Surgery (from the Greek: χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via Latin: chirurgiae, meaning "hand work") is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental techniques on a patient to investigate and/or treat a pathological condition such as disease or injury, to help improve bodily function or appearance, or sometimes for some other reason. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. A patient is any person who receives medical attention care or treatment. A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly Injury or bodily injury is Damage or Harm caused to the Structure or function of the Body caused by an outside agent or An act of performing surgery may be called a surgical procedure, operation, or simply surgery. In this context, the verb operating means performing surgery. The adjective surgical means pertaining to surgery; e. g. surgical instruments or surgical nurse. A surgical instrument is a specially designed tool or device for performing specific actions of carrying out desired effects during a Surgery or operation such as modifying Surgical patients (those who have undergone a minor or major Surgical procedure) are nursed on different wards to medical patients in the UK and Australia The patient or subject on which the surgery is performed can be a person or an animal. A surgeon is a person who performs operations on patients. In Medicine, a surgeon is a person who performs Surgery. Surgery is a broad category of invasive Medical treatment that involves the cutting of a Persons described as surgeons are commonly medical practitioners, but the term is also applied to podiatrists, dentists and veterinarians. A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health Podiatry or podiatric medicine is a field of Healthcare devoted to the study and treatment of disorders of the Foot, Ankle, and the "anatomical Dentistry' is the "evaluation diagnosis prevention and/or treatment (nonsurgical surgical or related procedures of diseases disorders and/or conditions of the oral cavity A veterinarian ( American English) or a Veterinary surgeon ( British English) often shortened to vet, is a Physician Surgery can last from minutes to hours, but is typically not an ongoing or periodic type of treatment. The term surgery can also refer to the place where surgery is performed, or simply the office of a physician, dentist, or veterinarian.

Contents 1 Definitions of surgery 1.1 Types of surgery 1.2 Terminology 1.3 Description of surgical procedure 2 History 2.1 Modern surgery 3 Conditions treated by surgery 4 Common procedures 5 Surgical Specialties 6 See also 7 References 8 External links

Definitions of surgery

Surgery is a medical technology consisting of a physical intervention on tissues. As a general rule, a procedure is considered surgical when it involves cutting of a patient's tissues or closure of a previously sustained wound. Other procedures that do not necessarily fall under this rubric, such as angioplasty or endoscopy, may be considered surgery if they involve "common" surgical procedure or settings, such as use of a sterile environment, anesthesia, antiseptic conditions, typical surgical instruments, and suturing or stapling. Angioplasty is the technique of mechanically widening a narrowed or totally obstructed Blood vessel; typically as a result of Atherosclerosis. Endoscopy means looking inside and typically refers to looking inside the body for medical reasons using an instrument called an endoscope. Anesthesia, or anaesthesia (see spelling differences; from Greek grc αν- an-, "without" and grc αἲσθησις Antiseptics (from Greek αντί - anti, '"against" + σηπτικός - septikos, "putrefactive" are antimicrobial A surgical instrument is a specially designed tool or device for performing specific actions of carrying out desired effects during a Surgery or operation such as modifying Surgical staples are specialized staples used in Surgery in place of sutures to close Skin wounds connect or remove parts of the All forms of surgery are considered invasive procedures; so-called "noninvasive surgery" usually refers to an excision that does not penetrate the structure being excised (i. e. laser ablation of the cornea) or to a radiosurgical procedure (i. e. irradiation of a tumor).

Types of surgery

Surgical procedures are commonly categorized by urgency, type of procedure, body system involved, degree of invasiveness, and special instrumentation.

Elective surgery is done to correct a non-life-threatening condition, and is carried out at the patient's request, subject to the surgeon's and the surgical facility's availability. Elective surgery is Surgery that is not urgently required due to an Emergency. Emergency surgery is surgery which must be done quickly to save life, limb, or functional capacity. Emergency Medicine is a speciality of Medicine that focuses on the Diagnosis and treatment of acute illnesses and injuries that require immediate medical attention Exploratory surgery is performed to aid or confirm a diagnosis. Exploratory surgery is a diagnostic method used by doctors when trying to find a diagnosis for an ailment Therapeutic surgery treats a previously diagnosed condition.

Amputation involves cutting off a body part, usually a limb or digit. Amputation is the removal of a body extremity by trauma or Surgery. Replantation involves reattaching a severed body part. Replantation is the surgical reattachment of a body part most commonly a finger hand or arm that has been completely cut from a person's body Reconstructive surgery, also commonly called plastic surgery, involves reconstruction of an injured, mutilated, or deformed part of the body. Reconstructive surgery is in its broadest sense the use of Surgery to restore the form and function of the body A subset of reconstructive surgery is cosmetic surgery, which is done to improve the appearance of an otherwise normal structure. Plastic surgery is a medical specialty interested in the correction of form and function Excision is the cutting out of an organ, tissue, or other body part from the patient. Transplant surgery is the replacement of an organ or body part by insertion of another from different human (or animal) into the patient. Removing an organ or body part from a live human or animal for use in transplant is also a type of surgery.

