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This article is about the biological phenomenon, for other uses see Symbiosis (disambiguation)
An example of mutual symbiosis is the relationship between Ocellaris clownfish that dwell among the tentacles of Ritteri sea anemones. The territorial fish protects the anemone from anemone-eating fish, and in turn the stinging tentacles of the anemone protect the clownfish from its predators (a special mucus on the clownfish protects it from the stinging tentacles).
An example of mutual symbiosis is the relationship between Ocellaris clownfish that dwell among the tentacles of Ritteri sea anemones. The Ocellaris Clownfish, Common Clownfish or False Percula Clownfish ( Amphiprion ocellaris) is a popular Aquarium fish even more so after Tentacles can refer to the elongated flexible organs that are present in some animals especially Invertebrates and sometimes to the hairs of the leaves of some insectivorous Heteractis magnifica, also known by the Common names magnificent sea anemone or Ritteri anemone, is a species of Sea anemone The territorial fish protects the anemone from anemone-eating fish, and in turn the stinging tentacles of the anemone protect the clownfish from its predators (a special mucus on the clownfish protects it from the stinging tentacles). Fish are aquatic Vertebrate animals that are typically ectothermic (previously Cold-blooded) covered with scales, and equipped with two In general terms eating (formally ingestion) is the process of consuming Food to provide for the Nutritional needs of an Animal, particularly A stinger (a Colloquialism for the term "sting" is a common term for a sharp organ or body part found in various Animals (typically Arthropods In vertebrates mucus is a slippery secretion produced by and covering Mucous membranes It is a viscous Colloid containing Antiseptic enzymes (such as [1]

The term symbiosis (from the Greek: συμ, sym, "with"; and βίοσίς, biosis, "living") commonly describes close and often long-term interactions between different biological species. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. The term was first used in 1879 by the German mycologist, Heinrich Anton de Bary, who defined it as: "the living together of unlike organisms". Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Mycology (from the Greek μύκης meaning "fungus" is the branch of Biology concerned with the study of fungi, including their genetic Heinrich Anton de Bary ( January 26, 1831 &ndash January 19, 1888) was a German surgeon, Botanist, [2][3]

The definition of symbiosis is in flux and the term has been applied to a wide range of biological interactions. Biological interactions result from the fact that Organisms in an Ecosystem interact with each other in the natural world no organism is an autonomous entity isolated The symbiotic relationship may be categorized as being mutualistic, parasitic, or commensal in nature [4][5]. Mutualism is a Biological interaction between individuals of two different Species, where both individuals derive a fitness benefit for example increased Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between Organisms of different Species. In Ecology, commensalism is a kind of symbiotic relationship between two organisms where one benefits and the other is not significantly harmed or helped (like a bird Others define it more narrowly, as only those relationships from which both organisms benefit, in which case it would be synonymous with mutualism. [6][7][8]

Symbiotic relationships included those associations in which one organisms lives on another (ectosymbiosis, such as mistletoe), or where one partner lives inside another (endosymbiosis, such as lactobacilli and other bacteria in humans or zooxanthelles in corals). Ectosymbiosis is Symbiosis in which the Symbiont lives on the body surface of the host, including internal surfaces such as the lining of the digestive Mistletoe is the common name for a group of hemi-parasitic Plants in the order Santalales that grow attached to and within the An endosymbiont is any Organism that lives within the body or cells of another organism i Lactobacillus is a Genus of Gram-positive Facultative anaerobic or Microaerophilic Bacteria. Zooxanthellae (plural ˌzoʊoʊzænˈθɛli are golden-brown intracellular Endosymbionts of various marine Animals and Protozoa, especially Anthozoans Corals are Marine organisms from the class Anthozoa and exist as small Sea anemone –like Polyps typically in colonies of many Symbiotic relationships may be either obligate, i. An obligate parasite is a parasitic Organism that cannot live independently of its host. e. , necessary to the survival of at least one of the organisms involved, or facultative, where the relationship is beneficial but not essential to survival of the organisms. [9][10]

Contents

Physical interaction

A whole Alder tree root nodule.
A whole Alder tree root nodule.

