| Suharto | |
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| In office March 12, 1967 – May 21, 1998 |
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| Vice President | Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX (1973–1978), Adam Malik (1978–1983), Umar Wirahadikusumah (1983–1988), Sudharmono (1988–1993), Try Sutrisno (1993–1998), Jusuf Habibie (1998) |
| Preceded by | Sukarno |
| Succeeded by | Jusuf Habibie |
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| In office September 7, 1992 – October 20, 1995 |
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| Preceded by | Dobrica Ćosić |
| Succeeded by | Ernesto Samper Pizano |
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| Born | June 8, 1921 Kemusuk, Dutch East Indies |
| Died | January 27, 2008 (aged 86) Jakarta, Indonesia |
| Nationality | Indonesian |
| Political party | Golkar |
| Spouse | Siti Hartinah (1947–1996) |
| Children | Siti Hardiyanti Hastuti[1] Sigit Harjojudanto Bambang Trihatmodjo Siti Hediyati Hariyadi Hutomo Mandala Putra Siti Hutami Endang Adiningsih |
| Profession | Military |
| Religion | Sunni Islam[2] |
Suharto, also spelled Soeharto (June 8, 1921 – January 27, 2008) was an Indonesian military leader, and the second President of Indonesia, holding the office from 1967 to 1998. The President of the Republic of Indonesia ( Presiden Republik Indonesia) is the Head of State as well as the Head of the Government of the Republic Events 538 - Witiges, king of the Ostrogoths ends his siege of Rome and retreats to Ravenna, leaving Year 1967 ( MCMLXVII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the 1967 Gregorian calendar. Events 878 - Syracuse Italy is captured by the Muslim sultan of Sicily. Year 1998 ( MCMXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1998 Gregorian calendar) Adam Malik ( 22 July, 1917 - 5 September, 1984) was Indonesia's third vice president Umar Wirahadikusumah ( Situraja, Sumedang Regency, West Java, 10 October 1924 - Jakarta, 21 March 2003 Sudharmono ( 12 March 1927 &ndash 25 January 2006) was Indonesia 's fifth Vice president, and was in office during the period Try Sutrisno (born Surabaya, East Java 15 November 1935) is Indonesia 's sixth vice president from the period 1993 to 1998 Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie (born June 25, 1936) more commonly known simply as Rudi Habibie or B J Habibie, was the third President of Indonesia Sukarno ( June 6, 1901 – June 21, 1970) was the first President of Indonesia. Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie (born June 25, 1936) more commonly known simply as Rudi Habibie or B J Habibie, was the third President of Indonesia The Non-Aligned Movement ( NAM) is an International organization of states considering themselves not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc Events 1251 BC - A Solar eclipse on this date might mark the birth of legendary Heracles at Thebes Greece. Year 1992 ( MCMXCII) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1992 Gregorian calendar) Events 1740 - Maria Theresa takes the throne of Austria. France, Prussia, Bavaria and Saxony Year 1995 ( MCMXCV) was a Common year starting on Sunday. Events of 1995 Dobrica Ćosić ( Serbian Cyrillic: Добрица Ћосић (born December 29, 1921 in Velika Drenova, near Trstenik, in the Ernesto Samper Pizano also known as "El elefante" (born August 3, 1950 in Bogotá) is a Colombian politician Events 68 - The Roman Senate accepts emperor Galba. 536 - St Silverius becomes Pope (probable Year 1921 ( MCMXXI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1921 calendar of the Gregorian calendar Kemusuk is a Village in Sedayu subdistrict Bantul Regency, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. See http//enwikipediaorg/wiki/WikipediaFootnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the tags and the template below Events 98 - Trajan becomes Roman Emperor after the death of Nerva. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Jakarta (also DKI Jakarta) is the Capital and largest city of Indonesia. The Republic of Indonesia ( (Republik Indonesia is a Country in Southeast Asia. The Republic of Indonesia ( (Republik Indonesia is a Country in Southeast Asia. The Party of the Functional Groups (Partai Golongan Karya is a Political party in Indonesia. Raden Ayu Siti Hartinah (Born Jaten village Surakarta, Central Java, August 23 1923 – Jakarta, April 28 1996 Siti Hardiyanti Rukmana, or "Mbak Tutut" as she is more familiarly known in Indonesia, is the eldest daughter of former Indonesian President Suharto. Tommy Suharto (born Hutomo Mandala Putra on July 15 1962) is the son of Suharto, the former President of Indonesia A military is an Organization authorized by its Nation to use force usually including use of Weapons in defending its Country (or by attacking Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Events 68 - The Roman Senate accepts emperor Galba. 536 - St Silverius becomes Pope (probable Year 1921 ( MCMXXI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1921 calendar of the Gregorian calendar Events 98 - Trajan becomes Roman Emperor after the death of Nerva. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common The Republic of Indonesia ( (Republik Indonesia is a Country in Southeast Asia. The President of the Republic of Indonesia ( Presiden Republik Indonesia) is the Head of State as well as the Head of the Government of the Republic
Suharto was born in a small village near Yogyakarta, during the era of Dutch colonial control. The Special Region of Yogyakarta ( Indonesian: Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta, or DIY) is the smallest province of Indonesia (excluding See http//enwikipediaorg/wiki/WikipediaFootnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the tags and the template below His ethnic Javanese peasant parents divorced not long after his birth, and he passed between several foster parents for much of his childhood. The Javanese are an Ethnic group native to the Indonesian island of Java. After a brief and an unsuccessful stint as a village bank clerk, Suharto joined the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army in 1940. The Royal Netherlands East Indies Army ( Koninklijk Nederlands Indisch Leger; KNIL was the army of the Netherlands in its former Colony of the During the Japanese occupation of Indonesia, Suharto served in various Japanese-organised Indonesian security forces. Imperial Japan occupied Indonesia during World War II from March 1942 until after the end of War in 1945 He joined the newly formed Indonesian army during Indonesia's independence struggle where he rose through the ranks to command a garrison against Dutch offensives at the Republican capital of Yogyakarta. Timeline of the Indonesian National RevolutionThe Indonesian National Revolution or Indonesian War of Independence was an armed conflict and diplomatic struggle between Operatie Kraai ("Operation Crow" was the code name for a Dutch military offensive against the newly-formed Republic of Indonesia in December 1948 - January Following Indonesian independence, Suharto rose to the rank of Major General.
