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This article discusses the Lithuanian part of the region. For the Polish one, see Suwałki Region. This article discusses the Polish part of the region For the Lithuania one see Suvalkija.
Etnographic regions of Lithuania with Sudovia highlighted in light orange.
Etnographic regions of Lithuania with Sudovia highlighted in light orange. Lithuania can be divided into historical and cultural regions (called Ethnographic regions

Suvalkija or Sudovia (Lithuanian: Sūduva or Suvalkija or Užnemunė) is the smallest of the five cultural regions of Lithuania. Lithuanian ( lietuvių kalba) is the official state language of Lithuania and is recognised as one of the official languages of the European Union. Lithuania can be divided into historical and cultural regions (called Ethnographic regions Its unofficial capital is Marijampolė. Marijampolė ( Mariampol is an industrial City and the Capital of the Marijampolė County in the south of Lithuania, bordering Poland People from Suvalkija are called suvalkiečiai (plural) or suvalkietis (singular). [1] It is located south of the Neman River, in the former territory of Vilkaviškis bishopric. "Nieman" and "Niemen" redirects here For other uses see Neman and Nieman (disambiguation. Vilkaviškis ( is a city in southwestern Lithuania. It is located northeast from Marijampolė, on a bank of Šeimena River. [2] Historically, it is the newest ethnographic region as its most distinct characteristics and separate identity formed during the 19th century when the territory was part of Congress Poland. Congress Poland Kongresówka, officially and formally Kingdom of Poland (Królestwo Polskie {{IPA-pl|'|p|o|l|s|kʲ|e}} Царство Польское Tsarstvo Polskoye [3] It was never a separate political entity and even today it has no official status in the administrative division of Lithuania. This article is about the administrative divisions of Lithuania. However, it continues to be the subject of studies focusing on Lithuanian folk culture of the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Most of Lithuania's cultural differences blended or disappeared during the Soviet era (1944–1990), remaining the longest in southeastern Lithuania. The Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (Lietuvos Tarybų Socialistinė Respublika Литовская Советская Социалистическая Республика [4] The concept remains popular among Lithuanian people. A 2008 survey of freshmen and sophomores at Kaunas' Vytautas Magnus University found that 80% of the students continued to identify themselves with one of the regions. Kaunas ( ˈkoʊnəs is the second largest City in Lithuania and a former temporary capital. Vytautas Magnus University (VMU (Vytauto Didžiojo Universitetas(VDU is a public university in Kaunas, Lithuania. [5] Efforts are made to preserve, record, and promote any remaining aspects of the original folk culture.

Contents

Naming

Region

In Lithuania three different names have been applied to region, causing some confusion:

In recent years there has been a public debate as to which name, Suvalkija or Sudovia, is preferable. Historians have argued that Sudovia is an anachronism that refers to the land in the 13th and 14th centuries. An anachronism (from the Greek "ana" " ανά " "against anti-" and "chronos" " χρόνος " [9] One commentator labeled the effort to rename the region as "neotribalism" – an artificial attempt to find connections with the long-extinct tribe. [10] Supporters of Sudovia protested against using a term imposed on the region by the Russian Empire, especially since the city of Suwałki is in Poland and the current region has no connection with it. [11] They have also argued that the term Suvalkija is a fairly recent and artificial political development, popularized by Soviet historians, and that the more archaic Sudovia more correctly reflects the region's historical roots. [12] The suffix -ija is not generally used in the Lithuanian language to derive placenames from city names (the only exception is Vilnija, used to describe the Vilnius Region). Lithuanian ( lietuvių kalba) is the official state language of Lithuania and is recognised as one of the official languages of the European Union. Vilnius Region ( Lithuanian: Vilniaus kraštas, Wileńszczyzna generally refers to the territory in the present day Lithuania and Belarus [13] An official petition from the Council for Protection of the Suvalkija Regional Ethnic Culture to the Commission of the Lithuanian Language, requesting an official name change from Suvalkija to Sudovia, was rejected in 2005. The State Commission of the Lithuanian Language (Valstybinė lietuvių kalbos komisija is the official language regulating body of the Lithuanian language. [9] The Commission based the decision on its finding that Suvalkija prevails in both academic literature and everyday life.

