Swarm intelligence (SI) is artificial intelligence based on the collective behavior of decentralized, self-organized systems. The term " collective behavior " was first used by Robert E __FORCETOC__ Decentralization or Decentralisation (see Spelling differences) is the process of dispersing Decision-making governance closer to the people Self-organization is a process of Attraction and repulsion in which the internal organization of a System, normally an open system, increases The expression was introduced by Gerardo Beni and Jing Wang in 1989, in the context of cellular robotic systems^[1]. Gerardo Beni is a Professor of Electrical engineering at University of California Riverside who with Jing Wang is known as the originator of the term Year 1989 ( MCMLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link displays 1989 Gregorian calendar) A cellular automaton (plural cellular automata) is a discrete model studied in computability theory, Mathematics, Theoretical biology

SI systems are typically made up of a population of simple agents interacting locally with one another and with their environment. In Artificial intelligence, an intelligent agent ( IA) is an entity which observes "reason" and acts upon an environment (i The agents follow very simple rules, and although there is no centralized control structure dictating how individual agents should behave, local interactions between such agents lead to the emergence of complex global behavior. For other uses see Emergence (disambiguation, Emergent, and Emergency. Natural examples of SI include ant colonies, bird flocking, animal herding, bacterial growth, and fish schooling. An ant colony is an underground Lair where Ants live Colonies consist of a series of underground chambers connected to each other and the surface of the earth by Flocking - the collective motion of a large number of self-propelled entities - is a behaviour exhibited by many living beings such as birds Fish, Bacteria Herding is the act of bringing individual animals together into a group ( Herd) maintaining the group and moving the group from place to place&mdashor any combination of The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have The SWARM Remote Weapon System (Stabilised Weapon And Reconnaissance Mount is a fully armored Remote weapon system designed and built by the Thales Group in

The application of swarm principles to robots is called swarm robotics, while 'swarm intelligence' refers to the more general set of algorithms. A robot is a mechanical or Virtual Artificial agent In practice it is usually an electro-mechanical system which by its appearance or movements Swarm robotics is a new approach to the coordination of Multirobot systems which consist of large numbers of mostly simple physical Robots It is supposed that a desired

Contents 1 Example algorithms 1.1 Ant colony optimization 1.2 Particle swarm optimization 1.3 Stochastic diffusion search 2 Applications 3 References in popular culture 4 Notable Researchers 5 See also 6 References 7 External Links

Example algorithms

Ant colony optimization

Ant colony optimization is a class of optimization algorithms modeled on the actions of an ant colony. The ant colony optimization Algorithm (ACO introduced by Marco Dorigo in 1992 in his PhD thesis is a probabilistic technique for solving computational In Computing, optimization is the process of modifying a system to make some aspect of it work more efficiently or use fewer resources In Mathematics, Computing, Linguistics and related subjects an algorithm is a sequence of finite instructions often used for Calculation An ant colony is an underground Lair where Ants live Colonies consist of a series of underground chambers connected to each other and the surface of the earth by Artificial 'ants' - simulation agents - locate optimal solutions by moving through a parameter space representing all possible solutions. In Generative art people talk about parameter space as the set of possibleparameters for a generative system Real ants lay down pheromones directing each other to resources while exploring their environment. A pheromone (from Greek φέρω phero "to bear" + ‘ορμόνη " Hormone " is a Chemical that triggers a natural The simulated 'ants' similarly record their positions and the quality of their solutions, so that in later simulation iterations more ants locate better solutions. ^[2] One variation on this approach is the bees algorithm, which is more analogous to the foraging patterns of the honey bee. The Bees Algorithm is a population-based Search algorithm first developed in 2005 This article refers collectively to all true honey bees for the "common" domesticated honey bee see European honey bee Honey bees

Particle swarm optimization

Particle swarm optimization or PSO is a global optimization algorithm for dealing with problems in which a best solution can be represented as a point or surface in an n-dimensional space. Particle swarm optimization (PSO is a Swarm intelligence based Algorithm to find a solution to an optimization problem in a Search space, or model and Hypotheses are plotted in this space and seeded with an initial velocity, as well as a communication channel between the particles^[3][4]. In Physics, velocity is defined as the rate of change of Position. Particles then move through the solution space, and are evaluated according to some fitness criterion after each timestep. Fitness (often denoted w in Population genetics models is a central concept in evolutionary theory. Over time, particles are accelerated towards those particles within their communication grouping which have better fitness values. The main advantage of such an approach over other global minimization strategies such as simulated annealing is that the large number of members that make up the particle swarm make the technique impressively resilient to the problem of local minima. Simulated annealing (SA is a generic probabilistic Meta-algorithm for the Global optimization problem namely locating a good approximation to the In Mathematics, maxima and minima, known collectively as extrema, are the largest value (maximum or smallest value (minimum that