An attempted coup on 30 September 1965 was countered by Suharto-led troops. On the night of September 30 1965, six senior Indonesian army generals were murdered and the next morning Indonesians woke up to find an organization calling Events 1399 - Henry IV is proclaimed King of England. 1744 - France and Spain defeat the Year 1965 ( MCMLXV) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar of the 1965 Gregorian calendar. [3] The Suharto-led army blamed the attempt on the Indonesian Communist Party, which was subsequently outlawed, and led a violent anti-communist purge, which is thought to have killed over half a million people. The Communist Party of Indonesia (in Indonesian: Partai Komunis Indonesia, PKI) was the largest non-ruling Communist party in the world prior Suharto wrested power from the weakened incumbent and founding president, Sukarno, and was inaugurated President in March 1968. Indonesia's transition to the " New Order " in the mid-1960s ousted the country's first president Sukarno after 22 years in the position Sukarno ( June 6, 1901 – June 21, 1970) was the first President of Indonesia. Popular, military and political support in Indonesia for Suharto's 32-year presidency eroded dramatically following the devastating effect of the 1997-98 Asian financial crisis on Indonesia's economy and standard of living. The Asian Financial Crisis was a period of Financial crisis that gripped much of Asia beginning in July 1997 and raised fears of a worldwide economic meltdown ( Suharto was forced to resign from the presidency in May 1998 following mass demonstrations and violence. Suharto retired in May 1998 following collapse of support for his three-decade long Presidency of Indonesia. Suharto lived his post-presidential years in near seclusion, and died at the age of 86 in Jakarta in 2008.
The legacy of Suharto's 32-year presidency is debated both in Indonesia and abroad. Under his "New Order" administration, Suharto constructed a strong centralised and military-dominated government. The New Order ( Indonesian: Orde Baru) is the term coined by former Indonesian President Suharto to characterize his regime as he came to power in 1966 An ability to maintain stability over a sprawling and diverse Indonesia, and an avowedly anti-Communist stance, won him the economic and diplomatic support of the West during the Cold War. Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the For most of his presidency, Indonesia experienced significant economic growth and industrialization,[4] dramatically improving health, education and living standards. [5] The "New Order" placed restrictions on the country's ethnic Chinese. [6] Against the backdrop of Cold War international relations, Suharto's "New Order" invasion of East Timor, and the subsequent 24-year occupation, resulted in an estimated minimum of 102,800 deaths. See also Indonesian occupation of East Timor Indonesia invaded East Timor in 1975 following the Carnation Revolution in Portugal, which led to Portugal's [7] By the 1990s, the New Order's authoritarianism and widespread corruption—estimates of Suharto family embezzlement range from US$1. Authoritarianism describes a Form of government characterized by an emphasis on the Authority of the State in a republic or union 5 billion and US$35 billion[8][9]—was a source of much discontent, and was referred as one of the world's most corrupt leaders. [10] In the years since his presidency, attempts to try him on charges of corruption and genocide failed due to his poor health.
Like many Javanese, Suharto had only one name. Javanese people typically have three-part names each part of which is a Given name. [9] In religious contexts, he is sometimes called “Haji” or “el-Haj Mohammed Suharto”, but this Islamic title is not part of his formal name or generally used. Hajji (الحجّي al-ḥağğī Hadžija Pilgrim) or El-Hajj, is an honorific title given to a Muslim person who has successfully completed The spelling "Suharto" has been official in Indonesia since 1947 but the older spelling "Soeharto" is still frequently used.
Contents |
Background and career
Suharto was born in the era of Dutch colonial control of Indonesia, in Kemusuk, a part of the larger village of Godean, 15 kilometres west of Yogyakarta, in the Javanese heartland. See http//enwikipediaorg/wiki/WikipediaFootnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the tags and the template below Kemusuk is a Village in Sedayu subdistrict Bantul Regency, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. The Special Region of Yogyakarta ( Indonesian: Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta, or DIY) is the smallest province of Indonesia (excluding The Javanese are an Ethnic group native to the Indonesian island of Java. Escaping what was by many accounts a troubled childhood, he enrolled as a soldier in the Dutch military school during a time when the East Indies became a centre of several armed conflicts, including World War II and the Indonesian National Revolution. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Timeline of the Indonesian National RevolutionThe Indonesian National Revolution or Indonesian War of Independence was an armed conflict and diplomatic struggle between Suharto changed allegiances several times, from the Dutch to the Japanese and then to the Indonesian Nationalists but his training enabled him to become an asset to the side he finally settled upon, that of the Indonesian Nationalists.
A troubled and mysterious childhood
The facts of Suharto's childhood and youth are, according to Western biographies, steeped in both uncertainty and myth. Standard and apocryphal accounts of his early years and family life exist, many loaded with political meaning. Suharto's parents, his mother Sukirah and father Kertosudiro, were ethnic Javanese and peasant class, living in an area without electricity or running water. The Javanese are an Ethnic group native to the Indonesian island of Java. A peasant is an agricultural worker who subsists by working a small plot of ground His father Kertosudiro's marriage to Sukirah was his second; he already had two children from his previous marriage. Kertosudiro's marriage to Sukirah is believed to have ended in divorce early in Suharto's life, though exactly when is inconsistent - the account in Roeder's biography The Smiling General claims the divorce came within years of his birth; the account in Suharto's autobiography Pirakan states that it came within mere weeks. Both his parents later remarried.
