Surface runoff is a term used to describe the flow of water, from rain, snowmelt, or other sources, over the land and is a major component of the water cycle. Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. Rain is Liquid precipitation. On Earth it is the condensation of atmospheric Water vapor into drops heavy enough to fall often making it to In Hydrology, snowmelt is Surface runoff produced from melting Snow. The Earth 's Water is always in movement and the water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle, describes the continuous movement of water on above [1][2] Runoff that occurs on surfaces before reaching a channel is also called a nonpoint source. Physical geography, a channel is the physical confine of a River, slough or ocean Strait consisting of a bed and banks Nonpoint source (NPS pollution is Water pollution affecting a water body from diffuse sources rather than a point source which discharges to a water body at a single If a nonpoint source contains man-made contaminants, the runoff is called nonpoint source pollution. Nonpoint source (NPS pollution is Water pollution affecting a water body from diffuse sources rather than a point source which discharges to a water body at a single A land area which produces runoff draining to common point is called a watershed. A drainage basin is an extent of Land where Water from Rain or Snow melt drains downhill into a body of water such as a River, When runoff flows along the ground, it can pick up soil contaminants such as petroleum, pesticides (in particular herbicides and insecticides), or fertilizers that become discharge or nonpoint source pollution. Soil contamination is caused by the presence of man-made chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest. A herbicide is used to kill unwanted Plants Selective herbicides kill specific targets while leaving the desired Crop relatively unharmed An insecticide is a Pesticide used against Insects in all developmental forms Fertilizers ( also spelt fertiliser are chemical compounds given to Plants to promote growth they are usually applied either through the soil for uptake by plant In Hydrology, the discharge or outflow of a River is the volume of Water transported by it in a certain amount of time [3]
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Generation
Surface runoff can be generated either by rainfall or by the melting of snow or glaciers. Rain is Liquid precipitation. On Earth it is the condensation of atmospheric Water vapor into drops heavy enough to fall often making it to "Snowfall" redirects here For other uses see Snow (disambiguation or Snowfall (disambiguation. "Glacial" and "Glaciation" redirect here For the geological periods see Glacial period.
Snow and glacier melt occur only in areas cold enough for these to form permanently. Typically snowmelt will peak in the spring and glacier melt in the summer, leading to pronounced flow maxima in rivers affected by them. The determining factor of the rate of melting of snow or glaciers is both air temperature and the duration of sunlight. In high mountain regions, streams frequently rise on sunny days and fall on cloudy ones for this reason.
In areas where there is no snow, runoff will come from rainfall. However, not all rainfall will produce runoff because storage from soils can absorb light showers. On the extremely ancient soils of Australia and Southern Africa[4], proteoid roots with their extremely dense networks of root hairs can absorb so much rainwater as to prevent runoff even when substantial amounts of rain fall. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. Southern Africa is the Southernmost Region of the African Continent, variably defined by Geography or Geopolitics. Proteoid roots, also known as cluster roots, are Plant Roots that form clusters of closely spaced short lateral rootlets In these regions, even on relatively less infertile cracking clay soils, high amounts of rainfall and low potential evaporation are needed to generate any surface runoff, leading to specialised adaptations to extremely variable (usually ephemeral) streams. In both the FAO and USA soil taxonomy, a vertisol is a soil in which there is a high content of Expansive clay known as Montmorillonite
Infiltration excess overland flow
This occurs when the rate of rainfall on a surface exceeds the rate at which water can infiltrate the ground, and any depression storage has already been filled. Rain is Liquid precipitation. On Earth it is the condensation of atmospheric Water vapor into drops heavy enough to fall often making it to Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground surface enters the Soil. This is called infiltration excess overland flow, Hortonian overland flow (after Robert E. Horton), or unsaturated overland flow. Robert Elmer Horton ( May 18, 1875 - April 22, 1945) was an American ecologist and soil scientist, considered This more commonly occurs in arid and semi-arid regions, where rainfall intensities are high and the soil infiltration capacity is reduced because of surface sealing, or in paved areas. In general terms the Climate of a local or region is said to be arid when it is characterized by a severe lack of available Water, to the extent of hindering A Semi-arid climate or steppe climate generally describes climatic regions that receive low annual Rainfall (250-500 mm or 10-20 in Soil, often typeset as SOiL, is a four piece rock band from Chicago Illinois United States founded by Shaun Glass Tom Schofield Tim King and Adam Zadel Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground surface enters the Soil.
