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Tablighi Jamaat ("Conveying[1] Group") (Arabic: جماعة التبليغ , also Tabligh) is a Muslim missionary and revival movement. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Aqidah (sometimes spelled Aqeeda, Aqidah or Aqida) (عقيدة is an Islamic term meaning Creed. Allah ( Arabic: الله, ʔalˤːɑːh) is the standard Arabic word for ' In Islam, God is believed to be the only real supreme being all-powerful and all knowing Creator Sustainer Ordainer and Judge of the universe Islam puts a heavy emphasis IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics Muslims regard as Prophets of Islam ( Arabic: نبي) those non-divine humans chosen by Allah as Prophets The Five Pillars of Islam (Arabic أركان الإسلام is the term given to the five duties incumbent on every Muslim. The Shahada ( Arabic: ar الشهادة, from the verb ar شهد "to testify" is the Islamic Creed. Ṣalāt ( Arabic: صلاة, pl ṣalawāt, Qur'anic Arabic: صلوة ṣalawah) (also munz in Pashto and Sawm ( Arabic: صوم is an Arabic word for Fasting regulated by Islamic jurisprudence. This is a sub-article of Islamic economical jurisprudence. Zakaat ( زكاة zækæːh zakaat or zakāh, has the implied The Hajj (حج is a pilgrimage to Mecca (Makkah It is the largest annual pilgrimage in the world Muslim history began in Arabia with the Muhammad 's first recitations of the Qur'an in the 7th century Caliph Caliph is the term or title for the Islamic leader of the Ummah, or community of Islam There is much more to Muslim history than its military and political aspects this particular chronology is almost entirely of military and political nature See also Muhammad's wives Ahl al-Bayt ( Arabic:ar أهل البيت is an Arabic phrase literally meaning People of the House, or family In Islam, the Ṣaḥābah (الصحابة "Companions" were the companions of the Islamic prophet Muḥammad. The Rightly Guided Caliphs or The Righteous Caliphs ( ar الخلفاء الراشدون) is a term used in Sunni Islam to refer to the first Imāmah (إمامة is the Shī‘ah doctrine of religious spiritual and political leadership of the Ummah. Qur'an Text Surahs ** Ayah Commentary/Exegesis Tafsir Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran Sunnah ar (سنة plural سنن Sunan literally means “trodden path” and therefore the sunnah of the prophet means “the way and the manners of the prophet” Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic Fiqh ( Arabic: فقه, fɪqəh is Islamic Jurisprudence. Fiqh is an expansion of the Sharia Islamic law—based directly on the Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفیگری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic Muslim Culture is a term primarily used in Secular Academia to describe all cultural practices common to historically Islamic peoples The term Muslim world (or Islamic world) has several meanings This is a sub-article to Religious education, Academic discipline, and Islam. This article is about Animals in Islamic thought The Qur'an assigns an inferior status to animals in comparison with humans and has a tendency towards Islamic art encompasses the arts produced from the 7th century onwards by people (not necessarily Muslim) who lived within the territory that was inhabited by culturally The Islamic calendar or Muslim calendar ( Arabic: التقويم الهجري at-taqwīm al-hijrī; Persian: تقویم هجری قمری The topic of Islam and children includes the rights of children in Islam children's duties towards their parents and parent's rights over their children both males and females Listing of Muslims by country Important note Population counts by religious affiliation like most demographic characteristics of a Population Muslim holidays are mostly based around the life of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, especially the events surrounding the first hearing of the Qur'an. A "mosque" in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated for Islamic worship although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller privately owned mosque and the larger Islamic philosophy is a branch of Islamic studies, and is a longstanding attempt to create harmony between Philosophy ( Reason) and the religious teachings See also Modern Islamic philosophy, Islamism, Islamic terrorism Political aspects of Islam are derived from the Quran, the Sunna Over the centuries of Islamic history, Muslim rulers Islamic scholars, and ordinary Muslims have held many different attitudes towards other religions The historical interaction between Christianity and Islam, in the field of Comparative religion, connects fundamental ideas in Christianity with similar ones in Islam Hinduism and Islam, from the of arrival of the Arabs as far back as the eighth century AD has had a checkered history Islam and Jainism came in close contact with each other following the Islamic conquest from Central Asia and Persia in the seventh The historical interaction of Judaism and Islam started in the 7th century CE with the origin and spread of Islam in the Arabian peninsula. In Islam, Muhammad is the last and final Prophet of God Islam views Jews Christians and Muslims as " People of the Book Arguments critical to religion in general or specific to monotheism such as the Existence of God, are not dealt with here Islamophobia is a Neologism that refers to Prejudice or Discrimination against Islam or Muslims The term itself dates back to the The following list consists of Concepts that are derived from both Islamic and Arab tradition which are expressed as words in the Arabic language. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion A missionary is a member of a Religion who works to convert those who do not share the missionary's faith someone who proselytizes. Their activities are not limited to the Muslim community. [2] the Movement's main aim is to bring guidance to the world's Muslims.
