A taboo is a strong social prohibition (or ban) against words, objects, actions, or discussions that are considered undesirable or offensive by a group, culture, society, or community. Definition In the absence of agreement about its meaning the term "social" is used in many different senses referring among other things to attitudes A ban (derived from Banishment) is generally any Decree that prohibits something Breaking a taboo is usually considered objectionable or abhorrent. Some taboo activities or customs are prohibited by law and transgressions may lead to severe penalties. Law is a system of rules enforced through a set of Institutions used as an instrument to underpin civil obedience politics economics and society In Law, a sentence forms the final act of a Judge -ruled process and also the symbolic principal act connected to his function Other taboos result in embarrassment, shame and rudeness. Embarrassment is an Emotional state experienced upon having a socially or professionally unacceptable act or condition witnessed by or revealed to others Shame is variously an affect emotion cognition state or condition Rudeness (also called impudence or effrontery) is the disrespect and failure to behave within the context of a society or a group of people's social laws or Etiquette

Etymology

Common etymology traces the word back to the Tongan tapu^[1][2] or the Fijian tabu^[3] meaning "under prohibition", "not allowed", or "forbidden". Tongan ( lea fakatonga) is an Austronesian language spoken in Tonga. Tapu (or tabu) is a concept existing in many Polynesian societies including traditional Māori, Samoan and Tongan cultures Fiji (Matanitu ko Viti फ़िजी officially the Republic of the Fiji Islands (Matanitu Tu-Vaka-i-koya ko Viti फ़िजी द्वीप समूह गणराज्य ^[3] In its modern use in Tonga, the word tapu also means "sacred" or "holy", although often in the sense of being restricted or protected by custom or by law. For example, the main island in the Kingdom of Tonga, where the capital Nuku'alofa is situated and most of the population resides, is called "Tongatapu". In this context, it means "Sacred South", rather than "forbidden south".

The use of the word taboo drawn from tapu (meaning "not allowed") dates back to 1777 and an English explorer, Captain James Cook, visiting a place he named "the Friendly Islands" (now Tonga). The English people (from the adjective in Englisc) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to England who predominantly speak English Captain James Cook FRS RN ( – 14 February 1779) was an English Explorer, Navigator and The Kingdom of Tonga is an Archipelago in the south Pacific Ocean comprising 169 islands 36 of them inhabited stretching over a distance of about 800 kilometres (500 miles Describing the Tongans, he wrote:

"Not one of them would sit down, or eat a bit of any thing. Tongans make up the vast majority of the inhabitants of Tonga. . . . On expressing my surprise at this, they were all taboo, as they said; which word has a very comprehensive meaning; but, in general, signifies that a thing is forbidden. . . . When any thing is forbidden to be eat, or made use of, they say, that it is taboo. "

Some Solomon Islanders say that their languages have a word tabu (pronounced "tam-boo") that means holy. It refers to places in the bush where holy spirits reside (usually marked with an object, such as a giant clam shell or stone carving). Those areas should not be disturbed unless a ceremony is taking place, therefore they are places that should not be touched.

Examples

Taboos can include:

• dietary restrictions (halal and kosher diets, religious vegetarianism, and the prohibition of cannibalism)
• restrictions on sexual activities, gender roles and interpersonal relationships (examples include fornication, adultery, interreligious marriage, miscegenation, homosexuality, incest, bestiality, pedophilia, necrophilia and other paraphilias)in public. Halal (حلال ḥalāl, halaal) is an Arabic term meaning permissible. Vegetarianism is the practice of a diet that excludes Meat (including game and slaughter by-products Fish (including Shellfish and other sea Cannibalism (from Spanish es ''caníbal'' in connection with cannibalism among the Antillean Caribs, also called anthropophagy (from Greek ἄνθρωπος Human sexual behavior or different human sexual practices encompass a wide range of activities such as strategies to find or attract partners ( Mating and display A gender role is defined as a set of perceived behavioural norms associated particularly with Males or Females in a given social group or system An interpersonal relationship is a relatively long-term association between two or more people Fornication, or simple fornication is a term which refers to voluntary Sexual intercourse between persons not married to each other Adultery is the voluntary Sexual intercourse between a married person and another person who is not his or her Spouse, though in many places it is Interfaith marriage, traditionally (especially in the Catholic Church) called Mixed marriage, is Marriage (either religious or civil Miscegenation (Latin miscere "to mix" + genus "kind" is the mixing of different racial groups, that is marrying, cohabiting Homosexuality refers to sexual behavior with or attraction to people of the same sex or to a Homosexual orientation. Incest refers to any sexual activity between closely related persons (often within the immediate family that is illegal or socially Taboo. Zoophilia, from the Greek ζῷον ( zṓion, "animal" and φιλία ( philia, "friendship" or "love" is a Paraphilia The term pedophilia or paedophilia has a range of definitions as found in Psychology, law enforcement and the popular vernacular Necrophilia, also called thanatophilia and necrolagnia, is the sexual attraction to corpses
• restrictions of bodily functions (burping, flatulence, defecation, urination, masturbation, nosepicking, and spitting) in public. Flatulence is the production of a mixture of gases in the digestive tract of Mammals that are byproducts of the digestion process Defecation is the final act of Digestion by which organisms eliminate solid semisolid or liquid Waste material ( Faeces) from the Digestive tract Urination, also known as micturition, voiding, and more rarely emiction, is the process of disposing Urine from the Urinary bladder Masturbation refers to Sexual stimulation especially of one's own genitals ( self masturbation) and often to the point of Orgasm, which Nose-picking, or rhinotillexis ( Greek, rhino "nose" + tillexis "habit of picking" is the act of extracting mucus
• restrictions on state of genitalia (circumcision or sex reassignment)
• restrictions on exposure of body parts (pornography and nudity)
• taboos on illicit drugs, substance abuse and addictions to legal drugs such as alcohol (alcoholism)
• restrictions on the use of offensive language also known as obscenity and vulgarity
• restriction on gestures
• taboo on slavery

Some taboos originated by acts of authority, be it legal, social or religious, over a period of time. Male circumcision is the removal of some or all of the Foreskin (prepuce from the Penis. See also Public indecency, Exhibitionism Indecent exposure is the deliberate exposure by a person of a portion or portions of his or her own body under Pornography or porn is the explicit depiction of Sexual subject matter with the sole intention of sexually exciting the viewer Nudity is the state of wearing no Clothing. The term' "nudity" can also occasionally be used to refer to wearing significantly less clothing than expected The illegal drug trade or drug trafficking is a global Black market consisting of the cultivation manufacture distribution and sale of illegal Drugs Substance abuse is the overindulgence in and dependence of a Drug or other chemical leading to effects that are detrimental to the individual's physical and mental health Alcoholism is a term with multiple and sometimes conflicting definitions The original meaning of the adjective profane (from the Latin for "in front of or outside the Temple " was to refer to items not belonging to the church Obscenity (in Latin obscenus, meaning "foul repulsive detestable" is a term that is most often used in a legal context to " Vulgarism " (also called scurrility) derives from Latin vulgun, the "mean folk" and has carried into English its original A gesture is a form of Non-verbal communication made with a part of the body used instead of or in combination with verbal communication. As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another When not in "polite society", discussions on taboos are allowed in humorous expression, such as comedy and satire like South Park, The Simpsons or Beavis and Butthead. See also Mathematics of humor A joke is a short story or ironic depiction of a situation communicated with the intent of being humorous. Comedy (from the Greek κωμωδίαkomodia has a popular meaning (any discourse generally intended to amuse especially in Television, Film, and Satire is often strictly defined as a literary genre or form; although in practice it is also found in the graphic and Performing arts In satire human South Park is an animated American television comedy series created and written by Trey Parker and Matt Stone for Comedy Central Beavis and Butt-head is an American Animated television series created by Mike Judge.