Saturation excess overland flow
When the soil is saturated and the depression storage filled, and rain continues to fall, the rainfall will immediately produce surface runoff. Soil, often typeset as SOiL, is a four piece rock band from Chicago Illinois United States founded by Shaun Glass Tom Schofield Tim King and Adam Zadel (Note in the photo to the left the microdepressions are full of water as seen in the lower left of the image. ) The level of antecedent soil moisture is one factor affecting the time until soil becomes saturated. Antecedent soil moisture is a term used in Surface-water hydrology in reference to Runoff prediction and in process Geomorphology in reference to Fluvial This runoff is saturation excess overland flow or saturated overland flow.
Subsurface return flow
After water infiltrates the soil on an up-slope portion of a hill, the water may flow laterally through the soil, and exfiltrate (flow out of the soil) closer to a channel. This is called subsurface return flow or interflow.
As it flows, the amount of runoff may be reduced in a number of possible ways: a small portion of it may evaporate; water may become temporarily stored in microtopographic depressions; and a portion of it may become run-on, which is the infiltration of runoff as it flows overland. Evaporation is the process by which Molecules in a Liquid state (e In Hydrology, run-on refers both to the process whereby Surface runoff infiltrates the ground as it flows and to the portion of runoff that infiltrates Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground surface enters the Soil. What surface runoff that remains eventually flows into a receiving water body such as a river, lake, estuary or ocean. For Water masses on the surface of the world ocean see Surface water (ocean. "Riverine" redirects here For the use of that term in Maritime geography, see there A lake (from Latin lacus) is a Terrain feature (or Physical feature) a body of Liquid on the surface of a world that is localized to the An estuary is a semi-enclosed Coastal body of Water with one or more Rivers or Streams flowing into it and with a free connection to the open An ocean (from Greek, ''Okeanos'' (Oceanus) is a major body of saline water, and a principal component of the Hydrosphere. [5]
Human impact on surface runoff
Urbanization increases surface runoff, by creating more impervious surfaces such as pavement and buildings, that do not allow percolation of the water down through the soil to the aquifer. Urbanizationn (also spelled urbanisation) is the physical growth of Urban areas into rural or natural land as a result of population in-migration to an existing Impervious surfaces are mainly artificial structures such as pavements rooftops sidewalks roads and parking lots - covered by impenetrable materials such as asphalt concrete In Physics, Chemistry and Materials science, percolation concerns also the movement and filtering of fluids through porous materials An aquifer is an underground layer of Water -bearing Permeable rock or unconsolidated materials ( Gravel, Sand, Silt, or Clay It is instead forced directly into streams or storm water runoff drains, where erosion and siltation can be major problems, even when flooding is not. Erosion is the carrying away or displacement of solids ( Sediment, Soil, rock and other particles usually by the agents of currents such as wind Silt is Soil or rock derived Granular material of a Grain size between sand and clay Increased runoff reduces groundwater recharge, thus lowering the water table and making droughts worse, especially for farmers and others who depend on water wells. Groundwater is Water located beneath the Ground surface in Soil pore spaces and in the Fractures of lithologic formations The water table is the level at which the ground water pressure is equal to Atmospheric pressure. A drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply
When anthropogenic contaminants are dissolved or suspended in runoff, the human impact is expanded to create water pollution. Water pollution is the contamination of Water bodies such as Lakes Rivers Oceans and Groundwater caused by human activities This pollutant load can reach various receiving waters such as streams, rivers, lakes, estuaries and oceans with resultant water chemistry changes to these water systems and their related ecosystems.