Leaders of Tablighi Jamaat claim that the movement is strictly non-political in nature, with the main aim of the participants being to work at the grass roots level and reaching out to all Muslims of the world for spiritual development. In Britain, the movement gained press attention with its attempts to build the controversial London Markaz, Europe's largest mosque in Newham next to the site for the London 2012 Olympics. The Abbey Mills Mosque, also known as the London Markaz or Masjid-e-Ilyas, is a proposed Mosque and Islamic centre to be built on an site A "mosque" in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated for Islamic worship although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller privately owned mosque and the larger The London Borough of Newham ( is a London borough in East London, within Greater London. [3]
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Tabligh Jamat sees its duty to revitalize the Muslim community, especially those it believes are in danger of losing their Muslim identity. It emphasizes Muslim practice and participation in the Muslim community, which some critics say goes to the exclusion of other communities. It gathers its members in meetings wherever its established and aids in community activities such as mosque building and education. It should be noted that Tabligh Jamaat does not consider its self a sect. But it is indeed a deviant sect that is widely denounced by all the Scholars of Islam. People from The 4 main school of thoughts also attend Tabligh as well as Braelvis and Deobandis.
It recently has attracted much attention for its efforts to build a very large mosque in London near the site of the 2012 Olympics.
Tabligh maintains an international headquarters, the Markaz, in Nizamuddin, and has several national headquarters to coordinate its activities in over 80 countries. Throughout its history it has sent its members to travel the world, preaching its deviant message. It organizes preachers in Jamaats, groups of 10-12, who often work only part-time.
The Tablighi Jamaat was founded in the late 1920s by the well known sufi deviant Maulana Muhammad Ilyas Kandhalawi in the Mewat province of India. Maulana Muhammad Ilyas Kandhelvi ( was the founder of the Islamic revivalist movement Tablighi Jamaat. Mewat District is a district of Haryana Haryana state in India. For usage see British rule in India British Raj ( rāj, lit "reign" in Hindustani) primarily refers to the British The inspiration for devoting his life to Islam came to Ilyas during his second pilgrimage to the Hijaz in 1926. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. al-Hejaz (also Hijaz, Hedjaz; الحجاز al-Ḥiǧāz, literally "the barrier" is a region in the west of present-day Saudi Arabia [4] Maulana Ilyas put forward the slogan, ‘Aye Musalmano! Musalman bano’ (in Hindi / Urdu) which translates 'O Muslims! Become Muslims' (in English). Hindi ( Devanāgarī: hi [[wiktहिन्दी हिन्दी]] or hi [[wiktहिंदी हिंदी]] IAST:, IPA:) is Urdu ( ur '''{{Nastaliq اردو}}''' trans Urdū, historically spelled Ordu) is a Central Indo-Aryan language Urdu is a standardised This expressed the central focus of Tablighi Jamat, which has been renewing Muslim society by renewing Muslim practice in those it feels have lost their Muslim-ness.