When surgery is performed on one organ system or structure, it may be classed by the organ, organ system or tissue involved. Examples include cardiac surgery (performed on the heart), gastrointestinal surgery (performed within the digestive tract and its accessory organs), and orthopedic surgery (performed on bones and/or muscles).

Minimally invasive surgery involves smaller outer incision(s) to insert miniaturized instruments within a body cavity or structure, as in laparoscopic surgery or angioplasty. Minimally invasive surgical procedures avoid open invasive surgery in favor of closed or local surgery with less trauma Laparoscopic surgery, also called Minimally invasive surgery (MIS, bandaid surgery, Keyhole surgery, or pinhole surgery Angioplasty is the technique of mechanically widening a narrowed or totally obstructed Blood vessel; typically as a result of Atherosclerosis. By contrast, an open surgical procedure requires a large incision to access the area of interest. Laser surgery involves use of a laser for cutting tissue instead of a scalpel or similar surgical instruments. Laser surgery is Surgery using a Laser to cut tissue instead of a Scalpel. A laser is a device that emits Light ( Electromagnetic radiation) through a process called Stimulated emission. A scalpel is a small but extremely sharp knife used for Surgery, anatomical Dissection, and various Arts and crafts. Microsurgery involves the use of an operating microscope for the surgeon to see small structures. Microsurgery is a general term for Surgery requiring an operating Microscope. A microscope ( Greek: ( micron) = small + ( skopein) = to look or see is an instrument for viewing objects that are Robotic surgery makes use of a surgical robot, such as the Da Vinci or the Zeus surgical systems, to control the instrumentation under the direction of the surgeon. Robotic surgery is the use of Robots in performing Surgery. Three major advances aided by surgical robots have been Remote surgery, Minimally invasive

Terminology

• Excision surgery names often start with a name for the organ to be excised (cut out) and end in -ectomy.
• Procedures involving cutting into an organ or tissue end in -otomy. A surgical procedure cutting through the abdominal wall to gain access to the abdominal cavity is a laparotomy. The abdominal cavity is the Body cavity of the human body (and animal bodies that holds the bulk of the viscera and which is located below (or inferior A laparotomy is a surgical procedure involving an incision through the Abdominal wall to gain access into the Abdominal cavity.
• Minimally invasive procedures involving small incisions through which an endoscope is inserted end in -oscopy. For example, such surgery in the abdominal cavity is called laparoscopy. Laparoscopic surgery, also called Minimally invasive surgery (MIS, bandaid surgery, Keyhole surgery, or pinhole surgery
• Procedures for formation of a permanent or semi-permanent opening called a stoma in the body end in -ostomy. In Botany, a stoma (also stomate; plural stomata) is a tiny opening or pore found mostly on the underside of a Plant Leaf
• Reconstruction or Cosmetic surgery of a body part starts with a name for the body part to be reconstructed and ends in -oplasty. Rhino is used as a prefix for "nose", so rhinoplasty is basically reconstructive or cosmetic surgery for the nose. Rhinoplasty ( Rhinos, "Nose" + el ''Plassein'' "to shape" is a surgical procedure which is usually performed by either an Otolaryngologist

Description of surgical procedure

At a hospital, modern surgery is often done in an operating room using surgical instruments, an operating table for the patient, and other equipment. A hospital is an institution for Health care providing treatment by specialised staff and equipment and often but not always providing for An operating theater (or theatre) was a tiered Theater or Amphitheater in which students and other spectators could watch surgeons perform surgery A surgical instrument is a specially designed tool or device for performing specific actions of carrying out desired effects during a Surgery or operation such as modifying The environment and procedures used in surgery are governed by the principles of aseptic technique: the strict separation of "sterile" (free of microorganisms) things from "unsterile" or "contaminated" things. Aseptic technique refers to a procedure that is performed under sterile conditions All surgical instruments must be sterilized, and an instrument must be replaced or re-sterilized if it becomes contaminated (i. Sterilization (or sterilisation, see spelling differences) refers to any process that effectively kills or eliminates transmissible agents (such as Fungi e. handled in an unsterile manner, or allowed to touch an unsterile surface). OR staff must wear sterile attire (scrubs, a scrub cap, a sterile surgical gown, sterile latex or non-latex polymer gloves and a surgical mask), and they must scrub hands and arms with an approved disinfectant agent before each procedure.