Sub-regions

Suvalkija is roughly subdivided into two areas, inhabited by Zanavykai (singular: Zanavykas) and by Kapsai (singular: Kapsas). Zanavykai occupy northern Suvalkija in the area approximately bounded by the Neman, Šešupė, and Višakis Rivers. "Nieman" and "Niemen" redirects here For other uses see Neman and Nieman (disambiguation. The Šešupė ( Szeszupa Шешупе Scheschup(pe is a River which flows through Poland (27 km Lithuania (158 km and Russia (62 [14] Before 1795 that part of Suvalkija lay within the Eldership of Samogitia, while the rest was within Trakai Voivodeship. The Duchy of Samogitia (Žemaičių seniūnija Księstwo żmudzkie had been the administrative unit of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from 1219 (and from 1569 a part of the Trakai Voivodeship, Trakai Palatinate, or Troki Voivodeship (Trakų vaivadija Województwo Trockie was a unit of administrative division and local government [15] Šakiai is considered to be the capital of this subregion, sometimes called Zanavykija. Šakiai ( is a city in the Marijampolė County, Lithuania. It is located west of Kaunas. Another important center is in Veliuona. Veliuona is a small town on Nemunas River in Jurbarkas district municipality in Lithuania. The name Zanavykai is derived from the Nova River, a tributary of the Šešupė River. The Šešupė ( Szeszupa Шешупе Scheschup(pe is a River which flows through Poland (27 km Lithuania (158 km and Russia (62 People who lived beyond the river (Polish: za Nawą) became known as Zanavykai. The prefix za- and the suffix -yk are Slavic. A prefix is a type of Affix attached to a stem which modifies the meaning of that stem In Grammar, a suffix (also postfix, ending) is an Affix which is placed at the end of a word The Slavic languages (also called Slavonic languages) a group of closely related Languages of the Slavic peoples and a subgroup of Indo-European languages [14] To correct this, linguists proposed naming the group Užnovičiai or Užnoviškiai, terms which also mean "beyond the Nova river" but follow Lithuanian language precedents. [14] However, this proposal did not gain popular support and the term Zanavyvai is still widely used.

Kapsai inhabit southern Suvalkija, with major centers in Marijampolė and Vilkaviškis. Marijampolė ( Mariampol is an industrial City and the Capital of the Marijampolė County in the south of Lithuania, bordering Poland Vilkaviškis ( is a city in southwestern Lithuania. It is located northeast from Marijampolė, on a bank of Šeimena River. The term is not used by local inhabitants to identify themselves, but is rather a term coined by linguists; thus it did not gain much popularity in the public. When linguists classified Lithuanian language dialects, they identified two major sub-dialects in Suvalkija: one in the territory inhabited by Zanavykai and another in the south. [16] Southerners pronounced the word kaip (how) as kap. This distinct characteristic earned them the name Kapsai, but they could also be called Tepsai as they pronounced word taip (yes) as tep. [17] A revised classification of the dialects, proposed in 1965 by linguists Zigmas Zinkevičius and Aleksas Girdenis,[18] eliminates this distinction and deems the local dialect a sub-dialect of Western Aukštaitian dialect. Zigmas Zinkevičius ( January 4 1925 in Juodausiai Ukmergė district) is the leading Lithuanian linguist-historian a Professor at Aukštaitian dialect ( Lithuanian: Aukštaičių tarmė) is one of the Dialects of the Lithuanian language, spoken in ethnographic regions [19] However, other cultural distinctions between Zanavykai and Kapsai exist, including their traditional clothing styles.

History

Political history

Suwałki Governorate (1867–1914) in yellow. The region gained its name from this governorate.
Suwałki Governorate (1867–1914) in yellow. Suwałki Governorate (Сувальская Губения Suvalkų gubernija Gubernia suwalska was an administrative unit ( Guberniya) of the Congress Poland The region gained its name from this governorate.

