Citizendia
Your Ad Here

Voting
Part of a series of articles
on Politics and Elections
Politics Portal · edit

In voting systems, tactical voting (or strategic voting or sophisticated voting) occurs when a voter supports a candidate other than his or her sincere preference in order to prevent an undesirable outcome. Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions An election is a Decision-making process by which a population chooses an individual to hold formal office An absentee ballot is a Vote cast by someone who is unable or unwilling to attend the official Polling station. Abstention is a term in Election procedure for when a participant in a vote either does not go to vote (on election day or in Parliamentary procedure, is present A ballot is a device (originally a small ball—see blackball) used to record choices made by Voters Each voter uses one ballot and ballots are not A ballot box is a temporarily sealed container usually cuboid though sometimes a tamper resistant bag with a narrow slot in the top sufficient to accept a ballot paper Ballot stuffing is the illegal act of one person submitting multiple Ballots during a Vote in which only one ballot per person is permitted Early voting, is the process which voters can cast their vote on a single or series of days prior to an election Election Day Registration, also known as "same-day voter registration" permits eligible citizens to register and vote on Election Day In Party-list proportional representation systems an election threshold is a clause that stipulates that a party must receive a minimum percentage of votes either None of the Above ( NOTA) or against all is a Ballot choice in some Jurisdictions or Organizations placed so as to allow the The paradox of voting, also referred to as Downs paradox is a reference to the fact that for a rational self-interested Voter, the costs of voting Postal voting describes the method of voting in an election whereby ballot papers are distributed and/or returned by post to electors in contrast to electors voting in person at a A precinct is a space enclosed by the walls or other boundaries of a particular place or building or by an arbitrary and imaginary line drawn around it In an Open list proportional representation system voters can indicate their preference for a particular individual candidate on a Party list by A Protest vote is a Vote cast in an Election to demonstrate the caster's unhappiness with the choice of candidates or refusal of the current political system A provisional ballot is used to record a vote when there is some question in regards to a given voter's eligibility. A refused ballot, or similar alternative is a choice available to voters in many Elections. The secret ballot is a voting method in which a Voter 's choices are confidential In Voting, a Ballot is considered to be spoilt, void, null or informal if it is regarded by the Election authorities A ticket refers to a single Election choice which fills more than one Political office or seat Ticket Splitters are those who vote for candidates from more than one Political party when they vote for public offices voting on the basis of individual personalities and records A vote center sometimes known as a super precinct is a Polling place that combines multiple precincts allowing voters to choose at which location to vote Vote pairing (or vote swapping as it has also been called is the method where a voter in one district agrees to vote tactically for a less-preferred candidate or party who In Politics, voter fatigue is the apathy that the electorate can experience when they are required to vote too often Voter registration is the requirement in some democracies for Citizens and residents to check in with some central registry specifically for the purpose of being allowed Voter turnout is the percentage of eligible voters who cast a Ballot in an Election. A voting booth or polling booth is a room or cabin in a Polling station where voters are able to cast their vote in private to protect the secrecy of the ballot Voting machines are the total combination of mechanical electromechanical or electronic equipment (including Software, Firmware, and documentation required to program A voting system allows voters to choose between options often in an Election where candidates are selected for public office.

It has been shown by the Gibbard-Satterthwaite theorem that any voting method which is completely strategy-free must be either dictatorial or nondeterministic (that is, might not select the same outcome every time it is applied to the same set of voter preferences). For instance, the random ballot voting method, which randomly selects the ballot of a single voter and uses this to determine the outcome, is strategy-free, but may result in different choices being selected if applied multiple times to the same set of ballots. The random ballot Voting method takes the one person one vote principle to an extreme by only counting the vote of one person

However, the type of tactical voting and the extent to which it affects the timbre of the campaign and the results of the election vary dramatically from one voting system to another.