Ilyas was a prominent member of the Deobandi movement and throughout Tabligh's history there has been a degree of association between the two groups, although Tablighi Jamat does not see itself as Deobandi. The Deobandi ( Urdu: دیو بندی devbandī) is a Sunni Islamic revivalist movement which started in India and has more recently Tabligh was formed at a time in India when some Muslim leaders feared that Indian Muslims were losing their Muslim identity to the majority Hindu culture. [5]
In 1978, construction of the Tablighi mosque in Dewsbury , England commenced. The Markazi Mosque or Markazi Masjid is located at South Street Savile Town, Dewsbury, West Yorkshire, England. Dewsbury is a Market town within the Metropolitan Borough of Kirklees, in West Yorkshire, England. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland Subsequently, the mosque became the European headquarters of Tablighi Jamaat. Ameer or Zimmadar are titles of leadership in the movement. Emir ( Arabic: ar أمير;, female أميرة; emira;) ( Farsi and Urdu: امیر) The first Ameer, also the founder, was Maulana Muhammad Ilyas Kandhalawi (Maulana Ilyas) (1885-1944). Maulana Muhammad Ilyas Kandhelvi ( was the founder of the Islamic revivalist movement Tablighi Jamaat. The second was his son Maulana Muhammad Yusuf Kandhalawi. Maulana Muhammad Yusuf Kandhalawi (the son of Hazrat Maulana Muhammad Ilyas Kandhalawi was the preeminent Daa'ee of his time and the second Ameer of the The third one was Maulana Inaam ul Hasan. Maulana Inaam ul Hasan ( was the preeminent Daa'ee of his time Now there is a shura which includes two leaders: Maulana Zubair ul Hasan and Maulana Saad Kandhalawi. Shura is an ( Arabic شورَى | شورا word for "consultation" In Pakistan the duties of the Ameer are being served by Haji Abdulwahab. Haji Muhammad Abdulwahhab Sahib is a preeminent Da'ee in the 20th and 21st centuries Maulana Muhammad Zakariya al-Kandahlawi is also among the prestigious personalities of the jamaat, as he compiled the famous book Fazail-e-Amal. Qutbul Aqtaab Shaikhul Hadith Hadhrat Aqdas Maulana Muhammad Zakarīyyā Kāndhlawī Muhajir Madani (RA nawarullahe marqadahu was a prominent Sunni Muslim The Fazail-e-Amal (also named فضائلِ اعمال, in Persian فضاءلﹺ عمال, or by various other transliterations [6]
With the ascent of Maulana Yusuf, Ilyas’ son, as its second emir (leader), the group began to expand activities in 1946, and within two decades the group reached Southwest and Southeast Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America. Initially it expanded its reach to South Asian diaspora communities, first in Arab countries then in Southeast Asia. Once established, the Tablighi Jamaat began engaging local populations as well.
In the 1990's, the official apolitical stance of Tabligh was challenged by a break-away sect which added a seventh tenant to Tabligh's 6-point ideology, "jihad in Pakistan and abroad. " In 1995, a group of soldiers belonging to this break-away sect were involved in an attempt to overthrow then-prime minister Benazir Bhutto. Benazir Bhutto ( Sindhi: بينظير ڀٽو Urdu: بینظیر بھٹو beːnəziːɾ bɦʊʈːoː (21 June 1953 &ndash 27 December 2007 was a Bhutto subsequently sent a number of Tablighi officers into retirement. [7]
Although the Movement first established itself in the United States, it established a large presence in Europe during the 1970's and 1980's. It was especially prominent in France during the 1980's, although its influence has fallen since then, with many of its members becoming associated with UOIF, although one of its members is still represented in the French Council of the Muslim Creed. The Union des organizations islamiques de France (UOIF Union of Islamic Organisations of France is a prominent Muslim Umbrella organization, and the The French Council of the Muslim Faith ( French: Conseil Français du Culte Musulman, usually abbreviated to CFCM) is a non-profit group created on May [8] Tabligh's influence has grown, though, in the increasing Pakistani community in France, which has doubled in the decade before 2008 to 50,000-60,000. [9]
However, Britain is the current focus of the Movement in the West, primarily due to the large South Asian population that began to arrive there in the 1960s and 1970s. [2] By 2007, Tabligh members were running 600 of Britan's 1350 mosques. [10]
By 2008 it had a presence in nearly 80 countries and had become a leading revitalist movement. However, it maintains a presence in India, where at least 100 of its Jamaats go out from Markaz, the international headquarters, to different parts of India and overseas. [11]
There are many renowned personalities associated with the movement.