The lands of the Sudovians and Yotvingians were incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania during the 13th century. Yotvingians or Sudovians (also called Suduvians, Jatvians, or Jatvingians in English (Jotvingiai Sūduviai Jatvingi Jaćwingowie Яцьвягі Yotvingians or Sudovians (also called Suduvians, Jatvians, or Jatvingians in English (Jotvingiai Sūduviai Jatvingi Jaćwingowie Яцьвягі The Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė old literary Lithuanian Didi Kunigiste Letuvos, Ruthenian: Wialikaje Kniastwa Litowskaje The region was frequently ravaged by the Teutonic Knights and was abandoned by most of its inhabitants. The Teutonic Order is a German Roman Catholic religious order. After the 1422 Treaty of Melno, its western borders were fixed and the territory became the sole property of the Grand Duke himself. The Treaty of Melno (Melno taika Pokój melneński or Treaty of Lake Melno (Friede von Melnosee was a Peace treaty ending the Gollub War. [15] In 1569 the Grand Duchy joined the Kingdom of Poland to form the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, officially the Commonwealth of the Crown of the Polish Kingdom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania also known as the Most Serene Republic The Commonwealth was partitioned in 1795 and Suvalkija, as part of the larger territory on the left bank of the Neman River, was incorporated into the Province of East Prussia. The Province of East Prussia (Provinz Ostpreußen) was a province of Prussia from 1773-1829 and 1878-1945 This meant that Suvalkija was separated from Lithuania Proper, which was taken by the Russian Empire. Lithuania proper (Lithuania propria Lietuva siaurąją prasme tikroji Lietuva, literally "Lithuania in a narrow sense" "Genuine Lithuania " The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya In 1807 Suvalkija was briefly part of the Duchy of Warsaw, a small Polish state established by Napoleon Bonaparte, before being incorporated in 1815 into Congress Poland, an entity formed by personal union with the Russian Empire. The Duchy of Warsaw (Księstwo Warszawskie Duché de Varsovie Herzogtum Warschau Варшавское герцогство was a Polish state established by Napoleon Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. Congress Poland Kongresówka, officially and formally Kingdom of Poland (Królestwo Polskie {{IPA-pl|'|p|o|l|s|kʲ|e}} Царство Польское Tsarstvo Polskoye During the remainder of the 19th century and the early 20th century, Suvalkija was administratively part of the Augustów Governorate, and later of the Suwałki Governorate. Augustów Governorate (Gubernia augustowska was an administrative unit ( governorate) of the Congress Poland. Suwałki Governorate (Сувальская Губения Suvalkų gubernija Gubernia suwalska was an administrative unit ( Guberniya) of the Congress Poland Russian census statistics showed that Lithuanians formed a slight majority in the northern part of the Governate, and that Poles, concentrated in the Suwałki Region in the south, accounted for about 23% of the Governorate's total population. This article discusses the Polish part of the region For the Lithuania one see Suvalkija. [20] Lithuania and Poland became independent states after World War I, and disputed their borders in this region. The Suwałki Governorate was split more or less along ethnic lines. Suvalkija has since been part of Lithuania, and Suwałki Region – part of Poland. This article discusses the Polish part of the region For the Lithuania one see Suvalkija.

Economic history

Suvalkija has long been known as an affluent agricultural region. An increased demand for wood prompted resettlement and deforestation of the region during the 16th and 17th centuries. [21] The demand led to illegal tree-harvesting incursions from the Duchy of Prussia. The Duchy of Prussia or Ducal Prussia (Herzogtum Preußen Prūsijos kunigaikštystė Prusy Książęce was a Duchy in the eastern part of Prussia from To discourage this, the Grand Dukes of Lithuania established several border villages between Jurbarkas and Virbalis. Jurbarkas ( is a city in Tauragė County, Lithuania. It is on the right-hand shore of the Neman River at its confluence with Virbalis ( is a city in the Vilkaviškis district municipality, Lithuania. [21] Queen Bona Sforza, who governed the land on behalf of her husband Sigismund I the Old between 1527 and 1556, was especially supportive of these new settlements. Biography Bona was born in Vigevano, daughter of Gian Galeazzo Sforza of Milan and Isabella of Naples. Sigismund I the Old (Zygmunt I Stary Žygimantas II Senasis 1 January 1467 – 1 April 1548) of the Jagiellon dynasty reigned as [15] Resettlement also came from the north, particularly along the Neman River. "Nieman" and "Niemen" redirects here For other uses see Neman and Nieman (disambiguation. There large territories were gifted by the Grand Duke to various nobles, including the Sapieha family. The Sapieha ( Belarusian: Сапега; Lithuanian Sapiega) is a Polish - Lithuanian princely family descending from the medieval [15] These settlements slowly spread further south and east.