Endosymbiosis is any symbiotic relationship in which the symbiote lives within the tissues of the host; either in the intracellular space or extracellularly. An endosymbiont is any Organism that lives within the body or cells of another organism i [11][12] Examples are nitrogen-fixing bacteria (called rhizobia) which live in root nodules on legume roots, Actinomycete nitrogen-bacteria called Frankia which live in Alder tree root nodules, single-celled algae inside reef-building corals, and bacterial endosymbionts that provide essential nutrients to about 10%–15% of insects. The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have Rhizobia (from the Greek words rhiza = root and bios = Life are Soil bacteria that fix Nitrogen ( Diazotrophy Root nodules occur on the roots of plants that associate with Vigna bacteria. A legume is a Plant in the family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae or a Fruit of these specific plants Actinobacteria or actinomycetes are a group of Gram-positive bacteria with high G+C ratio. This article refers to the bacteria Frankia was also one of the names of the Frankish Empire. Algae ( sing. alga are a large and diverse group of simple typically Autotrophic organisms ranging from Unicellular to Multicellular forms Corals are Marine organisms from the class Anthozoa and exist as small Sea anemone –like Polyps typically in colonies of many

Ectosymbiosis, also referred to as exosymbiosis, is any symbiotic relationship in which the symbiont lives on the body surface of the host, including the inner surface of the digestive tract or the ducts of exocrine glands. Ectosymbiosis is Symbiosis in which the Symbiont lives on the body surface of the host, including internal surfaces such as the lining of the digestive Digestion is the breaking down of chemicals in the body into a form that can be absorbed Exocrine glands are Glands that secrete their products ( Enzymes into ducts (duct glands [13][14] Examples of this include ectoparasites such as lice, commensal ectosymbionts, such as the barnacles that attach themselves to the jaw of baleen whales, and mutualist ectosymbionts such as cleaner fish. Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between Organisms of different Species. Lice (singular louse) ( order Phthiraptera) are an order of over 3000 Species of wingless Insects three of which are classified In Ecology, commensalism is a kind of symbiotic relationship between two organisms where one benefits and the other is not significantly harmed or helped (like a bird A barnacle is a type of Arthropod belonging to infraclass Cirripedia in the subphylum Crustacea, and is hence distantly related to The baleen whales, also called whalebone whales or great whales, form the Mysticeti, one of two suborders of the Cetacea (whales dolphins and Mutualism is a Biological interaction between individuals of two different Species, where both individuals derive a fitness benefit for example increased Cleaner fish are Fishes that provide a service to other fish species by removing dead Skin and Parasites This is an example of Mutualism, an

Mutualism

Main article: Mutualism
anemone hermit crab
anemone hermit crab

The term Mutualism describes any relationship between individuals of different species where both individuals derive a fitness benefit. Mutualism is a Biological interaction between individuals of two different Species, where both individuals derive a fitness benefit for example increased Sea anemones are a group of water dwelling predatory animals of the order Actiniaria; they are named after the Anemone, a terrestrial Flower In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. Fitness (often denoted w in Population genetics models is a central concept in evolutionary theory. [15] Generally only lifelong interactions involving close physical and biochemical contact, can properly be considered symbiotic. Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes in living Organisms It deals with the Structure and function of cellular components such as Mutualistic relationships, may be either obligate for both species, obligate for one but facultative for the other, or facultative for both. Many biologists restrict the definition of symbiosis to close mutualist relationships. A biologist is a Scientist devoted to and producing results in Biology through the study of Organisms Typically biologists study organisms and their relationship

A large percentage of herbivores have mutualistic gut fauna that help them digest plant matter, which is more difficult to digest than animal prey. Herbivory is a form of Predation in which an Organism, known as a herbivore, consumes principally Autotrophs ref name=Campbell>Campbell The gut flora are the Microorganisms that normally live in the Digestive tract and can perform a number of useful functions for their hosts [16] Coral reefs are the result of mutualisms between coral organisms and various types of algae that live inside them. Corals are Marine organisms from the class Anthozoa and exist as small Sea anemone –like Polyps typically in colonies of many [17] Most land plants and land ecosystems rely on mutualisms between the plants which fix carbon from the air, and Mycorrhyzal fungi which help in extracting minerals from the ground. Carbon fixation is a process found in Autotrophs (organisms that produce their own food usually driven by Photosynthesis, whereby Carbon dioxide is changed A mycorrhiza (Greek for fungus roots coined by Frank 1885 typically seen in the plural forms mycorrhizae or mycorrhizas) is a symbiotic (occasionally [18]

Another example is the goby fish, which sometimes lives together with a shrimp. gobies form the family Gobiidae, which is one of the largest families of Fish, with more than 2000 Species in more than 200 Genera True shrimp are swimming decapod Crustaceans classified in the Infraorder Caridea, found widely around the world in both fresh The shrimp digs and cleans up a burrow in the sand in which both the shrimp and the goby fish live. The shrimp is almost blind leaving it vulnerable to predators when above ground. In case of danger the goby fish touches the shrimp with its tail to warn it. When that happens both the shrimp and goby fish quickly retract into the burrow. [19]