Prior to surgery, the patient is given a medical examination, certain pre-operative tests, and an ASA score. Physical examination or clinical examination is the process by which a Health care provider investigates the body of a Patient for signs ASA stands for American Society of Anesthesiologists. In 1963 the ASA adopted a five category physical status classification system for assessing a patient before Surgery. If these results are satisfactory, the patient signs a consent form and is given a surgical clearance. If the procedure is expected to result in significant blood loss, an autologous blood donation may be made some weeks prior to surgery. In Biology, autologous refers to cells, tissues or even Proteins that are reimplanted in the same individual as they come from If the surgery involves the digestive system, the patient may be instructed to perform a bowel prep by drinking a solution of polyethylene glycol the night before the procedure. Digestion is the breaking down of chemicals in the body into a form that can be absorbed Whole bowel irrigation ( WBI) is a medical process involving the rapid administration of large volumes of an osmotically balanced Polyethylene glycol solution Patients are also instructed to abstain from food or drink (an NPO order after midnight on the night before the procedure, to minimize the effect of stomach contents on pre-operative medications and reduce the risk of aspiration if the patient vomits during or after the procedure. Nil per os (also /Nihil/Non/Nulla Per Orem (NPO is Latin for a medical instruction meaning to withhold oral food and fluids from a patient for various reasons (verbatim it

In the pre-operative holding area, the patient changes out of his or her street clothes and is asked to confirm the details of his or her surgery. A set of vital signs are recorded, a peripheral IV line is placed, and pre-operative medications (antibiotics, sedatives, etc) are given. Intravenous therapy or IV therapy is the giving of Liquid substances directly into a Vein. When the patient enters the operating room, the skin surface to be operated on is cleaned and prepared by applying an antiseptic such as chlorhexidine gluconate or povidone-iodine to reduce the possibility of infection. Antiseptics (from Greek αντί - anti, '"against" + σηπτικός - septikos, "putrefactive" are antimicrobial Chlorhexidine is a chemical Antiseptic.It kills (is bactericidal to both Gram-positive and Gram-negative Microbes although it is less effective Povidone-iodine ( PVPI) is a water- Soluble complex of Iodine with polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP with from 9 If hair is present at the surgical site, it is clipped off prior to prep application. Sterile drapes are used to cover all of the patient's body except for the surgical site and the patient's head; the drapes are clipped to a pair of poles near the head of the bed to form an "ether screen", which separates the anesthetist/anesthesiologist's working area (unsterile) from the surgical site (sterile). A nurse anesthetist ( AE) is a Registered nurse and advanced practice nurse who has acquired additional education and training to administer Anesthesia. An anaesthetist ( English) or anesthesiologist ( US English) also "anaesthesiologist" is a medical doctor trained to administer

Anesthesia is administered to prevent pain from incision, tissue manipulation and suturing. Anesthesia, or anaesthesia (see spelling differences; from Greek grc αν- an-, "without" and grc αἲσθησις Pain, in the sense of physical pain, is a typical sensory experience that may be described as the unpleasant awareness of a noxious stimulus or bodily harm Based on the procedure, anesthesia may be provided locally or as general anesthesia. Local anesthesia is any technique to render part of the body insensitive to pain without affecting consciousness In modern medical practice general anaesthesia ( AmE: anesthesia) is a state of total unconsciousness resulting from General anaesthetic drugs Spinal anesthesia may be used when the surgical site is too large or deep for a local block, but general anesthesia may not be desirable. Spinal analgesia, (or commonly called spinal anesthesia or sub-arachnoid block (S With local and spinal anesthesia, the surgical site is anesthetized, but the patient can remain conscious or minimally sedated. In contrast, general anesthesia renders the patient unconscious and paralyzed during surgery. The patient is intubated and is placed on a mechanical ventilator, and anesthesia is produced by a combination of injected and inhaled agents. In Medicine, intubation refers to the placement of a tube into an external or internal orifice of the body In Medicine, mechanical ventilation is a method to mechanically assist or replace spontaneous breathing when patients cannot do so on their own