By the mid-17th century, the pace of resettlement had slowed. The demand for wood experienced a sharp decrease and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania lost almost half of its population due to the Northern Wars (1655–1661), famine, and plague. This article is about the 17th century war For 16th century war see Northern Seven Years' War ( 1563 – 1570) Settlers were attracted by its fertile farmland, which had largely been cleared of forests, and by the relative ease of serfdom in the area: because much of the land was owned by the Grand Duke himself, serfs did not have to perform corvée. Corvée is labour often but not always unpaid that persons in power have authority to compel their subjects to perform unless commuted in some way such as by a cash payment sometimes this was [21] The repopulation in private holdings of nobles in the north took place at a much slower rate. Another important factor in the area's regrowth was the proximity of East Prussia and its capital Königsberg. East Prussia (Ostpreußen; Rytų Prūsija or Rytprūsiai; Prusy Wschodnie Восточная Пруссия or Vostochnaya Prussiya) refers to the main part Königsberg (Karaliaučius Low German: Königsbarg; Królewiec see also other names) was until 1946 the name of Kaliningrad. The city had become a major trade center and was the second-largest export destination (following Riga, Latvia) of the Grand Duchy. Riga (Rīga riːga) the Capital of Latvia, is situated on the Baltic Sea coast on the mouth of the river Daugava. Latvia ( Latvija officially the Republic of Latvia (Latvijas Republika is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. [21] Kudirkos Naumiestis was the region's gateway to Prussia. Kudirkos Naumiestis ( is a city in the Šakiai district municipality, Lithuania. When the Great Northern War (1700–1721) depopulated Lithuania further, repopulation of Suvalkija was almost complete. The Great Northern War (1700-21 was fought between Russia and Sweden for supremacy in the Baltic Sea. [15]

Serfdom in Suvalkija was abolished in 1807 by Napoleon Bonaparte: peasants acquired personal freedoms, although they could not own land. That changed only in 1861 when serfdom was abolished in the entire Russian Empire. The Emancipation Reform of 1861 in Russia was the first and most important of liberal reforms affected during the reign of Alexander II of Russia. By the 1820s,[22] farmers in Suvalkija had begun to divide their villages into individual farmsteads (Lithuanian: singluar – vienkemis, plural – vienkemiai). [23] This development is a clear indicator of economic prosperity among the peasants. The old three-field system was becoming obsolete; under that system the land was managed by the community and individuals could not introduce any technological advances without their approval. [24] By contrast, in other parts of Lithuania this process did not begin until serfdom was abolished throughout the Empire in 1861, intensifying after the Stolypin reform in 1906. The Stolypin agrarian reforms were a series of changes to Imperial Russia 's agricultural sector instituted during the tenure of Pyotr Stolypin, Chairman of the Council

Early abolition of serfdom, fertile land, and close economic ties with East Prussia contributed to Suvalkija's relative wealth. This situation led to the ongoing perception that its inhabitants are very rational, clever, and extremely frugal, even greedy. [25] Such stereotypes, also applied to other regions,[26] gave rise to many anecdotes and practical jokes. [27] Suvalkija remains the least-forested area of Lithuania (in 2005 forests covered 21. 6% of Marijampolė County while forests cover 32% of the country as a whole). Marijampolė County (Lithuanian Marijampolės apskritis) is one of ten counties in Lithuania. [28] The third-largest forest in Lithuania, Kazlų Rūda Forest (587 km²), is in Suvalkija, but is located on sandy soil unsuitable for farming. [29] Suvalkija remains one of the most important agricultural regions of Lithuania, harvesting large crops of sugar beets. Sugar beet ( Beta vulgaris L a member of the Chenopodiaceae family is a plant whose root contains a high concentration of Sucrose.