The second largest gathering of Muslims after the Haj,(the pilgrimmage to Mecca which is obligatory to each able muslim men or women at least once in a life time)is known as "Bishwa Ijtema". Which is a non political gathering of muslims from all over the world and is hosted by the leaders of "International Tabligh Jama'at". It takes palce in "Tangi" which is on the outskirts of Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh.
Former President of India, Dr. Zakir Hussain was associated with the Jamaat. Zakir Hussain may be Zakir Hussain (musician (born 1951 classical tabla player Zakir Hussain (politician (1897 -1969 president of Former president of Pakistan Rafiq Tarar, and former prime minister Nawaz Sharif have been regularly attending the ceremonies. Muhammad Rafiq Tarar ( Urdu: محمد رفیق تارڑ) (b November 2, 1929) was President of Pakistan from January 1, Mian Muhammad Nawaz Sharif also known as Nawaz Sharif ( Urdu:) (born December 25, 1949 in Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan Former head of ISI of Pakistan Gen Javed Nasir and Gen Zia-ul-Haq have also been linked with the movement{fact}. Lieutenant General (retd Javed Nasir was the former head of Inter-Services Intelligence from March 1992 till May 1993 General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq ( Arabic: محمد ضياء الحق) (b
former Singer Junaid Jamshed has close links with the jamaat. Junaid Jamshed is a famous Pakistani Recording artist who came to the limelight as Frontman of Pop group Vital Signs in 1987 with the Among professioal sportsman Shahid Afridi, Saqlain Mushtaq, Inzamam-ul-haq, Mushtaq Ahmed and Saeed Anwar. Sahibzada Mohammad Shahid Khan Afridi ( Pashto: صاحبزاده محمد شاهد خان اپرېدی Urdu:) born 1 March, 1980 in Saqlain Mushtaq ( Urdu: ثقلین مشتاق) (born December 29, 1976 in Lahore, Punjab) is a Pakistani Inzamam-ul-Haq ( Urdu: انضمام الحق) (born 3 March 1970 in Multan, Punjab Province, Pakistan) Mushtaq Ahmed ( Urdu: مشتاق احمد) (born 28 June, 1970 in Sahiwal) is a retired Pakistani cricketer who specalised Saeed Anwar ( Urdu: سعید انور born September 6 1968) in Karachi, Pakistan, is a former Pakistani opening It is also widely believed the Pakistani middle order batsman Mohammad Yousuf embraced Islam with the help of the Tablighi Jamaat.
Dr. Arbab Ghulam Rahim the former chief mininster of Sindh, and Ijaz-ul-Haq have strong ties with the tablighi activities. Dr Arbab Ghulam Rahim ( Urdu: ارباب غلام رحیم) (born on September 15, 1956) remained the Chief Minister of the Government Muhammad Ijaz-ul-Haq ( Urdu: محمد اعجاز الحق (born 1953 is a prominent Pakistani Politician and former Federal Minister for Religious
Tabligh in Arabic means "to convey[1] (the message)" and Tablighi Jamaat strive to revive this duty which they consider as one of the primary duties of a Muslim. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion They encourage people to follow Islamic principles and the life of Muhammad through his teachings, going out for months or years in the same fashion as the companions of the Prophet.