An incision is made to access the surgical site. Blood vessels may be clamped to prevent bleeding, and retractors may be used to expose the site or keep the incision open. The blood vessels are part of the Circulatory system and function to transport Blood throughout the body The approach to the surgical site may involve several layers of incision and dissection, as in abdominal surgery, where the incision must traverse skin, subcutaneous tissue, three layers of muscle and then peritoneum. In certain cases, bone may be cut to further access the interior of the body; for example, cutting the skull for brain surgery or cutting the sternum for thoracic (chest) surgery to open up the rib cage. Bones are rigid organs that form part of the Endoskeleton of Vertebrates They function to move support and protect the various organs of the body produce The brain is the center of the Nervous system in animals All Vertebrates and the majority of Invertebrates have a brain The sternum (from Greek στέρνον sternon, "chest" or breastbone) is a long flat Bone located in the center of the thorax (chest Thoracic surgery is the field of Medicine involved in the surgical treatment of Diseases affecting organs inside the Thorax (the chest excluding The human rib cage, also known as the thoracic cage, is a bony and cartilaginous structure which surrounds the thoracic (chest cavity and supports the pectoral

Work to correct the problem in body then proceeds. This work may involve:

• excision - cutting out an organ, tumor, or other tissue.
• resection - partial removal of an organ or other bodily structure.
• reconnection of organs, tissues, etc. , particularly if severed. Resection of organs such as intestines involves reconnection. Internal suturing or stapling may be used. Surgical connection between blood vessels or other tubular or hollow structures such as loops of intestine is called anastomosis. An anastomosis (plural anastomoses, from gr ἀναστόμωσις communicating opening) is a Network of streams that both branch out and reconnect
• ligation - tying off blood vessels, ducts, or "tubes". Ligation may refer to The act of making a ligature (tie In medicine a ligature is a device similar to a tourniquet usually of thread or string tied around
• grafts - may be severed pieces of tissue cut from the same (or different) body or flaps of tissue still partly connected to the body but resewn for rearranging or restructuring of the area of the body in question. In Medicine, grafting is a Surgical procedure to transplant tissue without a blood supply. Although grafting is often used in cosmetic surgery, it is also used in other surgery. Grafts may be taken from one area of the patient's body and inserted to another area of the body. An example is bypass surgery, where clogged blood vessels are bypassed with a graft from another part of the body. Alternatively, grafts may be from other persons, cadavers, or animals.
• insertion of prosthetic parts when needed. In Medicine, a prosthesis (plural prostheses) is an Artificial extension that replaces a missing Body part. Pins or screws to set and hold bones may be used. Sections of bone may be replaced with prosthetic rods or other parts. Sometime a plate is inserted to replace a damaged area of skull. Artificial hip replacement has become more common. Hip replacement, also hip Arthroplasty, is a surgical procedure in which the Hip joint is replaced by a prosthetic implant. Heart pacemakers or valves may be inserted. For other uses see Pacemaker (disambiguation A pacemaker (or artificial pacemaker, so as not to be confused with the heart's natural pacemaker In Anatomy, the heart valves are Valves in the Heart that maintain the unidirectional flow of blood by opening and closing depending on the difference Many other types of prostheses are used. In Medicine, a prosthesis (plural prostheses) is an Artificial extension that replaces a missing Body part.
• creation of a stoma, a permanent or semi-permanent opening in the body
• in transplant surgery, the donor organ (taken out of the donor's body) is inserted into the recipient's body and reconnected to the recipient in all necessary ways (blood vessels, ducts, etc. In Medicine, a stoma (Greek - pl stomata is an opening either natural or surgically created (artificial which connects a portion of the body cavity to the outside ).
• arthrodesis - surgical connection of adjacent bones so the bones can grow together into one. Arthrodesis, also known as artificial Ankylosis or syndesis, is the artificial induction of Joint Ossification between two Bones Spinal fusion is an example of adjacent vertebrae connected allowing them to grow together into one piece. Spinal fusion, also known as spondylodesis or spondylosyndesis, is a surgical technique used to combine two or more Vertebrae. A vertebra (plural vertebrae) is an individual Irregular bone in the spinal or Vertebral column ( aka ischis a flexuous and flexible column
• modifying the digestive tract in bariatric surgery for weight loss. Weight loss, in the context of Medicine or Health or Physical fitness, is a reduction of the total Body weight, due to a mean loss of fluid
• repair of a fistula, hernia, or prolapse
• other procedures, including:

• clearing clogged ducts, blood or other vessels
• removal of calculi (stones)
• draining of accumulated fluids
• debridement- removal of dead, damaged, or diseased tissue

• Surgery has also been conducted to separate conjoined twins. In medicine a fistula (pl fistulas or fistulae is an abnormal connection or passageway between two Epithelium -lined organs or vessels that normally do not connect A hernia is a protrusion of a tissue, structure or part of an organ through the muscular tissue or the membrane by which it is normally contained Prolapse literally means "To fall out of place" In Medicine, prolapse is a condition where organs such as the Uterus, fall down or slip out of place Debridement is a medical term referring to the removal of Dead, damaged or Infected tissue to improve the healing potential of the remaining Conjoined twins are whose bodies are joined in utero A rare phenomenon the occurrence is estimated to range from 1 in 50000 births to 1 in 200000 births with a somewhat higher incidence
• Sex change operations