A contrarian could note there is considerable surface runoff in natural systems from animal wastes being entrained in runoff or from natural sediment loading in the absence of human alteration of the land. While these statements are true, they fail to convey that the most pernicious consequences to human health and ecosystems are from runoff issues related human intervention; however, in underdeveloped countries the proportion of runoff attributable to natural factors has greater dominance, principally due to the lack of isolation of water supplies from potential animal waste carrying runoff.
Effects of surface runoff
Erosion
Surface runoff is one of the causes of erosion of the earth's surface. Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability disorder harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms they are in Air pollution is the human introduction into the atmosphere of Chemicals Particulate matter, or Biological materials that cause harm or discomfort Acid rain is Rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually Acidic It has harmful effects on plants aquatic animals and infastructure The Air Quality Index ( AQI) is a standardized indicator of the Air Quality in a given location Atmospheric dispersion modeling is the mathematical simulation of how air pollutants disperse in the ambient atmosphere. The haloalkanes (also known as halogenoalkanes or alkyl halides) are a group of Chemical compounds consisting of Alkanes such as Methane Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct Irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic Global warming is the increase in the average measured temperature of the Haze is traditionally an atmospheric phenomenon where dust smoke and other dry particles obscure the clarity of the sky Indoor Air Quality (IAQ deals with the content of interior air that could affect health and comfort of building occupants Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related observations a slow steady decline of about 4 percent per decade in the total amount of Ozone in Earth's Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas Smog is a kind of Air pollution; the word "smog" is a Portmanteau of Smoke and Fog. Water pollution is the contamination of Water bodies such as Lakes Rivers Oceans and Groundwater caused by human activities Eutrophication is an increase in chemical Nutrients -- typically compounds containing Nitrogen or Phosphorus -- in an Ecosystem, and may occur For other uses of the term "hypoxia" see Hypoxia. Hypoxia or oxygen depletion is a phenomenon that occurs in aquatic environments Marine pollution is the harmful effect caused by the entry into the ocean of chemicals particles, or Plastic debris. For the fictional character see Oil Slick (Transformers. An oil spill is the release of a Liquid Petroleum Hydrocarbon into Ship pollution is the pollution of air and Water by Shipping. Thermal pollution is a Temperature change in natural bodies of water caused by human influence Distinguish from Wastwater (a lake in the Lake District in northwest England Waterborne diseases are caused by Pathogenic Microorganisms which are directly transmitted when contaminated Drinking water is consumed Water quality is the physical chemical and biological characteristics of Water in relationship to a set of standards Water stagnation occurs when Water stops flowing Stagnant water can be a major Environmental hazard. Soil contamination is caused by the presence of man-made chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment Bioremediation can be defined as any process that uses Microorganisms Fungi, green plants or their Enzymes to return the natural environment altered A herbicide is used to kill unwanted Plants Selective herbicides kill specific targets while leaving the desired Crop relatively unharmed A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest. Radioactive contamination is the uncontrolled distribution of radioactive material in a given environment Actinides in the environment refer to the sources environmental behaviour and effects of Actinides in the environment. Environmental Radioactivity is the study of radioactive materials in the Human environment. Fission products are the atomic fragments left after a large nucleus fissions. Fallout is the residual radiation hazard from a Nuclear explosion, so named because it "falls out" of the atmosphere into which it is spread during the explosion Plutonium in the environment is an article which is part of the Actinides in the environment series Radiation poisoning, also called " radiation sickness " or a " creeping dose " is a form of damage to organ tissue due to excessive exposure to This is a subpage of Environmental radioactivity. Radium Radium in quack medicine See the story of Eben Byers for details of one very nasty case Uranium in the environment, this page is about the Science of Uranium in the environment and in animals (including humans Introduced species|Weed Invasive species is a phrase with several definitions Light pollution, also known as photopollution or luminous pollution, is excess or obtrusive Light created mainly by Humans Among other effects Noise pollution (or environmental noise) is displeasing human- or machine-created sound that disrupts the activity or balance of human or animal life Radio spectrum pollution is the straying of waves in the radio and Electromagnetic spectrums outside their allocations that cause problems for some activities Visual pollution is the term given to unattractive or unnatural (human-made visual elements of a vista a Landscape, or any other thing that a person might not want to For other similarly-named agreements see Montreal Convention (disambiguation. Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Concerning the Control of Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides or Their Transboundary Fluxes, opened for signature on The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the international Framework Convention on Climate Change with the objective of reducing Greenhouse gases in an effort The Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution, often abbreviated as Air Pollution or CLRTAP, is intended to protect the human environment against Air This is a list of environmental organizations. See also Environmental organization Intergovernmental organizations International organizations The Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra) is the United Kingdom government department responsible for environmental protection The Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW is a worldwide system established by the World Meteorological Organization a United Nations agency to monitor trends in the Greenpeace, originally known as the Greenpeace Foundation, was founded in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada in 1972 The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS are standards established by the United States Environmental Protection Agency that apply for outdoor Air Environmental science is the study of interactions among physical chemical and biological components of the environment. See also Nature The natural environment, commonly referred to simply as the environment, is a terminology that is comprised of all living and Erosion is the carrying away or displacement of solids ( Sediment, Soil, rock and other particles usually by the agents of currents such as wind Reduced crop productivity usually results from erosion, and these effects are studied in the field of soil conservation. Soil conservation is set of management strategies for prevention of Soil being eroded from the earth’s surface or becoming chemically altered by overuse There are four principal types of erosion: splash erosion, gully erosion, sheet erosion and stream bed erosion. This article refers to the landform For other uses see Gully (disambiguation. A stream bed is the channel bottom of a Stream or River or creek the physical confine of the normal water flow Splash erosion is the result of mechanical collision of a raindrop with the soil surface, resulting in some of the soil particles becoming suspended in surface runoff solution. Gully erosion occurs when the runoff stream is so strong that it cuts a recognizable swath in the soil and creates a small rivulet of well defined channel, which could be as small as one centimeter wide or as large as several meters. Sheet erosion is the overland transport of runoff which does not have any well defined channel. Both types of runoff can transport significant quantities of sediment or other water pollutants. In the case of gully erosion, massive amounts of material can be transported in a small time increment. Stream bed erosion is not the subject of this article, but is the attrition of stream banks or bottoms by rapidly flowing rivers or creeks.
The soil particles carried in runoff have variable size typically from about . 001 millimeter to 1. 0 millimeter in diameter. Larger particles tend to precipitate out, or settle, with small transport distances, whereas minute particles can travel long distances suspended in the water column. Precipitation is the formation of a Solid in a Solution during a Chemical reaction. A water column is a conceptual column of water from surface to bottom sediments For this reason it is the smaller particle silty soils that tend to generate turbidity and diminish light transmission, a condition that can disrupt aquatic ecosystems. Turbidity is the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by individual particles ( suspended solids) that are generally invisible to the Naked eye An aquatic ecosystem is an Ecosystem located in water bodies.
One of the main sources of modern erosive soil loss worldwide stems from slash and burn treatment of tropical forests. Slash and burn consists of cutting and burning of Forests or Woodlands to create fields for Agriculture or Pasture for Livestock, or The Tropics are centered on the Equator and limited in Latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the northern hemisphere at approximately 23°26' (23 A forest is an area with a high density of Trees There are many definitions of a forest based on various criteria When the total ground surface is stripped of vegetation and then seared of all living organisms, the upper soils are vulnerable to both wind and water erosion. In a number of regions of the earth, entire sectors of a country have been rendered unproductive; for example, on the Madagascar high central plateau, comprising approximately ten percent of that country's land area, virtually the entire landscape is sterile of vegetation, with gully erosive furrows typically in excess of 50 meters deep and one kilometer wide. Madagascar, or Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic) is an Island nation in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern In Geology and Earth science, a plateau, also called a high plateau or tableland, is an area of highland, usually consisting Vegetation is a general term for the plant life of a region it refers to the Ground cover provided by plants Shifting cultivation is a farming system which sometimes incorporates the slash and burn method in some regions of the world. For methods see Slash and burn Shifting cultivation is an Agricultural system in which plots of land are cultivated temporarily then abandoned Slash and burn consists of cutting and burning of Forests or Woodlands to create fields for Agriculture or Pasture for Livestock, or Erosion cause loss of the fertile top soil and reduces the its fertility and quality of the agricultural produce.