One of the most spectacular examples of obligate mutualism is between the siboglinid tube worms and symbiotic bacteria that live at hydrothermal vents and cold seeps. Siboglinidae, also known as the beard worms, is a family of Polychaete annelid worms whose members made up the former phyla The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have A hydrothermal vent is a Fissure in a planet's surface from which geothermally heated Water issues A cold seep (sometimes called a cold vent) is an area of the Ocean floor where Hydrogen sulfide, Methane and other Hydrocarbon -rich The worm has no digestive tract and is solely reliant on their internal symbionts for nutrition. The bacteria oxidize either hydrogen sulfide or methane which the host supplies to them. These worms were discovered in the late 1980s at the hydrothermal vents near the Galapagos Islands and have since been found at deep-sea hydrothermal vents and cold seeps in all of the world's oceans. The deep sea, or deep layer, is the lowest layer in the Ocean, existing below the Thermocline, at a depth of 1000 fathoms or more [20]

Commensalism

Main article: Commensalism

Commensalism describes a relationship between two living organisms where one benefits and the other is not significantly harmed or helped. In Ecology, commensalism is a kind of symbiotic relationship between two organisms where one benefits and the other is not significantly harmed or helped (like a bird It is derived from the English word commensal, meaning the sharing of food, and used of human social interaction. Social interaction is a dynamic changing sequence of Social actions between individuals (or groups who modify their actions and reactions according to the actions by their The word derives from the Latin com mensa, meaning sharing a table. [21][22]

Commensal relationships may involve an organism using another for transportation (phoresy), for housing (inquilinism), or it may also involve an organism using something another created, after the death of the first (metabiosis). In Ecology, commensalism is a kind of symbiotic relationship between two organisms where one benefits and the other is not significantly harmed or helped (like a bird In Zoology, an inquiline (from Latin inquilinus, "lodger" or "tenant" is an Animal that lives commensally in In Ecology, commensalism is a kind of symbiotic relationship between two organisms where one benefits and the other is not significantly harmed or helped (like a bird An example is the hermit crabs that use gastropod shells to protect their bodies. Hermit crabs are decapod Crustaceans of the superfamily Paguroidea. The class Gastropoda or the gastropods, also previously known as gasteropods, or univalves, and more commonly known as Snails Further examples include spiders building their webs on trees.

Parasitism

Main article: Parasitism

A parasitic relationship is one in which one member of the association benefits while the other is harmed. Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between Organisms of different Species. Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between Organisms of different Species. [23] Parasitic symbioses take many forms, from endoparasites that live within the host's body, to ectoparasites that live on its surface. Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between Organisms of different Species. Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between Organisms of different Species. In addition, parasites may be necrotrophic, which is to say they kill their host, or biotrophic, meaning they rely on their host surviving. Biotrophic parasitism is an extremely successful mode of life. Depending on the definition used, as many as half of all animals have at least one parasitic phase in their life cycles, and it is also frequent in plants and fungi. Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ Moreover, almost all free-living animals are host to one or more parasite taxa. A taxon (plural taxa) or taxonomic unit, is a name designating an organism or a group of Organisms In Biological nomenclature according to

Symbiosis and evolution

Leaf Hoppers protected by an army of meat ants
Leaf Hoppers protected by an army of meat ants

While historically, symbiosis has received less attention than other interactions such as predation or competition,[24] it is increasingly recognised as an important selective force behind evolution,[25][26] with many species having a long history of interdependent co-evolution. Leafhopper is a common name applied to any species from the family Cicadellidae. Meat ants ( Iridomyrmex purpureus) also known as meat-eater ants or gravel ants, are a Species of Ant belonging to the Competition can be defined as an interaction between Organisms or Species, in which the fitness of one is lowered by the presence of another In a broad sense biological co-evolution is "the change of a biological object triggered by the change of a related object" [27] In fact the evolution of all eukaryotes (plants, animals, fungi, protists) is believed to have resulted from a symbiosis between various sorts of bacteria. Animals Plants fungi, and Protists are eukaryotes (juːˈkærɪɒt or -oʊt Organisms whose cells are organized into complex Protists (ˈproʊtɨst are a diverse group of eukaryotic Microorganisms Historically protists were treated as the kingdom Protista but this The endosymbiotic theory concerns the origins of mitochondria and Plastids (e [28][29][30]

Symbiogenesis

The biologist Lynn Margulis, famous for the work on endosymbiosis, contends that symbiosis is a major driving force behind evolution. Lynn Margulis (born March 5, 1938) is an American Biologist and University Professor in the Department of Geosciences An endosymbiont is any Organism that lives within the body or cells of another organism i eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 She considers Darwin's notion of evolution, driven by competition, as incomplete, and claims evolution is strongly based on co-operation, interaction, and mutual dependence among organisms. Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life Co-operation or co-operative behaviours are terms used to describe Behaviours by Organisms which are beneficial Interaction is a kind of action that occurs as two or more objects have an Effect upon one another This article is about the biological phenomenon for other uses see Symbiosis (disambiguation The term symbiosis (from the Greek According to Margulis and Dorion Sagan, "Life did not take over the globe by combat, but by networking. Life is a state that distinguishes Organisms from non-living objects such as non-life and dead organisms being manifested by growth through Metabolism EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 The ComBat was an Aluminium Cricket bat and the subject of an incident that occurred at the WACA cricket ground in Perth in December 1979. A social network is a Social structure made of nodes (which are generally individuals or organizations that are tied by one or more specific types of interdependency such as "[31]