Blood or blood expanders may be administered to compensate for blood lost during surgery. Sex reassignment surgery (SRS gender reassignment surgery, or sex-change operation is a term for the Surgical procedures by which a person's physical Blood transfusion is the process of transferring Blood or blood-based products from one person into the Circulatory system of another Once the procedure is complete, sutures or staples are used to close the incision. Surgical staples are specialized staples used in Surgery in place of sutures to close Skin wounds connect or remove parts of the Once the incision is closed, the anesthetic agents are stopped and/or reversed, and the patient is taken off ventilation and extubated (if general anesthesia was administered).

After completion of surgery, the patient is transferred to the post anesthesia care unit and closely monitored. "PACU" redirects here For the fish see Pacu (fish. A post anesthesia care unit, often abbreviated PACU, is a vital When the patient is judged to have recovered from the anesthesia, he/she is either transferred to a surgical ward elsewhere in the hospital or discharged home. During the post-operative period, the patient's general function is assessed, the outcome of the procedure is assessed, and the surgical site is checked for signs of infection. If removable skin closures are used, they are removed after 7 to 10 days post-operatively, or after healing of the incision is well under way.

Post-operative therapy may include adjuvant treatment such as chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or administration of medication such as anti-rejection medication for transplants. Chemotherapy, in its most general sense refers to treatment of disease by chemicals that kill cells specifically those of micro-organisms or Cancer. Radiation therapy (or radiotherapy) is the medical use of Ionizing radiation as part of Cancer treatment to control Malignant Medication, also referred to as medicine, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis cure mitigation treatment or prevention of disease Other follow-up studies or rehabilitation may be prescribed during and after the recovery period.

History

Main article: History of surgery

At least two prehistoric cultures had developed forms of surgery. Surgery is the branch of medicine that deals with the physical manipulation of a bodily structure in order to diagnosis prevent or cure an ailment The oldest for which we have evidence is trepannation,^[1] in which a hole is drilled or scraped into the skull, thus exposing the dura mater in order to treat health problems related to intracranial pressure and other diseases. Trepanation (also known as trepanning, trephination, trephining or burr hole) is surgery in which a hole is Drilled or scraped into A drill (from Dutch Drillen) is The dura mater (from the Latin "hard mother" or pachymeninx, is the tough and inflexible outermost of the three layers of the Meninges surrounding the Evidence has been found in prehistoric human remains from Neolithic times, in cave paintings, and the procedure continued in use well into recorded history. The Neolithic (from Greek νεολιθικός — neolithikos from νέος neos, "new" + λίθος lithos Cave paintings are Paintings on Cave walls and ceilings and the term is used especially for those dating to Prehistoric times Recorded history can be defined as History that has been written down or recorded by the use of Language, whereas History is a more general term referring Surprisingly, many prehistoric and premodern patients had signs of their skull structure healing; suggesting that many survived the operation. In modern-day Pakistan, remains from the early Harappan periods of the Indus Valley Civilization (c. Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and The Indus Valley Civilization (Mature period 2600&ndash1900 BCE abbreviated IVC, was an ancient Civilization that flourished in the Indus River basin 3300 BC) show evidence of teeth having been drilled dating back 9,000 years. ^[2] A final candidate for prehistoric surgical techniques is ancient Egypt, where a mandible dated to approximately 2650 BC shows two perforations just below the root of the first molar, indicating the draining of an abscessed tooth. Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now The mandible (from Latin mandibula, "jawbone" or inferior maxillary bone forms the lower Jaw and holds the lower teeth in place Molars are the rearmost and most complicated kind of Tooth in most Mammals In many mammals they grind food hence the Latin name mola, " Millstone Recent excavations of the construction workers of the Egyptian pyramids also led to possible evidence of brain surgery. The Egyptian pyramids are pyramid shaped structures located in Egypt, and were built as a tomb for dead pharaohs Neurosurgery is the surgical discipline focused on treating those central, Peripheral nervous system and spinal column diseases amenable to surgical

The oldest known surgical texts date back to ancient Egyptian about 3500 years ago. Surgeries were performed by priests, specialized in medical treatments similar to today. They documented their procedures on papyrus and were the first to describe patient case files which can nowadays be viewed in museums (i. e. Edwin Smith Papyrus). They medical expertise was later documented by Herodotus: "The practice of medicine is very specialized among them. Each physician treats just one disease. The country is full of physicians, some treat the eye, some the teeth, some of what belongs to the abdomen, and others internal diseases. " Herodotus, Histories 2,84 For more information see also http://nefertiti.iwebland.com/timelines/topics/medicine.htm