Environmental impacts
The principal environmental issues associated with runoff are the impacts to surface water, groundwater and soil through transport of water pollutants to these systems. Groundwater is Water located beneath the Ground surface in Soil pore spaces and in the Fractures of lithologic formations Soil, often typeset as SOiL, is a four piece rock band from Chicago Illinois United States founded by Shaun Glass Tom Schofield Tim King and Adam Zadel Ultimately these consequences translate into human health risk, ecosystem disturbance and aesthetic impact to water resources. Some of the contaminants that create the greatest impact to surface waters arising from runoff are petroleum substances, herbicides and fertilizers. Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit A herbicide is used to kill unwanted Plants Selective herbicides kill specific targets while leaving the desired Crop relatively unharmed Fertilizers ( also spelt fertiliser are chemical compounds given to Plants to promote growth they are usually applied either through the soil for uptake by plant Quantitative uptake by surface runoff of pesticides and other contaminants has been studied since the 1960s, and early on contact of pesticides with water was known to enhance phytotoxicity. Phytotoxicity is a term used to describe the toxic effect of a compound on plant growth [6] In the case of surface waters, the impacts translate to water pollution, since the streams and rivers have received runoff carrying various chemicals or sediments. Water pollution is the contamination of Water bodies such as Lakes Rivers Oceans and Groundwater caused by human activities When surface waters are used as potable water supplies, they can be compromised regarding health risks and drinking water aesthetics (that is, odor, color and turbidity effects). Aesthetics or esthetics ( also spelled æsthetics) is commonly known as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values sometimes called Turbidity is the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by individual particles ( suspended solids) that are generally invisible to the Naked eye Contaminated surface waters risk altering the metabolic processes of the aquatic species that they host; these alterations can lead to death, such as fish kills, or alter the balance of populations present. In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. Other specific impacts are on animal mating, spawning, egg and larvae viability, juvenile survival and plant productivity. In most Birds and Reptiles an egg ( Latin ovum) is the Zygote, resulting from Fertilization of the Ovum. In Roman mythology, the larvae or lemures (singular lemur) were the spectres or spirits of the dead they were the malignant version of the
In the case of groundwater, the main issue is contamination of drinking water, if the aquifer is abstracted for human use. Regarding soil contamination, runoff waters can have two important pathways of concern. Soil contamination is caused by the presence of man-made chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment Firstly, runoff water can extract soil contaminants and carry them in the form of water pollution to even more sensitive aquatic habitats. Secondly, runoff can deposit contaminants on relatively pristine soils, creating health or ecological consequences.
Flooding
Flooding occurs when a watercourse is unable to convey the quantity of runoff flowing downstream. A flood is an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges land a deluge The frequency with which this occurs is described by a return period. A return period also known as a recurrence interval is an estimate of the interval of time between events like an Earthquake, Flood or river discharge Flooding is a natural process, which maintains ecosystem composition and processes, but it can also be altered by land use changes such as river engineering. Floods can be both beneficial to societies or cause damage. Agriculture along the Nile floodplain took advantage of the seasonal flooding that deposited nutrients beneficial for crops. The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River However, as the number and susceptibility of settlements increase, flooding increasingly becomes a natural hazard. Adverse impacts span loss of life, property damage, contamination of water supplies, loss of crops, and social dislocation and temporary homelessness. Floods are among the most devastating of natural disasters.