Cultural history

Originally, the region was inhabited by the Baltic tribe of the Sudovians (hence the name "Sudovia"). Yotvingians or Sudovians (also called Suduvians, Jatvians, or Jatvingians in English (Jotvingiai Sūduviai Jatvingi Jaćwingowie Яцьвягі The Teutonic Knights frequently raided the region during the Middle Ages in ongoing attempts to conquer and baptize the pagan Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Teutonic Order is a German Roman Catholic religious order. Paganism (from Latin paganus, meaning "country dweller rustic" is a word used to refer to various religions and religious beliefs from across the world The Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė old literary Lithuanian Didi Kunigiste Letuvos, Ruthenian: Wialikaje Kniastwa Litowskaje As a result most of ancient Sudovia became a sparsely-inhabited wilderness covered by large forests. After the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, which ended the crusades against Lithuania, the territory was slowly repopulated by settlers from Samogitia and Aukštaitija. The Battle of Grunwald (or 1st Battle of Tannenberg) took place on 15 July 1410 with the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, led by Samogitia ( Samogitian: Žemaitėjė, Žemaitija literally lowlands) is one of the five Ethnographic Regions of Lithuania. Aukštaitija (literary Highlands; oʊkʃteɪtɪˈjʌ is the name of one of five ethnographic Regions of Lithuania. They brought their cultures, which mingled with that of the remaining locals, and an ethnologically-distinct culture gradually took shape, combining Samogitian and Aukštaitian elements and elements not found anywhere else. Ethnology (from the Greek ἔθνος, ethnos meaning "habit custom convention" is the branch of Anthropology that compares and [18]

Significant changes took place during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Suvalkija was separated from Lithuania Proper. While the Napoleonic period was brief, it resulted in lasting impacts. Of these impacts, the most important were the introduction of the Napoleonic Code, the usage of the Gregorian Calendar, and the abolition of serfdom almost 50 years earlier than in the rest of Lithuania. The Napoleonic Code, or Code Napoléon (originally called the Code civil des Français) is the French Civil code, established under The Gregorian calendar is the most widely used Calendar in the world today Peasants gained personal freedom and opportunities to acquire wealth. The region also offered better educational opportunities to its residents – a teacher seminary in Veiveriai and a gymnasium in Marijampolė continued their operations at a time when most educational institutions in Lithuania were closed following the 1863 January Uprising against the Russian Empire. Marijampolė ( Mariampol is an industrial City and the Capital of the Marijampolė County in the south of Lithuania, bordering Poland The January Uprising ( Polish: powstanie styczniowe, Lithuanian: 1863 m [17] Students could also attend Roman Catholic seminaries in Sejny and Kaunas. Sejny (Seinai is a town in north-eastern Poland, in Podlaskie Voivodeship, close to the border with Lithuania and Belarus. Kaunas ( ˈkoʊnəs is the second largest City in Lithuania and a former temporary capital. According to the census taken in 1897, the rate of literacy among the peasants of the Suvalkai Province was the highest in the Russian Empire. [3] The people of Suvalkija were also among the first and most numerous emigrants to the United States. [30]