Origin

There are varying explanations for the origin of taboos. While some explanations are anthropological and explain taboos using history and cultural experiences, other explanations are psychoanalytical and explain taboos as an unconscious phenomenon passing through generations. Cultural anthropology is one of four fields of Anthropology (the holistic study of humanity) as it developed in the United States. Psychoanalysis is a body of ideas developed by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and his followers which is devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior

Steven Pinker (anthropological/biological)

Steven Pinker in How the Mind Works suggests that taboos have developed culturally from more basic instincts. Steven Arthur Pinker (born September 18 1954 is a prominent Canadian - American experimental psychologist, cognitive scientist, and author How the Mind Works (ISBN 0-393-31848-6 is a book by American cognitive scientist Steven Pinker, published in 1997. With regard to taboos regarding the dead, he proposes that the human brain has evolved a hard-wired repulsion to many carriers of disease – an "intuitive microbiology". eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 Microbiology (from Greek grc μῑκρος mīkros, "small" grc βίος bios, " Life " and grc -λογία Only with the modern development of scientific microbiology have humans been able to rationalize these taboos. Pinker suggests similar explanations for the incest taboo and other things that cause the reflex emotion of disgust. The incest taboo refers to the cultural prohibition of Sexual activity or Marriage between persons defined as "close" relatives - commonly called Incest

Sigmund Freud (psychoanalytical)

Sigmund Freud provided an analysis of taboo behaviours, highlighting strong subconscious motivations driving such prohibitions. Sigmund Freud (ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt born Sigismund Shlomo Freud (May 6 1856 &ndash September 23 1939 was an Austrian Psychiatrist who founded In this system, described in his collection of essays Totem and Taboo, Freud postulates a link between forbidden behaviours and the sanctification of objects to certain kinship groups. Totem and Taboo Resemblances Between the Mental Lives of Savages and Neurotics was a book written by Sigmund Freud published in German as Totem und Freud also states here that the only two "universal" taboos are that of incest and patricide, which formed the eventual basis of modern society. Incest refers to any sexual activity between closely related persons (often within the immediate family that is illegal or socially Taboo. Patricide is (i the act of killing one's father or (ii a person who kills his or her father

German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt explains that taboos were originally nothing other than an objectified fear of a "demonic" power which was believed to lie hidden in a tabooed object. Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt ( August 16 1832 - August 31 1920) was a German medical doctor psychologist physiologist and professor ^[4] Sigmund Freud believes this to be a superficial explanation having nothing to do with the true origins of taboos. He claims that many similarities between taboo-holders and obsessive neurotics point to "a psychological condition that prevails in the unconscious". Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD is a Chronic Anxiety disorder most commonly characterized by obsessive Distressing Intrusive thoughts ^[5] Freud believes this "unconsciousness" is central to understanding the history of taboos. He then reconstructs the history of taboo based on the model of obsessional prohibitions as follows:

"Taboos, we must suppose, are prohibitions of primæval antiquity which were at some time externally imposed upon a generation of primitive men; they must, that is to say, no doubt have been impressed on them violently by the previous generation. Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD is a Chronic Anxiety disorder most commonly characterized by obsessive Distressing Intrusive thoughts These prohibitions must have concerned activities towards which there was a strong inclination. They must then have persisted from generation to generation, perhaps merely as a result of tradition transmitted through parental and social authority. "^[6]

And so, "Anyone who has violated a taboo becomes taboo himself because he possesses the dangerous quality of tempting others to follow his example. "^[7]

Taboo on the dead

Main article: Taboo on the dead

The 'taboo' on the dead includes the taboo against touching of a corpse and those who are caring for it; the taboo against mourners of the dead; and the taboo against anything associated with the dead (e. The taboo on the dead includes the Taboo against touching of the dead and those surrounding them the taboo against mourners of the dead and the taboo against anything associated g. , the dead person's name).