Agricultural issues
A common context of run-off deals with agriculture. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture When farmland is tilled and bare soil is revealed, rainwater carries billions of tons of topsoil into waterways each year, causing loss of valuable topsoil and adding sediment to produce turbidity in surface waters. In Geography, arable land (from Latin arare, to Plough) is an agricultural term meaning land that can be used for Topsoil is the upper outermost layer of soil usually the top 2 to 8 inches Turbidity is the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by individual particles ( suspended solids) that are generally invisible to the Naked eye For Water masses on the surface of the world ocean see Surface water (ocean.
The other context of agricultural issues involves the transport of agricultural chemicals (nitrates, phosphates, pesticides, herbicides etc) via surface runoff. This result occurs when chemical use is excessive or poorly timed with respect to high precipitation. The resulting contaminated runoff represents not only a waste of agricultural chemicals, but also an environmental threat to downstream ecosystems. The alternative to conventional farming is organic farming which eliminates or greatly reduces chemical usage. Organic farming is a form of agriculture that relies on Crop rotation, Green manure, Compost, Biological pest control, and mechanical Cultivation
Measurement and mathematical modeling
Runoff is analyzed by using mathematical models in combination with various water quality sampling methods. Note The term model has a different meaning in Model theory, a branch of Mathematical logic. Water quality is the physical chemical and biological characteristics of Water in relationship to a set of standards Measurements can be made using continuous automated water quality analysis instruments targeted on pollutants such as specific organic or inorganic chemicals, pH, turbidity etc. An organic compound is any member of a large class of Chemical compounds whose Molecules contain Carbon. Traditionally inorganic compounds are considered to be of mineral not biological origin pH is the measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a Solution. or targeted on secondary indicators such as dissolved oxygen. Oxygen saturation is a relative measure of the amount of Oxygen that is Dissolved or carried in a given medium Measurements can also be made in batch form by extracting a single water sample and conducting any number of chemical or physical tests on that sample.
In the 1950s or earlier hydrology transport models appeared to calculate quantities of runoff, primarily for flood forecasting. An hydrological transport model is a Mathematical model used to simulate river or Stream flow and calculate water quality parameters Beginning in the early 1970s computer models were developed to analyze the transport of runoff carrying water pollutants, which considered dissolution rates of various chemicals, infiltration into soils and ultimate pollutant load delivered to receiving waters. Solvation, commonly called dissolution, is the process of attraction and association of Molecules of a Solvent with molecules or Ions of a Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground surface enters the Soil. For Water masses on the surface of the world ocean see Surface water (ocean. One of the earliest models addressing chemical dissolution in runoff and resulting transport was developed in the early 1970s under contract to the EPA. [7] This computer model formed the basis of much of the mitigation study that led to strategies for land use and chemical handling controls. A computer simulation, a computer model or a computational model is a Computer program, or network of computers that attempts to simulate an Land use' is also often used to refer to the distinct land use types in Zoning.