Stochastic diffusion search

Stochastic Diffusion Search or SDS is an agent based on probabilistic global search and optimization technique best suited to problems where the objective function can be decomposed into multiple independent partial-functions. Stochastic Diffusion Search (SDS was first described in 1989 as a population-based pattern-matching algorithm 1989 Each agent maintains a hypothesis which is iteratively tested by evaluating a randomly selected partial objective function parameterised by the agent's current hypothesis. In the standard version of SDS such partial function evaluations are binary resulting in each agent becoming active or inactive. Information on hypotheses is diffused across the population via inter-agent communication. Unlike the stigmergic communication used in ACO, in SDS agents communicate hypotheses via a one-to-one communication strategy analogous to the tandem running procedure observed in some species of ant. Stigmergy is a mechanism of spontaneous indirect Coordination between agents or actions where the trace left in the environment by an action stimulates the A positive feedback mechanism ensures that, over time, a population of agents stabilise around the global-best solution. SDS is both an efficient and robust search and optimisation algorithm, which has been extensively mathematically described.

Applications

Swarm Intelligence-based techniques can be used in a number of applications. The U. S. military is investigating swarm techniques for controlling unmanned vehicles. The European Space Agency is thinking about an orbital swarm for self assembly and interferometry. The European Space Agency ( ESA) established in 1975 is an intergovernmental organisation dedicated to the exploration of space, currently with 17 member NASA is investigating the use of swarm technology for planetary mapping. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA, ˈnæsə is an agency of the United States government, responsible for the nation's public space program A 1992 paper by M. Anthony Lewis and George A. M Anthony Lewis, PhD is a Robotics researcher and CEO of Iguana Robotics a company specialising in the development of Biomorphic robotics technologies Bekey^[5] discusses the possibility of using swarm intelligence to control nanobots within the body for the purpose of killing cancer tumors. Artists are using swarm technology as a means of creating complex interactive systems or simulating crowds. Tim Burton's Batman Returns was the first movie to make use of swarm technology for rendering, realistically depicting the movements of a group of penguins using the Boids system. Batman Returns is a 1992 Superhero film directed by Tim Burton. Boids, developed by Craig Reynolds in 1986, is an Artificial life program simulating the flocking behaviour of Birds His paper on The Lord of the Rings film trilogy made use of similar technology, known as Massive, during battle scenes. The Lord of the Rings film trilogy consists of three Live action Fantasy Epic films The Fellowship of the Ring ( 2001 Massive (Multiple Agent Simulation System in Virtual Environment is a high-end Computer animation and Artificial intelligence software package used for generating Swarm technology is particularly attractive because it is cheap, robust, and simple.

The inherent intelligence of swarms has inspired many social and political philosophers, in that the collective movements of an aggregate often derive from independent decision making on the part of a single individual. A common example is how the unaided decision of a person in a crowd to start clapping will often encourage others to follow suit, culminating in widespread applause. Such knowledge, an individualist advocate might argue, should encourage individual decision making (however mundane) as an effective tool in bringing about widespread social change.

The use of Swarm Intelligence in Telecommunication Networks has also been researched, in the form of Ant Based Routing. This was pioneered separately by Dorigo et al and Hewlett Packard in the mid-1990s, with a number of variations since. Basically this uses a probabilistic routing table rewarding/reinforcing the route successfully traversed by each "ant" (a small control packet) which flood the network. Reinforcement of the route in the forwards, reverse direction and both simultaneously have been researched: backwards reinforcement requires a symmetric network and couples the two directions together; forwards reinforcement rewards a route before the outcome is known (but then you pay for the cinema before you know how good the film is). As the system behaves stochastically and is therefore lacking repeatability, there are large hurdles to commercial deployment.