These developments led to the formation of a new well-educated class, which fueled the Lithuanian National Revival in the second half of the 19th century. Lithuanian National Revival, alternatively Lithuanian National Awakening (Lietuvių tautinis atgimimas was a period of the History of Lithuania in the 19th century [31] Among the many notable figures from the region were the patriarch of Lithuanian independence Jonas Basanavičius, Vincas Kudirka, the author of the Lithuanian nation anthem, and Jonas Jablonskis, a linguist frequently credited with the creation of a standardized Lithuanian language. Jonas Basanavičius (( (b 23 November 1851, Ožkabaliai - d 16 February 1927, Vilnius) was an activist and proponent of Lithuania Vincas Kudirka Reversumjpg|thumb| Litas coin issued to commemorate Vincas Kudirka]] Vincas Kudirka ( Paežeriai, - Naumiestis,) was a "Tautiška giesmė" is the National anthem of Lithuania, also known by its opening words "Lietuva Tėvyne mūsų" (Lithuania Our Homeland Jonas Jablonskis ( December 30, 1860,, Šakiai district – February 23, 1930, Kaunas) was a distinguished Lithuanian Dialects spoken in Suvalkija became the basis for the modern language. [32] The Revival, which had previously been centered in eastern Samogitia, gradually shifted to Suvalkija due to the activities of these prominent figures and its better economic conditions. [33]

Folk culture

Language

The traditional classification of Lithuanian dialects divided those of Suvalkija into two sections: Zanavykai, spoken in its north, and Kapsai, spoken in its south. These two sub-dialects are often described as the basis of the standard Lithuanian language. [14] It has proven quite difficult, however, to identify language characteristics unique to those regions, as the characteristics are extremely diverse and unevenly distributed. [15] A revised classification of the dialects, proposed in 1965, eliminates this distinction and groups the Zanavykai, Kapsai, and central Aukštaitian sub-dialects as a single sub-grouping, named Kaunas sub-dialect, of the Western Aukštaitian dialect. Aukštaitian dialect ( Lithuanian: Aukštaičių tarmė) is one of the Dialects of the Lithuanian language, spoken in ethnographic regions [19] The territory of this sub-dialect encompasses a much larger area than Suvalkija and stretches beyond the Neman River. "Nieman" and "Niemen" redirects here For other uses see Neman and Nieman (disambiguation.

The Western Aukštaitian dialect, unlike other dialects of Lithuanian, preserves the mixed diphthongs an, am, en, em and the ogonek vowels ą and ę. In Phonetics, a diphthong (also gliding vowel) (from Greek grc δίφθογγος "diphthongos" literally "with two sounds" or "with The ogonek ( Polish for "little tail" the Diminutive of ogon) is a Diacritic hook placed under the lower right corner of a vowel in the [18] The dialect is subdivided into Kaunas and Šiauliai sub-dialects. The Kaunas sub-dialect, in contrast to the Šiauliai sub-dialect, in most cases separates long and short vowels and stresses word endings in the same way as standard Lithuanian. In Linguistics, stress is the relative emphasis that may be given to certain Syllables in a word Since they had close economic contacts with East Prussia, people from Suvalkija borrowed a number of German words. [18] There are efforts to preserve, record, and promote the local dialects. Between 2003 and 2006 the Science and Encyclopaedia Publishing Institute published a three-volume dictionary of Zanavykai sub-dialect. The Science and Encyclopaedia Publishing Institute (Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas (MELI is a Lithuanian publishing house that issues encyclopedias reference Marijampolė County organizes an annual Language Day to encourage preservation of the sub-dialect. Marijampolė County (Lithuanian Marijampolės apskritis) is one of ten counties in Lithuania. [34]