Other computer models have been developed (such as the DSSAM Model) that allow surface runoff to be tracked through a river course as reactive water pollutants. The DSSAM Model (Dynamic Stream Simulation and AssessmentModel is a Computer simulation developed for the Truckee River to analyze water quality In this case the surface runoff may be considered to be a line source of water pollution to the receiving waters. A line source is a source of air noise water contamination or electromagnetic radiation that emanates from a linear (one-dimensional geometry Water pollution is the contamination of Water bodies such as Lakes Rivers Oceans and Groundwater caused by human activities
Mitigation and treatment
Mitigation of adverse impacts of runoff can take several forms:
- Land use development controls aimed at minimizing impervious surfaces in urban areas
- Erosion controls for farms and construction sites
- Flood control programs
- Chemical use and handling controls in agriculture, landscape maintenance, industrial use, etc. North Bend is a city in King County, Washington, United States. Land use' is also often used to refer to the distinct land use types in Zoning. Impervious surfaces are mainly artificial structures such as pavements rooftops sidewalks roads and parking lots - covered by impenetrable materials such as asphalt concrete Erosion is the carrying away or displacement of solids ( Sediment, Soil, rock and other particles usually by the agents of currents such as wind A farm is an area of land including various structures devoted primarily to the practice of producing and managing food ( Produce, Grains, or Livestock In the fields of Architecture and Civil engineering, construction is a process that consists of the Building or assembling of Infrastructure Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture
Regarding Land use controls, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and others have encouraged research on methods of minimizing total surface runoff by avoiding unnecessary hardscape. Land use' is also often used to refer to the distinct land use types in Zoning. Hardscape, in the practice of Landscaping, refers to the paved areas like Streets & Sidewalks large business complexes & Housing developments Many municipalities have produced guidelines and codes for land developers that encourage minimum width sidewalks, use of pavers set in earth for driveways and walkways and other design techniques to allow maximum water infiltration in urban settings. An interlocking concrete paver is a multi-shaped multi-colored piece of concrete commonly used in exterior hardscaping applications A driveway is a type of private road for local access to one or a small group of structures and is owned and maintained by an individual or group A walkway is a composite or umbrella term for all formal surfaces supporting walking An example land use control program can be viewed at seen in the city of Santa Monica, California. [8]
Erosion controls have appeared since medieval times when farmers realized the importance of contour farming to protect soil resources. Erosion is the carrying away or displacement of solids ( Sediment, Soil, rock and other particles usually by the agents of currents such as wind Beginning in the 1950s these agricultural methods became increasingly more sophisticated. After passage of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) in the United States, much more effort was focused upon mitigation of construction runoff by such tactics as: use of straw bales and barriers to slow runoff on slopes, programming construction for months that have less rainfall and minimizing extent and duration of exposed graded areas. The National Environmental Policy Act ( NEPA) is a United States environmental law that was signed into law on January 1, 1970 by U
Flood control programs as early as the first half of the twentieth century became quantitative in predicting peak flows of riverine systems. Progressively strategies have been developed to minimize peak flows and also to reduce channel velocities. Some of the techniques commonly applied are: provision of holding ponds to buffer riverine peak flows, use of energy dissipators in channels to reduce stream velocity and land use controls (above) to minimize runoff. [9]
Chemical use and handling has become a focal point mainly since passage of NEPA in the U. A chemical substance is a Material with a definite chemical composition. The National Environmental Policy Act ( NEPA) is a United States environmental law that was signed into law on January 1, 1970 by U S. States and cities have become more vigilant in controlling the containment and storage of toxic chemicals, thus preventing releases and leakage. Methods commonly applied are: requirements for double containment of underground storage tanks, registration of hazardous materials usage, reduction in numbers of allowed pesticides and more stringent regulation of fertilizers and herbicides in landscape maintenance. A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest. In many industrial cases, pretreatment of wastes is required, to minimize escape of pollutants into sanitary or stormwater sewers. A sanitary sewer (also called especially in the UK a foul sewer) is a type of underground carriage system for transporting Sewage from houses or industry to A storm drain, storm sewer ( US) stormwater drain ( Australia and New Zealand) or surface water system ( UK)
The U. S. Clean Water Act (CWA) requires that local governments in urbanized areas (as defined by the Census Bureau) obtain stormwater discharge permits for their drainage systems. The Clean Water Act is the primary Federal law in the United States governing Water pollution. The United States Census Bureau (officially Bureau of the Census as defined in Title) is the government agency that is responsible for the United States Census Stormwater is a term used to describe water that originates during precipitation events [10][11] Essentially this means that the locality must operate a stormwater management program for all surface runoff that enters the municipal separate storm sewer system ("MS4"). A storm drain, storm sewer ( US) stormwater drain ( Australia and New Zealand) or surface water system ( UK) EPA and state regulations and related publications outline six basic components that each local program must contain:
- Public education (informing individuals, households, businesses about ways to avoid stormwater pollution)
- Public involvement (support public participation in implementation of local programs)
- Illicit discharge detection & elimination (removing sanitary sewer or other non-stormwater connections to the MS4)
- Construction site runoff controls (i. A sanitary sewer (also called especially in the UK a foul sewer) is a type of underground carriage system for transporting Sewage from houses or industry to In the fields of Architecture and Civil engineering, construction is a process that consists of the Building or assembling of Infrastructure e. erosion & sediment controls)
- Post-construction (i. Erosion control is the practice of preventing or controlling wind or water Erosion in Agriculture, Land development and Construction. e. permanent) stormwater management controls
- Pollution prevention and "good housekeeping" measures (e. Pollution prevention (P2 describes activities that reduce the amount of pollution generated by a process whether it is consumer consumption driving or industrial production g. system maintenance).