Suharto was estranged from alternately each or both his parents for extended periods of time, being passed around several households for much of his early life. The marriage of his paternal aunt to a low-level Javanese official named Prawirowiharjo, who took to raising Suharto as his own, is believed by Elson (2001) to have provided both a father-figure and role model for Suharto, as well as a stable home in Wuryantoro, from where he received much of his primary education. Suharto boarded with a dukun ("guru") of Javanese mystical arts and faith healing; an experience that deeply affected Suharto who would later, as president, surround himself in powerful symbolic language. [5]
The absence of official documentation and certain aspects of Suharto's early life that are inconsistent with that of a Javanese peasant (Suharto received, for example, an education fairly early on), has led to several rumors of Suharto being the illegitimate child of a well-off benefactor, which included being the child of a Yogyakarta aristocrat or a well-off Chinese Indonesian merchant. The Special Region of Yogyakarta ( Indonesian: Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta, or DIY) is the smallest province of Indonesia (excluding Chinese Indonesians ( Hakka: Thong ngin Min: Teng lang Indonesian: Tionghoa Indonesia, or (derisively Cina totok) are ethnically [11] Suharto biographer Robert E. Elson believes that such rumors cannot be entirely ruled out, given that much of the information Suharto has given on his origins has been tinged with political meaning. Robert Edward Elson is Professor of South-East Asian History at the University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia, having [11]
As noted by Elson (2001) and others, Suharto's upbringing stood in contrast with that of leading Indonesian Nationalists such as Sukarno, in that he is believed to have had little interest in anti-colonialism, or political concerns beyond his immediate surroundings. He was also, unlike Sukarno and his circle, illiterate in Dutch or other European languages. Dutch ( is a West Germanic language spoken by around 24 million people 22 million of which are from the Netherlands, Belgium and Suriname He would, however, learn Dutch upon his induction into the Dutch military in 1940. [12]
Military career
World War II and Japanese occupation
- See also: Japanese occupation of Indonesia
After a brief stint in a clerical job at a village bank (from which he was forced to resign after a bicycle mishap tore his only working clothes),[13] followed by a spell of unemployment, Suharto joined the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army (KNIL) in 1940, and studied in a Dutch-run military school in Gombong near Yogyakarta. Imperial Japan occupied Indonesia during World War II from March 1942 until after the end of War in 1945 The Royal Netherlands East Indies Army ( Koninklijk Nederlands Indisch Leger; KNIL was the army of the Netherlands in its former Colony of the With the Netherlands under German occupation and the Japanese pressing for access to Indonesian oil supplies, the ranks of the KNIL had been opened to large intakes of previously excluded Javanese. [14]
After graduation, Suharto was assigned to Battalion XIII at Rampal. His service there was unextraordinary, but for his contracting malaria requiring hospitalization while on guard duty, and then gaining promotion to sergeant. Malaria is a vector -borne Infectious disease caused by Protozoan Parasites It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions including Sergeant is a rank used in some form by most militaries police forces and other uniformed organizations around the world [15]
The March 1942 invasion of Imperial Japanese forces was initially welcomed by many Indonesians as a key step towards independence and Suharto was one of thousands of Indonesians who volunteered for Japanese organised security forces. [16] He first joined the Japanese sponsored police force at the rank of keibuho (assistant inspector), where he claimed to have gained his first experience in the intelligence work so central to his presidency ("Criminal matters became a secondary problem," Suharto remarked, "what was most important were matters of a political kind"). [17]
Suharto shifted from police work toward the Japanese-sponsored militia, the Peta (Defenders of the Fatherland) in which Indonesians served as officers. In his training to serve at the rank of shodancho (platoon commander) he encountered a localized version of the Japanese bushido, or "way of the warrior", used to indoctrinate troops. This training encouraged an anti-Dutch and pro-nationalist thought, although toward the aims of the Imperial Japanese militarists. The encounter with a nationalistic and militarist ideology is believed to have profoundly influenced Suharto's own way of thinking. [18]
The Japanese turned ex-NCOs, including Suharto, into officers and gave them further military education, including lessons in the use of the samurai sword. Suharto's biographer, O. G. Roeder, records in The Smiling General (1969) that Suharto was "well known for his tough, but not brutal, methods".
Indonesian National Revolution
- See also: Indonesian National Revolution
The Japanese surrender to the Allies in World War II brought forth the opportunity for the leaders of the Indonesian Nationalist cause Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta to hastily declare the complete independence of Indonesia and the beginning of the Indonesian National Revolution. Timeline of the Indonesian National RevolutionThe Indonesian National Revolution or Indonesian War of Independence was an armed conflict and diplomatic struggle between Victory over Japan Day ( V-J Day, also known as Victory in the Pacific Day, or V-P Day) is a name chosen for the day on which the Surrender of Sukarno ( June 6, 1901 – June 21, 1970) was the first President of Indonesia. Mohammad Hatta ( August 12, 1902 - March 14, 1980) was born in Bukittinggi, West Sumatra, Dutch East Indies (now Timeline of the Indonesian National RevolutionThe Indonesian National Revolution or Indonesian War of Independence was an armed conflict and diplomatic struggle between International recognition of Indonesia's sovereignty, however, would only come after armed action - a task at which Suharto would prove himself adept.
Expulsion of the Japanese
The Japanese surrender left Suharto in a position to create a name for himself as a part of the military effort to first expel the remaining Japanese forces, and to prepare nationalist forces for the Dutch attempt to retake their former colonial possessions in the archipelago. He became a deputy to Umar Slamet in the service of the revolutionary government's People's Security Body (BKR).