References in popular culture

Swarm intelligence-related concepts and references can be found throughout popular culture, frequently as some form of collective intelligence or group mind involving far more agents than used in current applications. Collective intelligence is a shared or group Intelligence that emerges from the collaboration and competition of many individuals

• Prey, by Michael Crichton deals with the danger of nano-robots escaping from human control and developing a swarm intelligence. For other uses of the word Prey see Prey (disambiguation Prey is a Techno-thriller Novel by Michael Crichton John Michael Crichton, ˈkraɪtən, (born October 23 1942 is an American author Film producer, Film director, Medical doctor, and Television producer
• Wyrm, a novel by Mark Fabi deals with a virus developing emergent intelligence on the Internet
• Swarm, a short story by Bruce Sterling about a mission undertaken by a faction of humans, to understand and exploit a space-faring swarm intelligence.
• Hacker and the ants, a book by Rudy Rucker on AI ants within a virtual environment
• Ygramul, the Many - an intelligent being consisting of a swarm of many wasp-like insects, a character in the novel The Neverending Story written by Michael Ende. Rudolf von Bitter Rucker (born March 22, 1946 in Louisville Kentucky) is an American Computer scientist and Science fiction This article lists character information from the book The Neverending Story and the movie adaptations of the same name. The Neverending Story (Die unendliche Geschichte is a German fantasy novel by Michael Ende, first published in 1979. Michael Andreas Helmuth Ende ( November 12, 1929 - August 28, 1995) was a German writer of fantasy and Children's Ygramul is also mentioned in a scientific paper Flocks, Herds, and Schools written by Knut Hartmann (Computer Graphics and Interactive Systems Otto-von-Guericke-University of Magdeburg).
• Allucination, a novel by Isaac Asimov about an alien insect-like swarm, capable of organization and provided with a sort of swarm intelligence. Isaac Asimov (c January 2 1920 &ndash April 6 1992 ˈaɪzək ˈæzɪmʌv originally Исаак Озимов but now transcribed into Russian as, was a Russian
• In Olaf Stapledon's 1931 science fiction novel Last and First Men there is an episode in which Earth is invaded by a swarm intelligence from Mars of tiny individual cells that communicate with each other by radio waves and that look like green fog. William Olaf Stapledon ( May 10, 1886 &ndash September 6, 1950) was a British philosopher and author of several influential works Year 1931 ( MCMXXXI) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1931 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Last and First Men A Story of the Near and Far Future is a Science fiction novel written in 1930 by the British author Olaf Stapledon. EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 Radio waves are electromagnetic waves occurring on the Radio frequency portion of the Electromagnetic spectrum. Green is a Color, the perception of which is evoked by light having a spectrum dominated by energy with a Wavelength of roughly 520–570- nm.
• The Invincible science fiction novel by Stanislaw Lem where a human spaceship finds an intelligent behavior in a flock of small particles that were able to defend themselves against what they found as a menace.
• In The Matrix movies, the robotic sentinels exhibit signs of swarm intelligence. Below is a list composing of all the artificial characters from ''The Matrix'' series of Science fiction Films Comic books and Video games
• In the anime, Soukou no Strain, unmanned robotic drones known as TUMORS display signs of swarm intelligence as they attack in groups. is a Mecha Anime series by Studio Fantasia. It premiered across Japan on WOWOW from November 1, 2006. is a Mecha Anime series by Studio Fantasia. It premiered across Japan on WOWOW from November 1, 2006.

Notable Researchers

See also

• AgentSheets - A visual programming authoring and visualization tool to build swams based on Antiobjects
• Bees algorithm
• Boids - A flocking simulation produced by Craig Reynolds
• Collective intelligence
• Cellular automaton
• Differential evolution
• Emergence
• Evolutionary computation
• Flocking (behavior)
• GPACSystem
• Harmony search
• Herd behavior
• Swarm robotics
• SwisTrack - A tracking tool for multi-unit biological and artificial systems

References

• M. Dorigo & M. Birattari, 2007. "Swarm Intelligence". Scholarpedia.

External Links

• Swarm Intelligence: From Natural to Artificial Systems by Eric Bonabeau, Marco Dorigo and Guy Theraulaz. (1999) ISBN 0-19-513159-2, complete bibliography
• Turtles, Termites, and Traffic Jams: Explorations in Massively Parallel Microworlds by Mitchel Resnick. ISBN 0-262-18162-2
• Swarm Intelligence by James Kennedy and Russell C. Eberhart. ISBN 1-55860-595-9
• Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence by Andries Engelbrecht. Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-470-09191-6
• Nanocomputers and Swarm Intelligence by Jean-Baptiste Waldner, ISTE, ISBN 9781847040022, 2007.
• Miller, Peter (July 2007), “Swarm Theory”, National Geographic Magazine, <http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0707/feature5/> 
• Article at IEEE Computer Society
• - "From Ants to People: an Instinct to Swarm" - NY Times, 11-13-07

The National Geographic Magazine is the official journal of the National Geographic Society.

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