Contents

Types of tactical voting

Compromising

Compromising (sometimes "useful vote") is a type of tactical voting in which a voter insincerely ranks an alternative higher in the hope of getting it elected. For example, in the first-past-the-post election, voters may vote for an option they perceive as having a greater chance of winning over an option they prefer (e. The plurality voting system is a Single-winner voting system often used to elect executive officers or to elect members of a legislative assembly which is based on single-member g. , a left-wing voter voting for a popular moderate candidate over an unpopular leftist candidate in order to help defeat a strong right-wing candidate. In Politics and Religion, a moderate is an individual who holds an intermediate position between two viewpoints neither to be extreme or radical by those applying ) Duverger's law suggests that, for this reason, first-past-the-post election systems will lead to two-party systems in most cases. In Political science, Duverger's law is a principle which asserts that a plurality rule election system tends to favor a Two-party system. A two-party system is a form of Party system where two major Political parties dominate voting in nearly all Elections at every In those proportional representation systems that include a minimum percentage of votes that a party must achieve to receive any seats, people might vote tactically for a minor party to prevent it from dropping below that percentage, which would make the votes it does receive useless for the larger political camp that party belongs to. Proportional representation (sometimes referred to as full representation or PR is a category of electoral formula aiming at a close match between the percentage of votes

Burying

Burying is a type of tactical voting in which a voter insincerely ranks an alternative lower in the hopes of defeating it. For example, in the Borda count or in a Condorcet method, a voter may insincerely rank a perceived strong alternative last in order to help their preferred alternative beat it. The Borda count is a single-winner election method in which voters rank candidates in order of preference A Condorcet method is any single-winner election method that meets the Condorcet criterion, that is which always selects the Condorcet winner, the candidate

Push-over

Push-over is a type of tactical voting in which a voter ranks a perceived weak alternative higher, but not in the hopes of getting it elected. This primarily occurs in runoff voting when a voter already believes that his favored candidate will make it to the next round - the voter then ranks an unpreferred, but easily beatable, candidate higher so that his preferred candidate can win later. The two-round system (also known as the second ballot or runoff voting) is a Voting system used to elect a single winner A United States analogy would be voters of one party crossing over to vote in the other party's primary to nominate a candidate who will be easy for their favorite to beat. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the A primary election ( nominating primary) also referred to simply as a primary, is an election in which voters in a Jurisdiction select candidates

Shotgunning

Shotgunning or bullet voting is a type of tactical voting used in elections where voters select more than one representative from a pool of candidates. Bullet voting is a tactic where the voter only selects one candidate despite having the option to indicate some preference for other candidates For example it is used in bloc voting. In this instance a voter can cast as many votes as there are representatives to be elected. The winners are the candidates that receive the highest vote totals. By not casting the maximum number of votes, a voter helps his or her preferred candidate by not supplying votes to potential rivals.

It is also a vital strategy within cumulative voting. Cumulative voting (also accumulation voting or weighted voting) is a multiple-winner Voting system intended to promote Proportional representation

Examples in real elections

One high-profile example of tactical voting was the situation that led to the 2003 California recall. The 2003 California recall election was a special Election permitted under California law During the primaries, Republicans Richard Riordan (former mayor of Los Angeles) and Bill Simon (a self-financed businessman) were vying for a chance to compete against the unpopular Governor of California, Gray Davis. Richard J Riordan (born May 1, 1930) is a Republican Politician from California, U Los Angeles (lɑˈsændʒələs los ˈaŋxeles in Spanish) is the largest City in the state of California and the American West William Edward Simon Jr (born June 20, 1951) best known as Bill Simon, is an American Businessman and Politician The Governor of California is the highest executive authority in the state government whose responsibilities include making annual "State of the State" addresses Joseph Graham Davis Jr (born December 26 1942 better known as Gray Davis, is an American politician who served as California 's 37th Governor As California holds open primaries in which anyone can vote for any candidate he or she pleases, Davis supporters were rumored to have voted for Simon because Riordan was perceived as a greater threat to Davis; this combined with a negative advertising campaign by Davis describing Riordan as a "big-city liberal", and Simon ultimately won the primary despite a last-minute business scandal. In the United States of America, an open primary is a Primary election in which voters do not need to be a member of a particular Political party in A scandal is a widely Publicized incident that involves Allegations of wrongdoing, disgrace or moral outrage However, he lost the election against Davis; discontent soon led to the recall.