Suharto claims to have led a number of attacks against remaining Japanese forces around Yogyakarta. The central role he commonly portrayed himself playing in his reminisces on the period during his presidency is debatable; however, it may be acknowledged that Suharto's familiarity with military functioning helped in the organization of the disparate independence forces into a unified fighting force. In the early years of the War, Suharto organized local armed forces into Battalion X of Regiment I; Suharto was promoted to the rank of Major and became Battalion X's leader. [19]
Return of the Dutch
The arrival of the Allies, under a mandate to return the situation to the status quo ante bellum, quickly led to clashes between Suharto's Division X and returning Dutch forces, bolstered by Gurkhas in the employ of Great Britain. The term status quo ante bellum comes from Latin meaning literally as things were before the war. Prithvi Naraya Shahdev and Sri Teen Maharaja Jung Bahadur The Way of Sacrifice The Rajputs Pages 28-30 Graduate Thesis South Asian Studies Department Dr Political differences within both the Allies and the civilian Nationalist forces caused the conflict to alternate in intensity from the end of 1945 into first months of 1946, as negotiations went on between the leaderships of the Indonesian Nationalists and the Dutch in between periods of fighting. In this muddle, Suharto led his troops toward halting an advance by the Dutch T ("Tiger") Brigade on May 17, 1946. Events 1521 - Edward Stafford 3rd Duke of Buckingham, is executed for Treason. Year 1946 ( MCMXLVI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full 1946 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. It earned Suharto the respect of his superior, Lieutenant Colonel Sunarto Kusumodirjo, who invited him to draft the working guidelines for the Battle Leadership Headquarters (MPP), a body created to organize and unify the command structure of the Indonesian Nationalist forces. [20]
The military forces of the still infant Republic of Indonesia were constantly restructuring. By August 1946, Suharto was head of the 22nd Regiment of Division III (the "Diponegoro" Division) stationed in Yogyakarta. Prince Diponegoro (born Yogyakarta 1785- died Makassar 1855 was a Javanese prince who opposed the Dutch colonial rule In late 1946 the Diponegoro Division became responsible for defense of the west and south-west of Yogyakarta from Dutch forces. The Special Region of Yogyakarta ( Indonesian: Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta, or DIY) is the smallest province of Indonesia (excluding Conditions at the time are reported in Dutch sources as miserable; Suharto himself is reported as assisting smuggling syndicates in the transport of opium through the territory he controlled, in order to make income. Opium is a Narcotic formed from the Latex (ie sap released by lacerating (or "scoring" the immature seed pods of opium poppies (
Suharto was married to Siti Hartinah, a woman from a high class family that, in the years of the revolution, lost its prestige and income. Raden Ayu Siti Hartinah (Born Jaten village Surakarta, Central Java, August 23 1923 – Jakarta, April 28 1996 Over the next 17 years the couple would have six children: Siti Hardiyanti Rukmana (Tutut, born 1949), Sigit Harjojudanto (born 1951), Bambang Trihatmodjo (born 1953), Siti Hediati (Titiek, born 1959), Hutomo Mandala Putra (Tommy, born 1962), and Siti Hutami Endang Adiningsih (Mamiek, born 1964). Siti Hardiyanti Rukmana, or "Mbak Tutut" as she is more familiarly known in Indonesia, is the eldest daughter of former Indonesian President Suharto. Tommy Suharto (born Hutomo Mandala Putra on July 15 1962) is the son of Suharto, the former President of Indonesia Suharto's wife, died in 1996.
Operatie Kraai ("Operation Crow"), commenced in December 1948 and decimated much of the Indonesian fighting forces, resulting in the capture of Sukarno and Hatta, the civilian leadership of Indonesia. Operatie Kraai ("Operation Crow" was the code name for a Dutch military offensive against the newly-formed Republic of Indonesia in December 1948 - January Suharto, for his part, took severe casualties as the Dutch invaded the area of Yogyakarta; the retreat was equally humiliating. [21]
Guerrilla warfare and victory
It is widely believed that the humiliating nature of this defeat engrained a sense of guilt in Suharto, as well as a sense of obligation to avenge his honor. Suharto, and the aggrieved Indonesian armed forces, attempted to do this by means of guerrilla warfare, using intelligence and supply networks established at the village level. Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc During this time ambushes became a favored tactic; villagers were enlisted to attack Dutch patrols with weapons as primitive as bamboo spears. The desired effect was to remind the populace of the continuing resistance to Dutch rule. However, these attacks were largely ineffective and were often comparable to suicide.
Suharto's efforts to regain the national honor culminated in an attack on Dutch forces at Yogyakarta on March 1, 1949. Events 86 BC - Lucius Cornelius Sulla, at the head of a Roman Republic army enters in Athens, removing the Tyrant Year 1949 ( MCMXLIX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Suharto would later embellish his role as the singular plotter; according to more objective sources, however, the nationalist Sultan Hamengku Buwono IX (who still remained in power), as well as the Panglima of the Third Division ordered the attack. General Nasution would recall, however, that Suharto took great care in preparing the "General Offensive" (Indonesian" Serangan Umum). Indonesian or Bahasa Indonesia, based on the Riau version of Malay language, was declared the official language with the declaration of
In a series of daring small-scale raids under cover of darkness and with the support of locals, Suharto's forces captured the city, holding it until noon. The attack yielded some ammunition and a few light arms; as propaganda and psychological warfare it had filled the desired effect, however - civilians sympathetic to the Nationalist cause within the city had been galvanized by the show of force, and internationally, the United Nations took notice, with the Security Council putting pressure on the Dutch to cease Police Action and to re-embark on negotiations. Propaganda is a concerted set of messages aimed at influencing the opinions or behaviors of large numbers of people The US Department of Defense defines psychological warfare ( PSYWAR) as" The planned use of Propaganda and other Psychological actions Suharto gained both national and international recognition of his abilities as a military planner.