Examples

Corpses

• Among the Māori anyone who had handled a corpse or taken any part in its burial was in the highest degree unclean and was almost cut off from social intercourse with his fellow-men. This article discusses the Māori people of New Zealand For their language see Māori language, and for other meanings see Māori (disambiguation. He could not enter any house, or come into contact with any person or thing without infecting them. He might not even touch food with his hands, which, owing to their uncleanness, had become quite useless. "Food would be set for him on the ground, and he would then sit or kneel down, and, with his hands carefully held behind his back, would gnaw at it as best he could. In some cases he would be fed by another person, who with outstretched arm contrived to do it without touching the tabooed man. " The mourners of the dead were also secluded from the public. When their period of mourning was near completion, "all the dishes he had used in his seclusion were diligently smashed, and all the garments he had worn were carefully thrown away. "^[8]

Mourners

• Among the Shuswap of British Columbia widows and widowers in mourning are secluded and forbidden to touch their own head or body; the cups and cooking vessels which they use may be used by no one else. The Secwepemc ( or) also commonly known as the Shuswap, are a First Nation residing in the Canadian province of British Columbia, primarily [. . . ] No hunter would come near such mourners, for their presence is unlucky. If their shadow were to fall on anyone, he would be taken ill at once. They employ thorn-bushes for bed and pillow, in order to keep away the ghost of the deceased; and thorn bushes are also laid all around their beds. ^[9]

• Among the Agutainos, who inhabit Palawan, one of the Philippine Islands, a widow may not leave her hut for seven or eight days after the death; and even then she may only go out at an hour when she is not likely to meet anybody, for whoever looks upon her dies a sudden death. Palawan is an Island province of the Philippines located in the MIMAROPA region. The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP To prevent this fatal catastrophe, the widow knocks with a wooden peg on the trees as she goes along, thus warning people of her dangerous proximity; and the very trees on which she knocks soon die. "^[10]

Naming the dead

Main article: Taboo against naming the dead

The taboo on naming the dead prohibits any utterance of a dead man's name or any other words similar to it in sound. The Taboo against naming the dead is a kind of Taboo on the dead whereby the name of a recently deceased person and any other words similar to it in sound may not Some examples follow:

• Among the Guaycurus of Paraguay, when a death had taken place, the chief used to change the name of every member of the tribe; and from that moment everybody remembered his new name just as if he had borne it all his life. The Mbayá are a tribe formerly ranging on both sides of the Paraguay River, on the north and northwestern Paraguay frontier and in the adjacent portion of the Paraguay, officially the Republic of Paraguay ( Spanish: República del Paraguay; Guaraní: Tetã Paraguái) is one of the only ^[11]

• After a Yolngu man named Bitjingu died, the word bithiwul "no; nothing" was avoided. ^[12] In its place, a synonym or a loanword from another language would be used for a certain period, after which the original word could be used again; but in some cases the replacement word would continue to be used. This article deals with the general meaning of the term "synonym" A loanword (or loan word) is a word directly taken into one Language from another with little or no translation

Origins and causes

Sigmund Freud traces back the origin of the dangerous character of widowers and widows to the danger of temptation. Sigmund Freud (ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt born Sigismund Shlomo Freud (May 6 1856 &ndash September 23 1939 was an Austrian Psychiatrist who founded A man who has lost his wife must resist a desire to find a substitute for her; a widow must fight against the same wish and is moreover liable to arouse the desires of other men. Substitutive satisfactions of such a kind run counter to the sense of mourning and they would inevitably kindle the ghost's wrath. ^[13]

Freud explains that the fundamental reason for the existence of such taboos is the fear of the presence or of the return of the dead person's ghost. It is exactly this fear that leads to a great number of ceremonies aimed at keeping the ghost at a distance or driving him off. ^[14]