In the 1997 United Kingdom general election in Winchester, Mark Oaten (Liberal Democrat) beat the incumbent Conservative MP Gerry Malone with a majority of 2 votes. Results The election was fought under new boundaries with a net increase of eight seats compared to the 1992 election Winchester or Winton ( archaic) is a historic city in southern England, with a population of around 40000 within a radius of its centre Mark Oaten (born 8 March 1964, Watford) is a Liberal Democrat politician in the United Kingdom, and Member of Parliament The Liberal Democrats, often shortened to Lib Dems, are a liberal Political party in the United Kingdom, formed in 1988 by merging the The Conservative Party (officially the Conservative and Unionist Party) is a Political party in the United Kingdom. Peter Gerald Malone, known as Gerry Malone, (born 21 July 1950) is a British Conservative politician who was an MP 1983-1987 Malone successfully challenged the election in the High Court, which declared it void. A by-election was held which returned Mark Oaten as MP, this time with a larger majority of 21,556. The Member of Parliament for Winchester, Hampshire, England, Mark Oaten, ( Liberal Democrat) was unseated on an electoral Mark Oaten (born 8 March 1964, Watford) is a Liberal Democrat politician in the United Kingdom, and Member of Parliament This was due to the majority of Labour voters voting Liberal in the by-election.

The candidacy of Richard Huggett in both 1997 elections as a "Literal Democrat" candidate led in part to the creation of the Registration of Political Parties Act 1998. See also Richard Huggett (playwright. Richard John Huggett is a British citizen noted for standing in a variety of elections using descriptions The Registration of Political Parties Act 1998 (1998 c 48 or An Act to make provision about the registration of political parties was an act of the Parliament of the

In United Kingdom elections, there are three main parties represented in the Parliament: the Labour party, the Conservative party and the Liberal Democrats. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The Labour Party is a Political party in the United Kingdom. Founded at the start of the 20th century it has been since the 1920s the principal party of the The Conservative Party (officially the Conservative and Unionist Party) is a Political party in the United Kingdom. The Liberal Democrats, often shortened to Lib Dems, are a liberal Political party in the United Kingdom, formed in 1988 by merging the Of these three, Labour and the Liberal Democrats are considered most similar by many voters. Many people who prefer the Liberal Democrats vote for the Labour candidate where Labour is stronger and vice-versa where the Liberal Democrats are stronger, in order to prevent the Conservative candidate from winning.

In the 1997 UK general election, Democratic Left helped Bruce Kent set up GROT - Get Rid Of Them - a tactical voter campaign whose sole aim was to help prevent the Conservative Party from gaining a 5th term in office. Results The election was fought under new boundaries with a net increase of eight seats compared to the 1992 election Democratic Left was a post-communist political organisation active in Great Britain during the 1990s growing out of the Eurocommunist strand within the Communist Bruce Kent (born 22 June 1929) is a British political activist This coalition was drawn from individuals in all the main opposition parties and many who were not aligned with any party. While it would be hard to prove that GROT swung the election itself, it did attract significant media attention and brought tactical voting into the mainstream for the first time in UK politics. In 2001, the Democratic Left's successor organisation the New Politics Network organised a similar campaign tacticalvoter.net. History In United Kingdom Politics, the New Politics Network (NPN was an independent political and campaigning Think tank, concerned Since then tactical voting has become a real consideration in British politics as is reflected in by-elections and by the growth in sites such as tacticalvoting.com who encourage tactical voting as a way of defusing the two party system and empowering the individual voter. In the 2005 UK General Election individuals set up tacticalvoting.net to balance the tactical voting debate.

In the Ontario general election, 1999, strategic voting was widely encouraged by opponents of the Progressive Conservative government of Mike Harris. An Ontario general election was held on June 3 1999, to elect members of the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Ontario, Canada. The Ontario PC Party, formally known as the Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario (in french Parti progressiste-conservateur de l'Ontario) is a Right-of-centre Michael Deane Harris (born January 23, 1945, in Toronto Ontario) was the twenty-second Premier of Ontario from June 26, This failed to unseat Harris, and succeeded only in suppressing the New Democratic Party vote to a historic low. The Ontario New Democratic Party, formally known as New Democratic Party of Ontario, is a Social democratic political party in Ontario, Canada

In the Canadian general election, 2004 and to a lesser extent in the Canadian general election, 2006, strategic voting was a concern for the federal New Democratic Party. The Canadian federal election 2004 (more formally the 38th General Election) was held on June 28, 2004 to elect members of the Canadian House of The 2006 Canadian federal election (more formally the 39th General Election) was held on January 23 2006 to elect members of the Canadian House of Commons of the In the 2004 election, the governing Liberal Party was able to convince many New Democratic voters to vote Liberal in order to avoid a Conservative government. In the 2006 elections, the Liberal Party attempted the same strategy, with Prime Minister Paul Martin asking New Democrats and Greens to vote for the Liberal Party in order to prevent a Conservative win. Paul Edgar Philippe Martin. PC, MP (also known as Paul Martin Jr The New Democratic Party leader Jack Layton would respond by asking voters to "lend" their votes to his party, suggesting that the Liberal Party would be bound to lose the election regardless of strategic voting. John Gilbert "Jack" Layton PC MP (born July 18, 1950) is a social democratic Canadian Politician

In the 2006 local elections in London, tactical voting is being promoted by sites such as London Strategic Voter in a response to national and international issues. The question of whether this approach acts to undermine local democracy is receiving much debate.