Other ancient cultures to have surgical knowledge include ancient Greece - the Hippocratic Oath was an innovation of the Greek physician Hippocrates - and ancient China. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca The Hippocratic Oath is an oath traditionally taken by physicians pertaining to the ethical practice of medicine Hippocrates of Cos II or Hippokrates of Kos ( ca. 460 BC – ca Chinese civilization originated in various city-states along the Yellow River ( valley in the Neolithic era However ancient Greek culture traditionally considered the practice of opening the body to be repulsive and thus left known surgical practices such as lithotomy to such persons as practice [it]. Lithotomy from Greek for "lithos" (stone and "thomos" (cut is a surgical method for removal of calculi, stones formed inside certain In China, Hua Tuo was a famous Chinese physician during the Eastern Han and Three Kingdoms era. Hua Tuo (d 208 was a renowned physician during the Eastern Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms era of China. He was the first person to perform surgery with the aid of anesthesia, albeit a rudimentary and unsophisticated form. Anesthesia, or anaesthesia (see spelling differences; from Greek grc αν- an-, "without" and grc αἲσθησις

In the Middle Ages, surgery was developed to a high degree in the Islamic world, with renowned practitioners such as Abulcasis (Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi), an Andalusian-Arab physician and scientist who practised in the Zahra suburb of Córdoba. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or ||-||-||} Córdoba ( Cordova in English is a City in Andalusia, southern Spain, and the capital of the province of Córdoba. A great medieval surgeon, whose comprehensive medical texts shaped European surgical procedures up until the Renaissance. He is also often regarded as a Father Of Surgery. ^[3]

In Europe, the demand grew for surgeons to formally study for many years before practicing; universities such as Montpellier, Padua and Bologna Universities were particularly renowned. Montpellier ( Occitan Montpelhièr) is a City in the south of France. Padua ( Padova 'padova Latin: Patavium, Padoa) is a city in the Veneto, northern Italy. Bologna (boloɲa from Latin Bononia, Bulåggna in Bolognese dialect is the capital city of Emilia-Romagna in northern Italy By the fifteenth century at the latest, surgery had split away from physics as its own subject, of a lesser status than pure medicine, and initially took the form of a craft tradition until Rogerius Salernitanus composed his Chirurgia, laying the foundation for modern Western surgical manuals up to the modern time. Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion. Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Rogerius (before 1140-c 1195 also called Rogerius Salernitanus, Roger Frugard, Roger Frugardi, Roggerio Frugardo, Rüdiger Frutgard Late in the nineteenth century, Bachelor of Surgery degrees (usually Ch. B. ) began to be awarded with the (M.B.), and the mastership became a higher degree, usually abbreviated Ch.M. or M.S. in London, where the first degree was M.B.,B.S.. Doctor of Medicine ( MD or MD, from the Latin Medicinæ Doctor meaning "Teacher of Medicine" is a doctoral The Master of Surgery is an advanced qualification in surgery Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery, or in Latin Medicinae Baccalaureus et Baccalaureus Chirurgiae (abbreviated MB BChir, BM BCh,

Basic surgical principles for asepsis ect are known as Halsteads principles

Modern surgery

Modern surgery developed rapidly with the scientific era. Halstead's principles are the basic principles of surgical technique regarding tissue handling Vascular occlusion etc Ambroise Paré (sometimes spelled "Ambrose"^[4]) pioneered the treatment of gunshot wounds, and the first modern surgeons were battlefield doctors in the Napoleonic Wars. Ambroise Paré (born in Bourg-Hersent near Laval, France, c 1510 &ndash Paris, December 20, 1590) was a French surgeon The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815 involved Napoleon's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions Naval surgeons were often barber surgeons, who combined surgery with their main jobs as barbers. The Barber surgeon was one of the most common Medical practitioners of medieval Europe - generally charged with looking after Soldiers during Three main developments permitted the transition to modern surgical approaches - control of bleeding, control of infection and control of pain (anaesthesia). Bleeding, technically known as hemorrhaging / haemorrhaging (see American and British spelling differences) is the loss of Blood from An infection is the detrimental Colonization of a host Organism by a foreign Species. Pain, in the sense of physical pain, is a typical sensory experience that may be described as the unpleasant awareness of a noxious stimulus or bodily harm Anesthesia, or anaesthesia (see spelling differences; from Greek grc αν- an-, "without" and grc αἲσθησις

