. MacGowan, Fire and Movement Magazine, Issue 53, May/June 1987

2 ^  Lorrin Bird, writing in Special Issue #2 of Campaign Magazine

3 ^  Nick Stasnopolis, Fire & Movement, May/June 1991 issue. Fire & Movement The Forum of Conflict Simulation began publication in 1976 and was founded by Rodger MacGowan

4 ^  Don Greenwood, The General Magazine, May/June 1983 issue. The General Magazine (variously called "The Avalon Hill General" "Avalon Hill's General" or simply "The General" was

5 ^  Raymond J. Tapio, Fire & Movement Summer 2004 issue. Fire & Movement The Forum of Conflict Simulation began publication in 1976 and was founded by Rodger MacGowan

6 ^  Don Greenwood, John Hill, and Hal Hock, "Game Design: Art or Science", The General Magazine, Volume 14, Number 5, January-February 1978. The General Magazine (variously called "The Avalon Hill General" "Avalon Hill's General" or simply "The General" was

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