In Northern Ireland, it is widely thought that (predominantly Protestant) Unionist voters in Nationalist strongholds have voted for the SDLP to prevent Sinn Féin from capturing such seats.

Rational voter model

Academic analysis of tactical voting is based on the rational voter model, derived from rational choice theory. Rational choice theory, also known as rational action theory, is a framework for understanding and often formally modeling social and economic behavior In this model, voters are short-term instrumentally rational. That is, voters are only voting in order to make an impact on one election at a time (not, say, to build the political party for next election); voters have a set of sincere preferences, or utility rankings, by which to rate candidates; voters have some knowledge of each other's preferences; and voters understand how best to use tactical voting to their advantage. The extent to which this model resembles real-life elections is the subject of considerable academic debate.

Myerson-Weber strategy

An example of a rational voter strategy is described by Myerson and Weber [1]. Roger Bruce Myerson (born March 29 1951) is an American Economist and Nobel laureate recognised with Leonid Hurwicz The strategy is broadly applicable to a number of single-winner voting systems that are additive point systems, such as Plurality, Borda, Approval, and Range. The Borda count is a single-winner election method in which voters rank candidates in order of preference Approval voting is a single-winner voting system used for Elections Each voter may vote for (approve of as many of the candidates as they wish Range voting (also called ratings summation, average voting, cardinal ratings, score voting, 0–99 voting, or the score The strategy is optimal in the sense that the strategy will maximize the voter's expected utility when the number of voters is sufficiently large. In Economics, utility is a measure of the relative satisfaction from or desirability of Consumption of various Goods and services.

This rational voter model assumes that the voter's utility of the election result is dependent only on which candidate wins and not on any other aspect of the election, for example showing support for a losing candidate in the vote tallies. The model also assumes the voter chooses how to vote individually and not in collaboration with other voters.

Given a set of k candidates and a voter let:

vi = the number of points to be voted for candidate i
ui = the voter's gain in utility if candidate i wins the election
pij = the (voter's perceived) pivot probability that candidates i and j will be tied for the most total points to win the election.

Then the voter's prospective rating for a candidate i is defined as:

R_i = \Sigma_{j \neq i} \; p_{ij} * (u_i - u_j)\,

The gain in expected utility for a given vote is given by:

G(p,v,u) = \Sigma_{i=1}^k \; v_i * R_i\,

The gain in expected utility can be maximized by choosing a vote with suitable values of vi, depending on the voting system and the voter's prospective ratings for each candidate. For specific voting systems, the gain can be maximized using the following rules:

An important special case occurs when the voter has no information about how other voters will vote. This is sometimes referred to as the zero information strategy. In this special case, the pij pivot probabilities are all equal and the rules for the specific voting systems become:

Myerson and Weber also describe voting equilibria that require all voters use the optimal strategy and all voters share a common set of pij pivot probabilities. Because of these additional requirements, such equilibria may in practice be less widely applicable than the strategies.

Pre-election influence

Because tactical voting relies heavily on voters' perception of how other voters intend to vote, campaigns in electoral systems that promote compromise frequently focus on affecting voter's perception of campaign viability. Most campaigns craft refined media strategies to shape the way voters see their candidacy. During this phase, there can be an analogous effect where campaign donors and activists may decide whether or not to support candidates tactically with their money and labor.

In rolling elections, or runoff votes, where some voters have information about previous voters' preferences (e. Rolling elections are Elections in which all representatives in a body are reelected but these elections are spread over a period of time rather than all at once The two-round system (also known as the second ballot or runoff voting) is a Voting system used to elect a single winner g. presidential primaries in the United States, French presidential elections), candidates put disproportionate resources into competing strongly in the first few stages, because those stages affect the reaction of latter stages. A primary election ( nominating primary) also referred to simply as a primary, is an election in which voters in a Jurisdiction select candidates The United States of America —commonly referred to as the This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics.