Bleeding

Before modern surgical developments, there was a very real threat that a patient would bleed to death before treatment, or during the operation. Cauterization (fusing a wound closed with extreme heat) was successful but limited - it was destructive, painful and in the long term had very poor outcomes. Cauterize redirects here For the band see Cauterize (band Cauterization is a medical term describing the burning of the body to remove Ligatures, or material used to tie off severed blood vessels, are believed to have originated with Abulcasis^[5] in the 10th century and improved by Ambroise Paré in the 16th century. In medicine a ligature is a device similar to a Tourniquet, usually of thread or string tied around a limb blood vessel or similar to restrict blood flow TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi (936 - 1013 (أبو القاسم بن خلف Ambroise Paré (born in Bourg-Hersent near Laval, France, c 1510 &ndash Paris, December 20, 1590) was a French surgeon Though this method was a significant improvement over the method of cauterization, it was still dangerous until infection risk was brought under control - at the time of its discovery, the concept of infection was not fully understood. An infection is the detrimental Colonization of a host Organism by a foreign Species. Finally, early 20th century research into blood groups allowed the first effective blood transfusions.

Infection

The concept of infection was unknown until relatively modern times. The first progress in combating infection was made in 1847 by the Hungarian doctor Ignaz Semmelweis who noticed that medical students fresh from the dissecting room were causing excess maternal death compared to midwives. Hungarians (or Magyars, magyarok are an Ethnic group primarily associated with Hungary. Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis ( July 1, 1818 &ndash August 13, 1865) also Ignac Semmelweis (born Semmelweis Ignác Fülöp Semmelweis, despite ridicule and opposition, introduced compulsory handwashing for everyone entering the maternal wards and was rewarded with a plunge in maternal and fetal deaths, however the Royal Society in the UK still dismissed his advice. The Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge, known simply as The Royal Society, is a Learned society for science that was founded in 1660 Significant progress came following the work of Pasteur, when the British surgeon Joseph Lister began experimenting with using phenol during surgery to prevent infections. Louis Pasteur (27 December 1822 – 28 September 1895 a French Chemist and Microbiologist, is best known for remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and Joseph Lister 1st Baron Lister, OM, FRS ( 5 April 1827 &ndash 10 February 1912) was an English surgeon Lister was able to quickly reduce infection rates, a reduction that was further helped by his subsequent introduction of techniques to sterilize equipment, have rigorous hand washing and a later implementation of rubber gloves. Sterilization (or sterilisation, see spelling differences) refers to any process that effectively kills or eliminates transmissible agents (such as Fungi Lister published his work as a series of articles in The Lancet (March 1867) under the title Antiseptic Principle of the Practice of Surgery. This article is about the journal For other uses of the term "lancet" see Lancet (disambiguation. " Antiseptic Principle of the Practice of Surgery " is a paper regarding Antiseptics written by Joseph Lister in 1867. The work was groundbreaking and laid the foundations for a rapid advance in infection control that saw modern aseptic operating theatres widely used within 50 years (Lister himself went on to make further strides in antisepsis and asepsis throughout his lifetime).

Pain

Modern pain control through anesthesia was discovered by two American dental surgeons, Horace Wells (1815-1848) and William Morton. Pain, in the sense of physical pain, is a typical sensory experience that may be described as the unpleasant awareness of a noxious stimulus or bodily harm Anesthesia, or anaesthesia (see spelling differences; from Greek grc αν- an-, "without" and grc αἲσθησις The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Dentistry' is the "evaluation diagnosis prevention and/or treatment (nonsurgical surgical or related procedures of diseases disorders and/or conditions of the oral cavity Before the advent of anesthesia, surgery was a traumatically painful procedure and surgeons were encouraged to be as swift as possible to minimize patient suffering. Anesthesia, or anaesthesia (see spelling differences; from Greek grc αν- an-, "without" and grc αἲσθησις Suffering, or pain, is an individual's basic Affective experience of unpleasantness and aversion associated with harm or threat of harm This also meant that operations were largely restricted to amputations and external growth removals. Amputation is the removal of a body extremity by trauma or Surgery. Beginning in the 1840s, surgery began to change dramatically in character with the discovery of effective and practical anaesthetic chemicals such as ether and chloroform, later pioneered in Britain by John Snow. Diethyl ether, also known as ether and ethoxyethane, is a clear colorless and highly Flammable liquid with a low Boiling point and a Chloroform, also known as trichloromethane and methyl trichloride, is a Chemical compound with formula C[[Hydrogen H]] Cl John Snow ( 15 March 1813 &ndash 16 June 1858) was a British physician and a leader in the adoption of Anaesthesia and medical In addition to relieving patient suffering, anaesthesia allowed more intricate operations in the internal regions of the human body. In addition, the discovery of muscle relaxants such as curare allowed for safer applications. This article refers to skeletal muscle relaxants For information on Smooth muscle relaxants see Antispasmodic. Curare ''rah'' ree is a common name for various Arrow poisons originating from South America