Other property owners which operate storm drain systems similar to municipalities, such as state highway systems, universities, military bases and prisons, are also subject to the MS4 permit requirements.
References
- ^ Robert E. Horton, The Horton Papers (1933)
- ^ Keith Beven, Robert E. Horton's perceptual model of infiltration processes, Hydrological Processes, Wiley Intersciences DOI 10:1002 hyp 5740 (2004)
- ^ L. Robert Elmer Horton ( May 18, 1875 - April 22, 1945) was an American ecologist and soil scientist, considered Davis Mackenzie and Susan J. Masten, Principles of Environmental Engineering and Science ISBN 0-07-235053-9
- ^ McMahon T. A. and Finlayson, B. ; Global Runoff: Continental Comparisons of Annual Flows and Peak Discharges
- ^ Robin Nelson, The Water Cycle, Lerner Publishing Company, Minneapolis, Mn. , 2004 ISBN 0-8225-4596-9
- ^ W. F. Spencer, Distribution of Pesticides between Soil, Water and Air, International symposium on Pesticides in the Soil, February 25-27, 1970, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
- ^ C. M. Hogan, Leda Patmore, Gary Latshaw, Harry Seidman et al. Computer modeling of pesticide transport in soil for five instrumented watersheds, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Southeast Water laboratory, Athens, Ga. A computer simulation, a computer model or a computational model is a Computer program, or network of computers that attempts to simulate an by ESL Inc., Sunnyvale, California (1973)
- ^ Urban Runoff, City of Santa Monica website. ESL Incorporated, or Electromagnetic Systems Laboratory, was a Subsidiary of TRW, a high technology firm in the United States that was engaged Retrieved 29 July 2007.
- ^ Channel Stability Assessment for Flood Control Projects U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, (1996) ISBN 0-7844-0201-9
- ^ Code of Federal Regulations, 40 CFR 122.26
- ^ EPA - Stormwater Discharges From Municipal Separate Storm Sewer Systems (MS4s)
External links
- USDA NRCS National Engineering Handbook, Stage Discharge Relationships, Ch. 14
- Rainfall-runoff model, provides free download of a conceptual model (RainOff) based on a nonlinear reservoir. The United States Army Corps of Engineers ( USACE) is a federal agency and a major Army command made up of some 34600 Civilian and 650 Military personnel
- NutrientNet, an online nutrient trading tool developed by the World Resources Institute, designed to address water quality issues related to surface runoff and other pollution. See also the PA NutrientNet website designed for Pennsylvania's nutrient trading program.
- Bioretention as a low impact development method of treating surface runoff
- EPA Stormwater Permit Program
- EPA - Menu of Stormwater Best Management Practices
See also
- Catchwater
- Erosion control
- Flood forecasting
- Herbicide
- Insecticide
- Nationwide Urban Runoff Program (NURP)
- Pesticide
- Runoff curve number
- Soil conservation
- Soil contamination
- Stormwater
- Water pollution
Dictionary
surface runoff
-noun
- Overland flow of excess water (with or without accumulated contaminants) that cannot be absorbed by the ground as infiltration.
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