The Tuaregs of Sahara, for example, dread the return of the dead man's spirit so much that "[they] do all they can to avoid it by shifting their camp after a death, ceasing for ever to pronounce the name of the departed, and eschewing everything that might be regarded as an evocation or recall of his soul. The Tuareg (also Twareg or Touareg, Amazigh: Imuhagh / Itargiyen, besides regional ethnyms are a Nomadic The Sahara (الصحراء الكبرى aṣ-ṣaḥrā´ al-kubra, "The Great Desert" is the world's largest hot Desert and the world's second largest Hence they do not, like the Arabs, designate individuals by adding to their personal names the names of their fathers. [. . . ] they give to every man a name which will live and die with him. "^[15] In many cases the taboo remains intact until the body of the dead has completely decayed,^[16] but until then the community must disguise itself so that the ghost shall not recognize them. For example, the Nicobar Islanders try to disguise themselves by shaving their heads. The Nicobar Islands are an island chain in the eastern Indian Ocean, and are part of the Union Territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India ^[17]

Artists

Artists that have worked with the theme of death include Bill Viola, Damien Hirst, Lennie Lee and Joel-Peter Witkin. Bill Viola (born America 1951 is a contemporary video artist. Damien Hirst (born 7 June 1965 is an English artist and the most prominent of the group that has been dubbed " Young British Artists " (or YBAs Lennie Lee (born March 4, 1958) is a South African Conceptual artist who lives and works in London. Joel-Peter Witkin (born September 13, 1939, in Brooklyn, New York City) is an American

Psychologist Wilhelm Wundt associates the taboo to a fear that the dead man's soul has become a demon. Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt ( August 16 1832 - August 31 1920) was a German medical doctor psychologist physiologist and professor ^[18] Moreover, many cases show a hostility toward the dead and their representation as malevolent figures. ^[19] Edward Westermarck notes that "Death is commonly regarded as the gravest of all misfortunes; hence the dead are believed to be exceedingly dissatisfied with their fate [. Edvard Alexander Westermarck ( 20 November 1862 &ndash 3 September 1939) was a Swedish speaking Finnish Philosopher and . . ] such a death naturally tends to make the soul revengeful and ill-tempered. It is envious of the living and is longing for the company of its old friend. "^[20]

Taboo on rulers

Main article: Taboo on rulers

Examples

• The Nubas of East Africa believe that they would die if they entered the house of their priestly king; however they can evade the penalty of their intrusion by baring the left shoulder and getting the king to lay his hands on it. The Taboo on rulers includes both taboos on people coming into contact with a ruler and the taboos on the ruler himself For the musical form see Andalusi nubah or Nuubaat. Nuba is a collective term used here for the humans who inhabit the Nuba Mountains East Africa is the Easternmost Region of the African Continent. ^[21]

• In West Africa, in the woods of Shark Point near Cape Padron, in Lower Guinea, a priestly king named Kukulu once lived alone. West Africa or Western Africa is the Westernmost Region of the African Continent. Lower Guinea can refer to the coastal part of either the Republic of Guinea the wider Guinea region See also Forbidden from touching a woman or leaving his house, or even leaving his chair, in which he would sleep, the natives feared that if he lay down no wind would rise and navigation would be stopped. ^[22]

• The ancient kings of Ireland were subject to a number of strange restrictions as listed in The Book of Rights. Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world The king, for instance, may not stay in a certain town on a particular day of the week; he may not cross a river on a particular hour of the day; he may not encamp for nine days on a certain plain, and so on. ^[23]

Taboo on warriors

Examples

Restrictions placed on a victorious slayer are unusually frequent and as a rule severe. ^[24]

• In Timor, the leader of the expedition is forbidden "to return at once to his own house. Timor is an Island at the south end of the Malay Archipelago, north of the Timor Sea. A special hut is prepared for him, in which he has to reside for two months, undergoing bodily and spiritual purification. During this time he may not go to his wife nor feed himself; the food must be put in his mouth by another person. "^[25]