When an individual goes out in a Jamaat, he tries to bring 6 qualities into his life, which were commonly found in all the sahabahs (companions of the Prophet), if one brings these into his life, then following the complete Deen will be made easy for him. These six qualities are:
| Firm belief in the Kalimah | "An article of faith in which the tabligh accepts that there is no god but Allah and the Prophet Muhammad Sallallahu 'Alaihi Wasallam is His messenger. See also Shahadah The Six Kalimas (or Six "Words" are recorded in various books of knowledge and are recited (and remembered by Muslims across the and that Allah can do each and every thing without the help of the creation, and the creation cannot do anything without the help of Allah. The only way to succeed in this world and the next (life after death) is to walk on the path shown by Prophet Muhammad Sallallahu 'Alaihi Wasallam. "[2] |
| Concentration and Devotion in Salaat | "Five daily prayers that are essential to spiritual elevation, piety, and a life free from the ills of the material world. Ṣalāt ( Arabic: صلاة, pl ṣalawāt, Qur'anic Arabic: صلوة ṣalawah) (also munz in Pashto and To build a connection with Allah Subhanahu Wa Ta'ala and to gain from his unlimited treasures"[2] |
| Ilm and Dhikr | "The thirst for knowledge and remembrance of Allah conducted in sessions in which every individual contributes whatever knowledge which one can regarding performing prayers, reciting the Quran and reading Hadith and to gain the remembrance of Allah in every action make Dhikr by reciting 3 Tasbihaat, Third Kalimah, Durood and Istighfaar. I'lm (Transliteration of علم) is Arabic for knowledge as an Islamic term it refers to knowledge of Islam. Dhikr ذکر Plural اذكار Adhkaar ( Zikir in Turkish and Malay, Zikr in Urdu, Jikir in Bengali and Zekr Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic "[2] |
| Ikram-i-Muslim | "The treatment of fellow humans with honor and deference, to love the youngsters and respect the elders and have respect for the scholars of Islam"[2] |
| Ikhlas-i-Niyyat | "Reforming one’s life in supplication to Allah by performing every (good) human action for the sake of Allah and toward the goal of self-transformation"[2] |
| Dawat-o-Tabligh | "The sparing of time to live a life based on faith and learning its virtues, following in the footsteps of the Prophet, and taking His message door-to-door for the sake of faith. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Intention Niyyat is a commonly used Arabic word in the Muslim world meaning "Intention" Since Rasoolullah Sallallahu 'Alaihi Wasallam was the last and final prophet, it is our duty to now carry on this work of the prophets, i. e. call others towards good and prevent evil"[2] |
Graham E. Fuller, a former CIA official and an expert on Islam, (author of The Future of Political Islam) characterized Tablighi Jamaat as a "peaceful and apolitical preaching-to-the-people movement. "[12] Barbara Metcalf, a University of California scholar of South Asian Islam, called Tablighi Jamaat "an apolitical, quietist movement of internal grassroots missionary renewal" and compared its activities to the efforts to reshape individual lives by Alcoholics Anonymous. Barbara Daly Metcalf is the Alice Freeman Palmer Professor of History at the University of Michigan. The University of California ( UC) is a Public university system in the state of California. Alcoholics Anonymous ( AA) is an informal meeting society for recovering and recovered alcoholics, with the stated purpose to help its members "to stay sober and
Olivier Roy, a prominent authority on Islam at Paris's prestigious Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, described Tablighi Jamaat as "completely apolitical and law abiding. Olivier Roy (born 1949) is a research director at the French National Center for Scientific Research (CNRS and a lecturer for both the School for Advanced Studies in the "[13]
Cllr Alan Craig, the Christian Choice candidate for Mayor of London complained after his Party Election Broadcast was censored by both the BBC and ITV. Alan Craig is the leader of the Christian Peoples Alliance party and a councillor in the London Borough of Newham for Canning Town South The broadcast initially referred to Tablighi Jamaat as "a separatist Islamic group", but the word separatist had to be replaced by "controversial" on the BBC and was removed entirely for broadcast on ITV. [14]
The Tablighi Jamaat has received criticism from other Muslim groups. Known Salafi scholars have criticised the group for not addressing the important issues related to Aqidah and instead focusing on the peripherals like Dhikr. Aqidah (sometimes spelled Aqeeda, Aqidah or Aqida) (عقيدة is an Islamic term meaning Creed. Dhikr ذکر Plural اذكار Adhkaar ( Zikir in Turkish and Malay, Zikr in Urdu, Jikir in Bengali and Zekr The group is also accused by the Salafis of mis-using the statement of Shaykh 'Abdul-'Azeez ibn Baaz (which he made about the importance of 'such' religious gatherings when he was not made aware of the beliefs of the group). Shaykh 'Abdul-'Azeez ibn Baaz later gave "The final fatwa" which denounced the group for it's religious innovations. Another Salafi scholar, Abu Muawiya wrote a detailed account of the various, "Polytheistic" (see Shirk) stories mentioned in the group's book "Fazail Amal"(Part 1,Part 2, Part 3). Also, the Salafis have circulated books and articles against the group over the internet. For good reason, as the tablighi-sect tends to deviate from the true teachings of Islam.