Along a gradient from north (Zanavykai) to south (Kapsai and Dzūkija) the stressed first component of mixed diphthongs ul, um, un, ur, il, im, in, and ir, changes from short to semi-long to long (from kúlt to kùlt to kūlc – to thresh, from pírmas to pìrmas to pyrmas – first, from pínti to pìnti to pync – to braid). [17] Kapsai tend to modify word beginnings. If a word starts in ei or e, they often replace it with ai or a (aik instead of eik – go, ažeras instead of ežeras – lake). Zanavykai also modify vowels, but in the other direction (ekmuo replaces akmuo – stone, ešis istead of ašis – axis). [14] Kapsai often add a v to words that, in standard Lithuanian, start with uo, u, or o (vuoga instead of uoga – berry, voras instead of oras – air) and j to words that start with i, y, or ie (jilgas instead of ilgas – long, jieva instead of ieva – bird cherry). [16] Zanavykai tend to shorten words. They often drop n from verbs (gyvek instead of gyvenk – live!) and truncate the past tense form of verbs (žino instead of žinojo – he knew, galė instead of galėjo – he could, ė instead of ėjo – he walked). [14] Zanavykai also preserved some archaic forms and rules of declension, especially in pronominal pronouns, and of conjugation, especially in dual verbs. In Linguistics, declension (or declination) is the occurrence of Inflection in Nouns Pronouns and Adjectives indicating In Linguistics and Grammar, a pronoun is a Pro-form that substitutes for a (including a noun phrase consisting of a single Noun) with or In Linguistics, conjugation is the creation of derived forms of a Verb, Noun or Adjective from its Principal parts by Inflection Dual is a Grammatical number that some languages use in addition to singular and Plural. [18]

Clothing

Traditional peasant clothing in Suvalkija, while consisting of the same basic items, can be clearly differentiated from clothing in other parts of Lithuania. Because the region was relatively wealthier, the clothes were richer in color, decoration, and ornament. They were also made of better and more expensive materials, including brocade, silk, wool, and damask. Brocade is a class of richly decorative shuttle-woven Fabrics often made in colored Silks and with or without Gold and Silver threads Damask ( دمسق) is a figured fabric of Silk, Wool, Linen, Cotton, or Synthetic fibers with a pattern Regional differences existed even within Suvalkija. Kapsai women wore long, wide dress garments with large designs of stars and tulips, semidark in colour and partially striped. The Zanavykai costume is one of the most decorative in design, colour and style. [35]

Suvalkija women wore wide, gathered skirts of one main color (dark and rich, such as dark red, blue, violet, or green) with narrow multi-colored stripes woven into the fabric. Gathering is a Sewing technique for shortening the length of a strip of fabric so that the longer piece can be attached to a shorter piece Women's blouses in Suvalkija are distinguishable from those of other regions by their wider sleeves and by more extensive decorations. [36] Their aprons were especially richly decorated and colorful,[37] with Kapsai laying stripes and other ornaments horizontally, while the Zanavykai preferred vertical compositions. An apron is an outer protective garment that covers primarily the front of the body [36] Women also wore richly decorated sashes around their waists. A sash (شاش shash) is a cloth belt used to hold a Robe together and is usually tied about the waist These sashes used more complex ornaments than in other regions, where more archaic but simpler geometric forms prevailed. Because of their relative complexity, folk art collectors placed a higher value on these sashes. [37] A few examples were presented in the first Lithuanian art exhibition in 1907. [31] Bodices at first were identical to those in Dzūkija, but diverged by the mid-19th century. A bodice is an article of Clothing for women covering the body from the neck to the waist Dzūkija (dzuːkɪˈjʌ or Dainava is one of five Ethnographic Regions of Lithuania. Bodices in Zanavykai had short laps, while bodices of Kapsai were long and flared. [36] Young girls and married women could be told apart by their headdresses. Young girls in Kapsai wore tall golden gallons, while maidens in Zanavykai wore narrow galloons, sometimes replacing them with beads. A gallon is a measure of Volume. It is in current use in the United States and still has limited use in many other English-speaking countries Married women wore bonnets similar to those in Dzūkija. [36]

Men's wear was simpler and only occasionally decorated with a modest amount of embroidery. Embroidery is the Art or Handicraft of decorating fabric or other Materials with designs stitched in strands of thread or Men wore caftans pleated at the back. A kaftan (sometimes spelled caftan from Persian خفتان) is a man's cotton or silk cloak buttoned down the front with full sleeves reaching to A pleat (older plait) is a type of Fold formed by doubling fabric back upon itself and securing it in place These caftans, usually sewn from light gray or white woolen cloth, were later replaced by coats. [36] Shirts, resembling a tunic, were sewn from white linen cloth and were not usually decorated. A tunic is any of several types of Clothing for the body with or without Sleeves and of various lengths reaching from the hips to the ankles The most ormamental detail of men's garments were the decorative patterned sashes they wore around their waists. Men also wore high boots and hats with straight brims that were decorated with feathers and flowers. [36]