The return of the Dutch to the negotiating table all but assured, Suharto took an active interest in the peace agreements, though they were much to his dissatisfaction. [22]
Post-Independence military career
During the following years he served in the Indonesian National Army, stationed primarily on Java. The Armed Forces of Indonesia ( Indonesian: Tentara Nasional Indonesia, TNI, formerly Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia, best known by Java (Jawa is an Island of Indonesia and the site of its Capital city Jakarta. In 1950, Colonel Suharto led the Garuda Brigade in suppressing a rebellion of largely Ambonese colonial-trained supporters of the Dutch-established State of Eastern Indonesia and its federal entity the United States of Indonesia; the rebellion was led by Andi Azis a former officer of the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army (KNIL). The Republic of the United States of Indonesia ( Indonesian: Republik Indonesia Serikat (RIS) was a Federal state to which The Netherlands formally The Royal Netherlands East Indies Army ( Koninklijk Nederlands Indisch Leger; KNIL was the army of the Netherlands in its former Colony of the [23] During his one-year stay in Makassar, Suharto became acquainted with his neighbours the Habibie family, whose eldest son BJ Habibie would later became Suharto's vice-president and went on to succeed him as President. Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie (born June 25, 1936) more commonly known simply as Rudi Habibie or B J Habibie, was the third President of Indonesia In 1951, Suharto led his troops in a cautious blocking campaign against the Islamic-inspired rebellion of Battalion 426 in Central Java before it was broken by the 'Banteng (Wild Buffalo) Raiders' led by Ahmad Yani. Central Java ( Provinsi Jawa Tengah) is a province of Indonesia. General Ahmad Yani (19 June 1922 - 1 October 1965 was the commander of the Indonesian Army, and was killed by members of the 30 September Movement during an attempt [24] Between 1954 and 1959, Brigadier General Suharto served in the important position of commander of Diponegoro Division, responsible for Central Java and Yogyakarta provinces. The Special Region of Yogyakarta ( Indonesian: Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta, or DIY) is the smallest province of Indonesia (excluding His relationship with prominent businessmen Liem Sioe Liong and Bob Hasan began in Central Java where he was involved in series of 'profit generating' enterprises conducted primarily to keep the poorly funded military unit functioning. Sudono Salim (Chinese 林绍良 Liem Swie Liong or Lim Sioe Liong (born 10 September 1915) an ethnic-Chinese Indonesian ( Chinese Indonesian) of Hok-Chia Mohamad "Bob" Hasan (born 1931 is an Indonesian businessman former Minister of Trade and Industry and friend of former President of Indonesia, Suharto [25] Army anti-corruption investigations implicated Suharto in 1959 smuggling scandal. However, his military career was rescued by Gen. Gatot Subroto; instead of being brought before a court martial, he was transferred to the army Staff College in Bandung, West Java. Bandung (bʌndʊŋ is the capital of West Java province in Indonesia, and the country's fourth largest city West Java (Jawa Barat with population around 3572 million is the most populous province of Indonesia, located on Java Island. [26]
In 1962 he was promoted to the rank of major general and was appointed to lead the Mandala Command, a joint army-navy-air force umbrella command headquartered in Makassar, that organised military incursions in Netherlands New Guinea, after this country had elected a council and adopted a flag and anthem in preparation of independence. Major General or Major-General is a Military rank used in many countries Netherlands New Guinea was the official name of Western New Guinea while it was a colonial possession of the Netherlands. The Morning Star flag (Indonesian Bintang Kejora) represented the territory of West New Guinea from 1 December 1961 until 1 October Diplomatic pressure by the US, which feared Indonesia would otherwise ally with the Soviet Union, led the Netherlands to sign the New York Agreement that transferred sovereignty of Western New Guinea to Indonesia. The New York Agreement is a document brokered by the United States on behalf of the Indonesian government in 1962 to transfer sovereignty of Western After this, Suharto was appointed commander of Kostrad (Strategic Reserve), a sizeable army combat force, which most importantly had significant presence in the Jakarta area. KOSTRAD (Komando Strategis Cadangan Angkatan Darat is the Indonesian Army 's Strategic Reserve Command The ComBat was an Aluminium Cricket bat and the subject of an incident that occurred at the WACA cricket ground in Perth in December 1979. Jakarta (also DKI Jakarta) is the Capital and largest city of Indonesia.
Overthrow of Sukarno (1965)
Background
- See also: Guided Democracy (1957-1965)
Described as the great dalang ("puppet master"), President Sukarno's position came to depend on balancing the opposing and increasingly hostile forces of the army and Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI). Indonesia's transition to the " New Order " in the mid-1960s ousted the country's first president Sukarno after 22 years in the position The Communist Party of Indonesia (in Indonesian: Partai Komunis Indonesia, PKI) was the largest non-ruling Communist party in the world prior His anti-imperial ideology saw Indonesia increasingly dependent on the Soviet Union and then communist China. By 1965, the PKI penetrated all levels of government extensively, and with the support of Sukarno and the air force, successfully pursued policies to gain influence at the expense of the army, thus ensuring the army's enmity. [27] By late 1965, the army was divided between a left-wing faction allied with the PKI, and a right-wing faction that were being courted from abroad by the United States. [28]
Abortive coup
On the night of 30 September-1 October 1965 six senior army generals were kidnapped and executed in Jakarta by a battalion of soldiers from the Presidential Guard in an attempted coup. Events 1399 - Henry IV is proclaimed King of England. 1744 - France and Spain defeat the Events 331 BC - Alexander the Great defeats Darius III of Persia in the Battle of Gaugamela. Year 1965 ( MCMLXV) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar of the 1965 Gregorian calendar. The left faction among the top generals was wiped out, including the powerful Army Chief of Staff, Ahmad Yani. General Ahmad Yani (19 June 1922 - 1 October 1965 was the commander of the Indonesian Army, and was killed by members of the 30 September Movement during an attempt The army thus fell to those more willing to stand up to Sukarno and the army's enemies on the left. [29] Backed by elements of the armed forces, the insurgents, known as the 30 September Movement, commanded the Presidential Palace opposite Merdeka Square, the national radio station, and telecommunications centre. On the night of September 30 1965, six senior Indonesian army generals were murdered and the next morning Indonesians woke up to find an organization calling The group announced on radio that morning that they were trying to stop a CIA-backed military coup which was planned to remove Sukarno from power on "Army Day", October 5. near as long as it used to be several months ago It has been actively summarized and split into sub-articles and there is a dynamic talk page discussion of all Events 869 - The Fourth Council of Constantinople is convened to decide about what to do about Patriarch Photius of Constantinople
Suharto was the most senior general not removed by the 30 September group,[30] apart from Armed Forces Chief of Staff, General Abdul Harris Nasution (who was targeted for assassination but narrowly escaped, and was in hiding). Abdul Haris Nasution (born Kotanopan, North Sumatra 3 December 1918 - died Jakarta 5 September 2000 was an Indonesian general who was twice Suharto had no affinity to Sukarno, nor any special Islamic conviction with which to oppose him. He despised disorder, but was known for prizing opportunity, for which General Yani and disciplined him several years before, thus removing affinity there. [31] On the night of 30 September, Suharto had been in hospital preoccupied with a scalding injury to his three-year old son Tommy where Colonel Abdul Latief was the only principal of ensuing events with whom Suharto spoke that evening. Tommy Suharto (born Hutomo Mandala Putra on July 15 1962) is the son of Suharto, the former President of Indonesia [32]