Views on tactical voting

Some people view tactical voting as providing misleading information. In this view, a ballot paper is asking the question "which of these candidates is the best?". This means that if one votes for a candidate who one does not believe is the best, then one is lying. British Labour Party politician Anne Begg considers tactical voting dangerous: [1]

Tactical voting is fine in theory and as an intellectual discussion in the drawing room or living rooms around the country, but when you actually get to polling day and you have to vote against your principles, then it is much harder to do. Anne Begg (b 6 December 1955 in Brechin, Angus) is a British politician and is the Labour Party Member of Parliament

Tactical voting is commonly regarded as a problem, since it makes the actual ballot into a nontrivial game, where voters react and counter-react to what they expect other voters' strategies to be. Game theory is a branch of Applied mathematics that is used in the Social sciences (most notably Economics) Biology, Engineering, British mathematician Charles Dodgson (a. k. a. Lewis Carroll) was, apparently, the first to acknowledge this fact. Charles Lutwidge Dodgson (ˈdɒdsən (27 January 1832 &ndash 14 January 1898 better known by the Pen name Lewis Carroll (/ˈkærəl/ was an English A game such as this might even result in a worse alternative being chosen, because most of the voters used it as a strategic tool.

Though Arrow's impossibility theorem and Gibbard-Satterthwaite theorem prove that any useful voting system is prone to some kind of manipulation, some use game theory to search for some kind of "minimally manipulatable" voting schemes. In Social choice theory, Arrow’s impossibility theorem, or Arrow’s paradox, demonstrates that no voting system can convert the ranked preferences of individuals Game theory is a branch of Applied mathematics that is used in the Social sciences (most notably Economics) Biology, Engineering,

Game theory can also be used to analyze the pros and cons of different methods. For instance, under purely honest voting, Condorcet method-like systems tend to settle on compromise candidates, while Instant-Runoff Voting favors those candidates which have strong core support - who may often be more extremist. A Condorcet method is any single-winner election method that meets the Condorcet criterion, that is which always selects the Condorcet winner, the candidate Instant-runoff voting ( IRV) is a Voting system used for single-winner elections in which voters have one vote and rank Candidates in order of An electorate using one of these two systems but which (in the general or the specific case) preferred the characteristics of the other system could consciously use strategy to achieve a result more characteristic of the other system. Under Condorcet, they may be able to win by "burying" the compromise candidate (although this risks throwing the election to the opposing extreme); while under IRV, they could always "compromise". It could be argued that in this case the option to vote tactically or not actually helps the electorate express its will, not only on which candidate is better, but on whether compromise is desirable. (This never applies to "sneakier" tactics such as push-over. )

Tactical voting greatly complicates the comparative analysis of voting systems. If tactical voting were to become significant, the perceived "advantages" of a given voting system (that is, tending towards compromise or favoring core support) could turn into disadvantages - and, more surprisingly, vice versa.

Tactical voting in particular systems

First past the post / plurality voting

Tactical voting by compromising is exceedingly common in plurality elections.

Due to the especially deep impact of tactical voting in first past the post electoral systems, some argue that systems with three or more strong or persistent parties become in effect forms of disapproval voting, where the expression of disapproval in order to keep an opponent out of office overwhelms the expression of approval to elect a desirable candidate. The plurality voting system is a Single-winner voting system often used to elect executive officers or to elect members of a legislative assembly which is based on single-member Disapproval voting is any Voting system that allows many voters to express formal disapproval simultaneously in a system where they all share some power Ralph Nader refers to this as the "least worst" choice, and argues that the similarity of parties and the candidates in first past the post systems grows stronger due to the need to avoid this disapproval. Ralph Nader (born February 27 1934 is an American Attorney, Author, Lecturer, political activist, and independent candidate for President

One often-overlooked flaw in the first past the post system is that, in single member districts, voters can invariably select only one candidate, whilst in multi-member districts they can never select more candidates than the number of seats. Approval voting, by contrast, allows voters to cast a vote for as many candidates as they wish. This in turn allows for "voting against" a certain despised candidate without having to guess at who the strongest contender is to defeat that candidate. Such a system would also serve to reduce the spoiler effect. The " spoiler effect " is a term to describe the effect a Minor party candidate with little chance of winning can have on a close Election, in which their