Dozens of the captives the USA holds in extrajudicial detention in its Guantanamo Bay detention camps, in Cuba, had their continued detention justified through their alleged association with the Tabligh movement. Extrajudicial detention is the holding of captives by a state without ever laying formal charges against them The Guantanamo Bay Detention Camp is a controversial United States Detention center operated by Joint Task Force Guantanamo since 2002 in Guantanamo The Republic of Cuba (ˈkjuːbə or) consists of the island of Cuba (the largest and second-most populous island of the Greater Antilles) Isla de la Other nation's counter-terrorism agencies also suspect the movement, or some its members, of ties to terrorism
The American counter-terrorism analysts who prepared the allegations against Yasim Muhammed Basardah wrote:[15]
"The detainee was recruited by Jamaat Tablighi (sic), a group that recruits young men for Jihad in Afghanistan. The Tablighi Jamaat movement is an Islamic missionary and revival movement founded in India in the early twentieth Century as a response to Christian Yasim Muhammed Basardah is a citizen of Yemen, held in Extrajudicial detention in the United States Guantanamo Bay Naval Base, in Cuba Many of these young men are poor and on drugs. The detainee attended meeting sponsored by Jamaat Tablighi (sic) for two months. "
The allegations prepared for Saad Masir Mukbl Al Azani's Administrative Review Board hearing, stated:[16]
"Jama'at Al Tablighi (sic), a Pakistan-based Islamic missionary organization, is becoming increasingly radicalized, and is being used as a cover to mask travel and activities of terrorists including members of al Qaida. Saad Masir Mukbl Al Azani is a citizen of Yemen held in Extrajudicial detention in the United States Guantanamo Bay detainment camps in The Administrative Review Board is a United States military body that conducts an annual review of the Suspects held by the United States in Camp Delta "
Fayad Yahya Ahmed asked his Personal Representative to provide him with a document explaining how al Qaida was related to Tablighi Jamaat. Fayad Yahya Ahmed is a citizen of Yemen, held in Extrajudicial detention in the United States Guantanamo Bay Naval Base, in Cuba. The Personal Representative is an officer who serves before the Combatant Status Review Tribunals convened for the captives the United States holds in Extrajudicial [17]
His Personal Representative replied:
"We searched for a document to show that there is a connection but did not find one. "
Murat Kurnaz's lawyers prepared a long dossier for his Administrative Review Board hearing, that included letters from three American professors of Religion, who assured his Board that the Tabligh movement was founded on a principle staying out of politics. Murat Kurnaz (born March 19, 1982 in Bremen, Germany) was held in Extrajudicial detention and claims to have been Tortured The Administrative Review Board is a United States military body that conducts an annual review of the Suspects held by the United States in Camp Delta However, it is often said that one thing deviants have in common, is the sword.
| Qamar-ul Huda |
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| Barbara D. Metcalf |
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| Jamal J. Ellias. Jamal J Elias is the Chair of the Department of Religious Studies at the University of Pennsylvania |
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