As elsewhere, clothing styles began to rapidly change at the beginning of the 20th century as city and town culture increasingly influenced the traditional peasant life. Clothes became simpler, less colorful and decorated. Women started wearing a variety of jackets, usually of one dark color, and covered their heads with simple scarves tied under their chins. [36] Skirts became less and less gathered and colored stripes disappeared. The celebrated aprons and sashes were completely lost. [36]

The first concepts and models of the national costume were formed in Lithuania Minor (East Prussia), where Lithuanian cultural activities were legal and not suppressed by the Lithuanian press ban. National costume, also known as national dress, regional costume or folk dress, expresses an identity through Costume which usually Lithuania Minor (Mažoji Lietuva Kleinlitauen Litwa Mniejsza Máлая Литвá or Prussian Lithuania (Prūsų Lietuva Preußisch-Litauen Litwa Pruska is a historical East Prussia (Ostpreußen; Rytų Prūsija or Rytprūsiai; Prusy Wschodnie Восточная Пруссия or Vostochnaya Prussiya) refers to the main part The Lithuanian press ban (spaudos draudimas was a ban on all Lithuanian language publications printed in the Latin alphabet within the Russian Empire, After the ban was lifted in 1904, clothing from Lithuania Minor was promoted as the best candidate for the national dress until the 1920s, when attention shifted to clothing from Suvalkija. [38] The shift can be attributed to the relative abundance of original clothing from the region, which was rich in decoration and could compete with the costumes of other European nations. A number of prominent activists, including President of Lithuania Kazys Grinius and his wife Joana Griuniuvienė, collected and promoted the clothing of Suvalkija, especially aprons and sashes. Kazys Grinius ( December 17 1866 June 4 1950) was the third President of Lithuania, and held that office from June 7 [38] At the time regional differences were not emphasized and cultural activists were attempting to arrive at a single model of a "Lithuanian" national dress, based on samples from Suvalkija. The concept of a single representative Lithuanian national dress was dropped in the 1930s in favor of regional costumes, unique to each of the ethnographic regions. [38]

Music

The musical traditions of Suvalkija are distinctive. The kanklės, possibly the most archaic Lithuanian instrument, took on distinguishable characteristics in the region; more heavily ornamented than elsewhere, its end is narrow, spreading out into a rounded shape. The Kanklės (ˈkʌŋkles is a Lithuanian plucked string Musical instrument ( Chordophone) related to the Zither. [39] Recordings made in the 1930s, and reissued in the 21st century by the Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore, contain waltzes, marches, schottisches, and krakowiaks. The waltz is a ballroom and folk Dance in time, performed primarily in Closed position. The Schottische is a partnered Country dance, Bohemian in origin Krakowiak, sometimes referred to as the Pecker Dance, is a fast Syncopated Polish dance in duple time from the region of Krakow and Little Poland Popular polkas performed on the fiddle were a significant part of the local musicians' repertoire. The polka is a fast lively Central European Dance and also a genre of dance music familiar throughout Europe and the Americas The recordings from this era are monodic; there is usually one singer, and the music relies on variable modal structures, changes of tempo, and subtle ornamentation of the melody for interest. In Poetry, the term monody has become specialized to refer to a poem in which one person laments another's death [40]

The composition of the musical ensembles in the region changed during the middle 1800s. Earlier versions featured between one and three kanklės, a fiddle, and a būgnas (drum). Later ensembles often included one or two fiddles, a German or Viennese harmonica, a būgnas, and at times a cymbal, a clarinet, a coronet, or a besetle (a stringed bass). A harmonica is a free reed Wind instrument which is played by blowing air into it or drawing air out by placing lips over individual holes (reed chambers or A coronet is a small crown consisting of ornaments fixed on a metal ring The double bass is the largest and lowest-pitched bowed String instrument used in the modern symphony orchestra. Ensembles featuring the fiddle and the būgnas were also popular. [41]

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Further reading

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