Co-evolution

Symbiosis played a major role in the co-evolution of flowering plants and the animals that pollinate them. In a broad sense biological co-evolution is "the change of a biological object triggered by the change of a related object" A flower, also known as a bloom or Blossom, is the reproductive structure found in Flowering plants (plants of the division Magnoliophyta, also Pollination in angiosperms and Gymnosperms is the process that transfers pollen grains, which contain the male Gametes (sperm to where the female Many plants that are pollinated by insects, bats or birds, have very specialized flowers modified to promote pollination by a specific pollinator that is also correspondingly adapted. Insects ( Class Insecta) are a major group of Arthropods and the most diverse group of Animals on the Earth with over a million described Birds ( class Aves) are bipedal endothermic ( Warm-blooded) Vertebrate animals that lay eggs. The first flowering plants in the fossil record had relatively simple flowers. Adaptive speciation quickly gave rise to many diverse groups of plants, and at the same time, corresponding speciation occurred in certain insects groups. Some groups of plants developed nectar and large sticky pollen while insects evolved more specialized morphologies to access and collect these rich food sources. Nectar is a Sugar -rich liquid produced by plants It is produced either by the Flowers in which it attracts pollinating animals or by extrafloral Pollen is a fine to coarse powder consisting of microgametophytes ( pollen grains) which produce the male Gametes (sperm cells of In some taxa of plants and insects the relationship has become dependent,[32] where the plant species can only be pollinated by one species of insect. [33]

Objections

Creationists have long claimed that obligate symbioses are evidence against evolution, arguing that since neither organism can survive without the other, they must have come into existence at exactly the same time. [34] This point of view is countered in scientific claims by the extreme variety of symbiotic relationships as well the mutability of species over time: obligate mutualisms could have evolved from facultative relationships in which neither species is fully committed. Many examples of facultative symbioses and multiple theoretical and computational models describing how such a relationship would evolve do in fact exist. [35][36][37][38]

Notes

  1. ^ Lee 2003
  2. ^ Wilkinson 2001
  3. ^ Douglas 1994, p.  1
  4. ^ Dethlefsen L, McFall-Ngai M, Relman DA (2007). "An ecological and evolutionary perspective on human-microbe mutualism and disease". Nature 449: 811-808. doi:10.1038/nature06245. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 17943117.  
  5. ^ Paszkowski U. (2006). "Mutualism and parasitism: the yin and yang of plant symbioses". Curr Opin Plant Biol 9: 364-370. doi:10.1016/j.pbi.2006.05.008. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 16713732.  
  6. ^ Wilkinson 2001
  7. ^ Isaac 1992, p.  266
  8. ^ Saffo 1993
  9. ^ Moran 2006
  10. ^ Ahmadjian & Paracer 2000, p.  12
  11. ^ Ahmadjian & Paracer 2000, p.  12
  12. ^ Sapp 1994, p.  142
  13. ^ Ahmadjian & Paracer 2000, p.  12
  14. ^ Nardon & Charles 2002
  15. ^ Ahmadjian & Paracer 2000, p.  6
  16. ^ Moran 2006
  17. ^ Toller, Rowan & Knowlton 2001
  18. ^ Harrison 2005
  19. ^ Facey, Helfman & Collette 1997
  20. ^ Cordes 2005
  21. ^ Ahmadjian & Paracer 2000, p.  6
  22. ^ Nair 2005
  23. ^ Ahmadjian & Paracer 2000, p.  7
  24. ^ Townsend, Begon & Harper 1996
  25. ^ Wernegreen 2004
  26. ^ Moran 2006
  27. ^ Ahmadjian & Paracer 2000, p.  3-4
  28. ^ Brinkman 2002
  29. ^ Golding & Gupta 1995
  30. ^ Moran 2006
  31. ^ Sagan & Margulis 1986
  32. ^ Harrison 2002
  33. ^ Danforth & Ascher 1997
  34. ^ Isaak 2004
  35. ^ Roughgarden 1975
  36. ^ Powell 1992
  37. ^ Weiblen 2002
  38. ^ Boucher 1988

References

See also

External links


Dictionary

symbiosis

-noun

  1. (ecology) A close, prolonged association between two or more different organisms of different species that normally benefits both members
  2. A relationship of mutual benefit
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