• In some Dyak tribes, men returning from a successful expedition are obliged to keep to themselves for several days and abstain from various kinds of food; they may not touch iron nor have any intercourse with women. ^[26]

• In Logea, an island in the neighborhood of New Guinea, "men who have killed or assisted in killing enemies shut themselves up for about a week in their houses. New Guinea, located just north of Australia, is the world's second largest island, having become separated from the Australian mainland when the area now known They must avoid all intercourse with their wives and friends, and they may not touch food with their hands. They may eat vegetable food only which is brought to them cooked in special pots. The intention of these restrictions is to guard the men against the smell of the blood of the slain; for it is believed that if they smelt the blood they would fall ill and die.

• In the Toaripi or Motumotu tribe of south-eastern New Guinea a man who has killed another may not go near his wife, and may not touch food with his fingers. He is fed by others, and only with certain kinds of food. These observances last till the new moon. "^[26]

See also

• Abomination (Bible)
• Avoidance speech
• Censorship
• Conversational intolerance
• Decency
• Etiquette or manners
• Faux pas
• Geis
• Incest taboo
• Judeo-Christian philosophy
• Menstrual taboo
• Morality and ethics
• Naming taboo in imperial China
• Paraphilia
• Prejudice
• Shunning
• Sin
• Social stigma
• Taboo food and drink
• Totem and taboo

Notes

References

• Bastian, A. (1874–5), Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste [2 vols. ] Jena.  
• Blumentritt, F. (1891), Über die Eingeborenen der Insel Palawan  Globus, 59: [181ff. ]
• Boas, F. (1890), “Second General Report on the Indians of British Columbia”, Report of Sixtieth Meeting of the British Association  [562ff. ]
• Brown, W (1845), New Zealand and its Aborigines, London 
• Dixon, R. M. W. (2002), Australian Languages: Their Nature and Developments, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-47378-0 
• Frazer, J. G. (1911), “Taboo and the Perils of the Soul”, The Golden Bough (3rd ed. Robert Malcolm Ward Dixon ( Gloucester, England, January 25 1939) is a Professor of Linguistics and formerly Director of the Research Centre , Part II ed. ), London 
• Frazer, J. G. (1990), “Taboo and the Perils of the Soul”, The Golden Bough (3rd ed. , Part II ed. ), New York: St. Martin's Press  [1st ed. , 1913. ]
• Freud, Sigmund (1950), trans. Sigmund Freud (ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt born Sigismund Shlomo Freud (May 6 1856 &ndash September 23 1939 was an Austrian Psychiatrist who founded Strachey, ed. , Totem and Taboo:Some Points of Agreement between the Mental Lives of Savages and Neurotics, New York: W. Totem and Taboo Resemblances Between the Mental Lives of Savages and Neurotics was a book written by Sigmund Freud published in German as Totem und W. Norton & Company, ISBN 0-393-00143-1 
• Kulick and Willson, Taboo: Sex, Identity, and Erotic Subjectivity in Anthropological Fieldwork 1995
• Müller, S. Don Kulick is professor of Anthropology and director of the Center for the Study of Gender and Sexuality at New York University. Margaret Wilson is the name of Margaret Wilson (born 1947 New Zealand politician Margaret Wilson (EastEnders, fictional character in (1857), Reizen en Onderzoekingen in den Indischen Archipel, Amsterdam 
• Tregear, E. (1890), “The Maoris of New Zealand”, Journal of the Anthropological Institute xix 
• Zweifel, J. & Moustier, M. (1880), Voyage aux sources du Niger, Marseilles 

External links

• Review of taboos around the world and their history
• Tolerance.org- December 2006 Controversial subjects in the classroom
• Buddhists Against Reincarnation
• Did Sean Salisbury said "Jew" or "chew"? Ethnic slurs and terms are notably taboo in today's society.
• Cinematical blog: Censoring "G-D" on airline movies?
• Taboos in modern society