Upon being told of the disappearance of the generals and shootings, Suharto went to Kostrad headquarters just before dawn from where he could see soldiers occupying Merdeka Square. He led the elite Army Strategic Reserve (Kostrad) in seizing control of the centre of Jakarta, capturing key strategic sites. KOSTRAD (Komando Strategis Cadangan Angkatan Darat is the Indonesian Army 's Strategic Reserve Command Now joined by Nasution, Suharto announced over the radio at 9:00pm that six generals had been kidnapped by "counter-revolutionaries" and that he was in control of the army, and would crush the 30 September Movement and safeguard Sukarno. [33] Suharto issued an ultimatum to Halim Air Force Base, where the G30S had based themselves and where Sukarno (the reasons for his presence are unclear and were subject of claim and counter-claim), General Omar Dhani and Aidit had gathered. The coup leaders fled Jakarta[34] while G30S-sympathetic battalions in Central Java quickly came under Suharto control,[35] and it was clear that the incompetently organised and poorly coordinated coup had failed. [36] By 2 October, Suharto's faction was firmly in control of the army. Sukarno's obedience to Suharto's 1 October ultimatum to leave Halim is seen as changing all power relationships. [37] Sukarno's fragile balance of power between the military, political Islam, communists, and nationalists that underlay his "Guided Democracy" was now collapsing. [38]
Anti-communist purge
On 5 October, the day of the dead generals' funeral procession, a military propaganda campaign began to sweep the country, successfully convincing both Indonesian and international audiences that it was a Communist coup, and that the murders were cowardly atrocities against Indonesian heroes. [39] The PKI's denials of involvement had little effect. [40] The communist party and its alleged front groups were banned. The army, acting on orders by Suharto began a campaign of agitation and incitement to violence among Indonesian civilians aimed not only at Communists but the ethnic-Chinese community and toward President Sukarno himself. [41] The parliament and cabinet were purged of Sukarno loyalists. TalkParliament#Screen-size. -->A parliament is a Legislature, especially in those Leading PKI members were immediately arrested, some summarily executed. [42] Labor unions were eliminated and press censorship implemented. A trade union or labour union is an organization of workers who have banded together to achieve common goals in key areas such as wages hours and working conditions forming Censorship is the suppression of speech or deletion of communicative material which may be considered objectionable harmful or sensitive as determined by a censor
The anti-Communist purge quickly spread from Jakarta to the rest of the country, the worst massacres of known, suspected, and simply alleged Communists, were in Java and Bali[43] where PKI support was at its strongest. The situation varied across the country; in some areas the army organised civilian groups and local militias, in other areas communal vigilante action preceded the army. [44] For many youths, killing Communists became a religious duty; Muslims in Java and Sumatra [45] but also Catholic students in the Yogyakarta region, and Hindus in Bali took part in the massacres. [46] Though most suspects were identified by locals,[47] the CIA supplied the Indonesian military with lists of suspected communists. near as long as it used to be several months ago It has been actively summarized and split into sub-articles and there is a dynamic talk page discussion of all [48]
Estimates of those killed in the purge range from 78,000 to over 1 million, with most estimates agreeing that at least half a million were killed. [49] A CIA study of the events in Indonesia assessed that "In terms of the numbers killed the anti-PKI massacres in Indonesia rank as one of the worst mass murders of the 20th century. . ". [50] Many others were also imprisoned and for the next ten years people were still being imprisoned as suspects. It is thought that as many as 1. 5m were imprisoned at one stage or another. [51]
Power struggle
- See also: Supersemar
By January 1966, President Sukarno's strongest pillar of support had been effectively eliminated, largely by his other two pillars of power, the army and the Muslims. The Supersemar, the Indonesian abbreviation for Surat Perintah Sebelas Maret (Order of March the Eleventh was a document ostensibly signed by the Indonesian Long wanting to more control of the political system, the army now saw its opportunity to occupy the apex of Indonesian power. [52] Sukarno was still the Supreme Commander by virtue of the constitution, thus Suharto was careful not to be seen to be seizing power in his own coup. For eighteen months following the quashing of the 30 September Movement, there was a complicated process of political manoeuvers against Sukarno, including student agitation, stacking of parliament, media propaganda and military threats. [53]
On February 1, 1966, Pres. Events 1327 - Teenaged Edward III is crowned King of England, but the country is ruled by his mother Queen Year 1966 ( MCMLXVI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the 1966 Gregorian calendar. Sukarno promoted Suharto to the rank of Lieutenant General. The same month, Gen. Nasution had been forced out of his position of Defense Minister. [54] The power contest had been boiled down to Suharto and Sukarno; with Sukarno in ill-health and politically isolated due to the removal of the PKI from the scene, Suharto had virtually assured himself the presidency. The Supersemar decree of 11 March 1966 transferred much of Sukarno's power over the parliament and army to Suharto,[55] ostensibly allowing Suharto to do whatever was needed to restore order. The Supersemar, the Indonesian abbreviation for Surat Perintah Sebelas Maret (Order of March the Eleventh was a document ostensibly signed by the Indonesian
On March 12, 1967 Sukarno was stripped of his remaining power by Indonesia's provisional Parliament, and Suharto named Acting President. Events 538 - Witiges, king of the Ostrogoths ends his siege of Rome and retreats to Ravenna, leaving Year 1967 ( MCMLXVII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the 1967 Gregorian calendar. The Acting Presidency of Suharto followed the Transition to the New Order in which General Suharto was the President albeit on an interim basis Sukarno was placed under house arrest and little more was heard from him, and he died in June 1970. [56] On 21 March 1968, the Provisional Peoples Representative Assembly formally elected Suharto for the first of his five-year terms as President. Events 630 - Byzantine emperor Heraclius restores the True Cross to Jerusalem. Year 1968 ( MCMLXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The People's Consultative Assembly ( Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat /MPR is the legislative branch in Indonesia's political sytem. [57]
"New Order" Government (1967–1998)
- See also: New Order (Indonesia)
Institutionalisation of the New Order
- See also: Acting Presidency of Suharto
Suharto established what he called the "New Order" (Orde Baru). The New Order ( Indonesian: Orde Baru) is the term coined by former Indonesian President Suharto to characterize his regime as he came to power in 1966 In place of Sukarno's revolutionary rhetoric, Suharto showed a pragmatic use of power, and in contrast to the liberal parliamentary democracy of the 1950s, Suharto headed an authoritarian, military-dominated government. [58] Economic development and the building of strong government with a resultant weak civil society became defining features of the New Order. [59]
Internationally, Suharto put Indonesia on a course toward improved relations with Western nations, while ending its friendly relations with the People's Republic of China. Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES He dispatched his foreign minister, Adam Malik to mend strained relations with the United States, United Nations, and Malaysia and end the Confrontation. Adam Malik ( 22 July, 1917 - 5 September, 1984) was Indonesia's third vice president The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security For the biogeographical region see Malesia Malaysia (məˈleɪʒə or /məˈleɪziə/ is a country that consists of thirteen states and Indonesia also became a founding member of ASEAN. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations, commonly referred to as ASEAN, ˈɑːsiːɑːn AH-see-ahn in English (the Official language Diplomatic ties with the People's Republic of China were eventually restored in 1990.