Approval voting

Steven Brams and Dudley R. Herschbach argued in a paper in Science magazine in 2001 that approval voting was the system least amenable to tactical perturbations. Steven J Brams (born November 28, 1940) is a game theorist and Political scientist at the New York University department of politics Dudley Robert Herschbach (born June 18, 1932) is an American Chemist at Harvard University. Science is the Academic journal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and is considered one of the world's most prestigious Scientific Approval voting is a single-winner voting system used for Elections Each voter may vote for (approve of as many of the candidates as they wish Authors of a 2004 paper in Public Choice disagreed, saying, "AV is one of the most susceptible systems to manipulation by small groups of voters (for example, small, maverick groups could determine the AV outcome. )"[2]

Instant runoff voting

Instant runoff voting has a reduced incentive for the compromising strategy, plus a minor vulnerability to the push-over strategy. Instant-runoff voting ( IRV) is a Voting system used for single-winner elections in which voters have one vote and rank Candidates in order of

Condorcet

Condorcet methods have a further-reduced incentive for the compromising strategy, but they have some vulnerability to the burying strategy. A Condorcet method is any single-winner election method that meets the Condorcet criterion, that is which always selects the Condorcet winner, the candidate The extent of this vulnerability depends on the particular Condorcet method. Some Condorcet methods arguably reduce the vulnerability to burying to the point where it is no longer a significant problem.

Borda

The Borda count has both a strong compromising incentive and a large vulnerability to burying. The Borda count is a single-winner election method in which voters rank candidates in order of preference Here is a hypothetical example of both factors at the same time: If there are two candidates whom a voter considers to be the most likely to win, the voter can maximize their impact on the contest between these candidates by ranking the candidate whom they like more in first place, and ranking the candidate whom they like less in last place. If neither candidate is their sincere first or last choice, the voter is employing both the compromising and burying strategies at once.

Single Transferable Vote

The compromising incentive exists in the Single Transferable Vote. Single transferable vote (STV is a preferential Voting system designed to minimize Wasted votes and provide Proportional representation If one's top-choice candidate is elected, only a fraction of one's vote will be transferred to one's next-favoured candidate. If one feels the favoured candidate is certain to be elected in any case, insincerely ranking the second candidate first guarantees them a full vote if needed. However, the greater the certainty of the first candidate being elected, the bigger their likely surplus, the higher the fraction of the vote that would be transferred to the next candidate, and hence the lower the proportionate benefit of tactical voting.

More sophisticated tactics may be practicable where the number of candidates, voters and/or seats to be filled is relatively small.

Some forms of STV allow tactical voters to gain an advantage by listing a candidate who is very likely to lose in first place, as a form of pushover. Meek's method essentially eliminates this strategy. There are many ways to count votes in Single Transferable Vote elections

Tactical unwind

The term "tactical unwind" is used by some political scientists and commentators to refer to the phenomenon when tactical voting takes place in one general election but in subsequent elections voters revert to their normal patterns.

See also

References

  1. ^ Myerson, R. A primary election ( nominating primary) also referred to simply as a primary, is an election in which voters in a Jurisdiction select candidates A political party is a Political organization that seeks to attain and maintain political power within Government, usually by participating in electoral Strategic nomination is the manipulation of an Election through its candidate set (compare this to Tactical voting, where the manipulation comes from the voters Vote pairing (or vote swapping as it has also been called is the method where a voter in one district agrees to vote tactically for a less-preferred candidate or party who Electoral fusion is an arrangement where two or more political parties support a common Candidate, pooling the votes for all those parties Unite the Right, also called the United Alternative, was a Canadian Political movement from 1997 to 2003 Like virtually all electoral systems in runoff voting there is potential for both tactical voting and strategic nomination. and Weber, R. J. (1993) A theory of Voting Equilibria. American Political Science Review Vol 87, No. 1. 102-114.
  2. ^ Saari, D. G. and Van Newenhizen, J. (2004) "Is approval voting an ‘unmitigated evil?’ A response to Brams, Fishburn, and Merrill" Public Choice 59(2) pp. 133-147.

External links

Sources

© 2009 citizendia.org; parts available under the terms of GNU Free Documentation License, from http://en.wikipedia.org
 Dapyx Software network: MP3 Explorer | Ebook Manager | Zenithic