Conditions treated by surgery

Surgery is used both as a treatment, and as an aspect of treatment, for many conditions, including:

• Physical trauma, e. Treatment of physical trauma is described here and in First aid. g. wounds
• Anatomical Abnormalities
• Disorders of function
• Inflammation
• Ischaemia and infarction
• Metabolic disorders
• Neoplasia
• Other abnormalities of tissue growth, e. In Medicine, a wound is a type of Injury in which the Skin is torn cut or punctured (an open wound or where blunt force trauma Inflammation ( Latin, inflamatio, to set on fire is the complex biological response of vascular tissues to harmful stimuli such as Pathogens In Medicine, ischemia ( Greek ισχαιμία, isch- is restriction hema or haema is Blood) is a restriction In Medicine, an infarction is the process resulting in a Macroscopic area of necrotic tissue in some organ caused by loss of adequate Blood supply Inborn errors of metabolism comprise a large class of genetic Diseases involving disorders of Metabolism. g. cysts, hyperplasia or Organ hypertrophy, as well as some cancers, if caught early enough
• Deformity and heavy scarring. A cyst is a closed sac having a distinct membrane and Division on the nearby tissue. Hyperplasia (or "hypergenesis" is a general term referring to the proliferation of cells within an organ or tissue beyond that which is ordinarily seen in e Hypertrophy is the increase of the size of an organ or in a select area of the tissue Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled A deformity, dysmorphism, or dysmorphic feature is a major difference in the shape of the body a body part or a body organ (internal or external compared to Scars (also called cicatrices) are areas of fibrous tissue that replace normal Skin (or other tissue after injury
• Brain damage and nerve damage

Common procedures

Five of the most common surgical procedures in the United States are obstetric: episiotomy, repair of obstetric laceration, cesarean section, and artificial rupture of the amniotic membrane. Brain damage, or Acquired brain injury, is the destruction or degeneration of Brain cells. There is no single classification system that can describe all the many variations of nerve injury. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Obstetrics (from the Latin obstare, "to stand by" is the surgical speciality dealing with the care of a woman and her offspring during Pregnancy An episiotomy (ɛˌpiːziːˈɒtəmiː is a Surgical incision through the Perineum made to enlarge the Vagina and assist childbirth In Medicine, a wound is a type of Injury in which the Skin is torn cut or punctured (an open wound or where blunt force trauma A Caesarean section (or Cesarean section in American English) also known as C-section, is a form of Childbirth in which a surgical For the alien race in Stephen Donaldson 's The Gap Cycle, see Amnion (Gap Cycle.

The most common non-obstetric surgical procedures include amputation, appendectomy, cataract surgery, circumcision, dental extraction and herniorraphy. Amputation is the removal of a body extremity by trauma or Surgery. An appendicectomy (or appendectomy) is the surgical removal of the Vermiform appendix. Cataract surgery is the removal of the lens of the Eye (also called "crystalline" that has developed an opacification which is referred to as a Male circumcision is the removal of some or all of the Foreskin (prepuce from the Penis. Herniorrhaphy (Hernioplasty Hernia repair is a surgical procedure for correcting Hernia.

According to 1996 data from the US National Center for Health Statistics, 40. National Center for Health Statistics ( NCHS) is part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC which is part of the United States Department of 3 million inpatient surgical procedures were performed in the United States in 1996, followed closely by 31. 5 million outpatient operations.

Surgical Specialties

• Cardiothoracic surgery
• Colon and Rectal surgery
• Dental Surgery
• General surgery
• Maxillofacial surgery
• Neurological surgery
• Ophthalmology
• Orthopaedic surgery
• Otolaryngology
• Paediatric surgery
• Plastic surgery
• Urology
• Vascular

See also

References

External links

• The Thomson/Miles Manual of Surgery
• Plastic surgery and Greek mythology
• Surgery Videos
• Surgeons Net Educational Site
• Comparison of shoulder scars for open verses arthroscopic surgeries
• The portrayal of surgery by various artists
• A Manual of Military Surgery, by Samuel D. Gross, MD (1861). The manual used by doctors in the Union Army during the American Civil War.
• United States Surgery Patents
• Surgery Instruments
• American Surgical Association
• Unmanned robot surgeon
• AO Surgery Reference
• The Imperial College London Surgical Society
• Pediatric Surgery

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