To maintain domestic order, Suharto greatly expanded the funding and powers of the Indonesian state apparatus. He established two intelligence agencies—the Operational Command for the Restoration of Security and Order (KOPKAMTIB) and the State Intelligence Coordination Agency (BAKIN)—to deal with threats to the regime. Suharto also established the Bureau of Logistics (BULOG) to distribute rice and other staple commodities granted by USAID. Rice is a Cereal foodstuff which forms an important part of the diet of many people worldwide and as such it is a staple food for many The United States Agency for International Development (or USAID) is the United States federal government organization responsible for most non- military These new government bodies were put under the military regional command structure, that under Suharto was given a "dual function" as both a defense force and as civilian administrators.
Suharto became a strong advocate for Chinese assimilation rather than integration. As part of 1967's 'Basic Policy for the Solution of the Chinese Problem' and other measures, all but one Chinese-language papers were closed, all Chinese religious expressions had to be confined to their homes, Chinese-language schools were phased out, Chinese script in public places was banned, and Chinese were encouraged to take on Indonesian-sounding names. A large number of ethnic Chinese people have lived in Indonesia for many centuries [60] Most of this legislation were revoked following Suharto's fall from power in 1998.
Economic Matters
President Suharto relied on a group of American-educated economists, nicknamed the "Berkeley Mafia," to set economic policy. The Berkeley Mafia was term given to a group of US -educated Indonesian economists whose efforts brought Indonesia back from dire economic conditions and Soon after coming to power, he passed a number of reforms meant to establish Indonesia as a center of foreign investment. These included the privatization of its natural resources to promote investment by industrialized nations, labour laws favorable to multinational corporations, and soliciting funds for development from institutions including the World Bank, Western banks, and friendly governments. Natural resources are naturally occurring substances that are considered valuable in their relatively unmodified ( natural) form The World Bank is an internationally supported Bank that provides financial and technical assistance to developing countries for development programs (e [61] Suharto brought a shift in policy from firebrand Sukarno that allowed for USAID and other relief agencies to resume operations within the country. The United States Agency for International Development (or USAID) is the United States federal government organization responsible for most non- military Suharto would open Indonesia's economy by divesting state owned companies, and Western nations in particular were encouraged to invest and take control of many of the mining and construction interests in Indonesia.
Within a few years, the Indonesian economy was revived from its near collapsed state of the mid-1960s. It grew by an average 7 per cent for 25 years, reducing the proportion of Indonesians in the "very poor" category from 65% in the mid-1960s to 7% in 1990, (although much of these gains would be lost in the 1997/98 Asian financial crisis). Suharto established Indonesian self-sufficiency in rice production by the mid-1980s, extended basic education to almost all citizens and implemented a successful family planning program. [5]
As virtually unchecked forces in Indonesian society under the New Order, however, members of the military and Golkar Party were heavily involved as intermediaries between businesses (foreign and domestic) and the Indonesian government. This led to bribery, racketeering, and embezzlement. Funds from these practices often flowed to foundations (yayasan) controlled by the Suharto family. [62]
Unitary state and regional unrest
From his assumption of office until his resignation, Suharto continued Sukarno's policy of asserting Indonesian sovereignty. He acted zealously to stake and enforce territorial claims over much of the region, through both diplomacy and military action.
In 1969, Suharto moved to end the longtime controversy over the last Dutch territory in the East Indies, western New Guinea. Working with the United States and United Nations, an agreement was made to hold a referendum on self-determination, in which participants could choose to remain part of the Netherlands, to integrate with the Republic of Indonesia, or to become independent. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security Though originally phrased to be a nationwide vote of all adult Papuans, the "Act of Free Choice" was held July–August 1969 allowed only 1022 "chiefs" to vote. Act of Free Choice ( Indonesian: Penentuan Pendapat Rakyat, PEPERA) was the title of an Indonesian military presentation in 1969 The unanimous vote was for integration with the Republic of Indonesia, leading to doubts of the validity of the vote. [63]
In 1975, after Portugal withdrew from its colony of East Timor and the Fretilin movement momentarily took power, Suharto ordered troops to invade East Timor. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. East Timor, also known as Timor-Leste (officially the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste) is a country in Southeast Asia. The Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor ( Portuguese: Frente Revolucionária de Timor-Leste Independente or FReTiLIn) is a Later the puppet government installed by Indonesia requested the area be annexed to the country. A puppet state is a State that is nominally independent but in reality under the control of another power A detailed statistical report prepared for the Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor estimated a minimum of 102,800 conflict-related deaths in the period 1974-1999, namely, approximately 18,600 killings and 84,200 'excess' deaths from hunger and illness. The Commission for Reception Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor (more commonly known by its Portuguese acronym CAVR Comissão de Acolhimento Verdade e Reconciliação [64] On July 15, 1976 Suharto's "New Order" declared East Timor the 27th province of Indonesia. Events 1099 - First Crusade: Christian soldiers take the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem after the final Year 1976 ( MCMLXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Following Suharto's 1998 resignation from the Presidency, East Timor voted for independence in 1999 and was transferred to United Nations administration.
In 1976, the regime was challenged in the province of Aceh by the formation of the Free Aceh Movement, or GAM, who demanded independence from the unitary state. See also Sultanate of Aceh Aceh (ʔaˈtɕɛh generally anglicized as ˈɑːtʃeɪ is a special territory ( daerah istimewa) of Indonesia The Free Aceh Movement ( Indonesian: Gerakan Aceh Merdeka or simply GAM) also known as the Aceh Sumatra National Liberation Front ( ASNLF Suharto quickly authorized troops to put down the rebellion, forcing several of its leaders into exile in Sweden. "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. Prolonged fighting between GAM and the Indonesian military and police led Suharto to declare martial law in the province, by naming Aceh a "military operational area" (DOM) in 1990.
The rapid pace of this development had vastly increased their population density. In response, Suharto pursued the policy of transmigration to promote movement from crowded cities to rural regions of the archipelago where natural resources had not yet been exploited. The transmigration program ( Indonesian: Transmigrasi) was an initiative of the Indonesian government to move landless people from densely populated areas Natural resources are naturally occurring substances that are considered valuable in their relatively unmodified ( natural) form
Politics and dissent
In 1970, corruption prompted student protests and an investigation by a government commission. Suharto responded by banning student protests, forcing the activists underground. Only token prosecution of the cases recommended by the commission was pursued. The pattern of co-opting a few of his more powerful opponents while criminalising the rest became a hallmark of Suharto's rule.
In order to maintain a veneer of democracy, Suharto made a number of electoral reforms. According to his electoral rules, however, only three parties were allowed to participate in the election: his own Golkar party; the Islamist United Development Party (PPP); and the Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI). The Party of the Functional Groups (Partai Golongan Karya is a Political party in Indonesia. The United Development Party ( Indonesian: Partai Persatuan Pembangunan / PPP; sometimes translated as Development Unity Party) is a Political The Indonesian Democratic Party ( PDI) was one of the major state-approved parties during the New Order era of the late 20th-century in Indonesia. All the previously existing political parties were forced to be part of either the PPP and PDI, with public servants under pressure to join Golkar. In a political compromise with the powerful military, he banned its members from voting in elections, but set aside 100 seats in the electoral college for their representatives. As a result, he was unopposed for reelection as president in 1973, 1978, 1983, 1988, 1993, and 1998.
On May 5, 1980 a group of prominent military men, politicians, academics and students calling themselves the "Petition of Fifty" questioned Suharto's use of the national ideology Pancasila. Events 553 - The Second Council of Constantinople begins 1215 - Rebel Barons renounce their allegiance to King John Year 1980 ( MCMLXXX) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1980 Gregorian calendar) The Petition of Fifty ( Indonesian 'Petisi 50' was a document protesting then President Suharto 's use of state philosophy Pancasila against political opponents Pancasila, (pronounced panʧaˈsila is the official philosophical foundation of the Indonesian state The Indonesian media suppressed the news and the government placed restrictions on the signatories. After the group's 1984 accusation that Suharto was creating a one-party state, some of its leaders were jailed. A single-party state, one-party system or single-party system is a type of Party system Government in which a single Political party
In the same decade, it is believed by many scholars that the Indonesian military split between a nationalist "red and white faction" and an Islamist "green faction. " As the 1980s closed, Suharto is said to have been forced to shift his alliances from the former to the latter, leading to the rise of Jusuf Habibie in the 1990s. Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie (born June 25, 1936) more commonly known simply as Rudi Habibie or B J Habibie, was the third President of Indonesia
After the 1990s brought end of the Cold War, Western concern over communism waned, and Suharto's human rights record came under greater international scrutiny. The 1991 killing of over 200 East Timorese civilians in Dili, East Timor, resulted in the Congress of the United States passing limitations on IMET assistance to the Indonesian military. The Santa Cruz massacre (also known as the Dili massacre) was the shooting of East Timorese pro-independence demonstrators in the Santa Cruz cemetery Dili, also spelled Díli, is the Capital and largest city of Timor Leste (formerly called East Timor. The United States Congress is the bicameral Legislature of the federal government of the United States of America, consisting of two houses The arms industry is a global Industry and Business which Manufactures and sells Weapons and Military technology and equipment. [65] In 1993, under President Bill Clinton, the U. William Jefferson "Bill" Clinton (born William Jefferson Blythe III, August 19 1946 served as the forty-second President of the United States S. delegation to the UN Human Rights Commission helped pass a resolution expressing deep concern over Indonesian human rights violations in East Timor. The United Nations Commission on Human Rights ( UNCHR) was a functional commission within the overall framework of the United Nations. [66] Noam Chomsky has referred to the Indonesian invasion and occupation of East Timor has the worst instance of genocide relative to population since the Holocaust. Avram Noam Chomsky (noʊm ˈtʃɑmski born December 7 1928 is an American linguist, Philosopher, cognitive scientist, Political East Timor, also known as Timor-Leste (officially the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste) is a country in Southeast Asia. Genocide is the deliberate and systematic destruction in whole or in part of an ethnic racial religious or national group The Holocaust (from the Greek el ''ὁλόκαυστον'' (el-Latn holókauston holos, "completely" and kaustos, "burnt" also known as [67]
Resignation
- See also: Indonesian Revolution of 1998
In 1996 Suharto was challenged by a split over the leadership of the Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI), a legal party that propped up the regime. Suharto retired in May 1998 following collapse of support for his three-decade long Presidency of Indonesia. The Indonesian Democratic Party ( PDI) was one of the major state-approved parties during the New Order era of the late 20th-century in Indonesia. Megawati Sukarnoputri, the daughter of Sukarno, had become PDI's chairwoman and was increasingly critical of Suharto's regime. Diah Permata Megawati Setiawati Soekarnoputri (born January 23, 1947) was President of Indonesia from July 2001 to October 20, Sukarno ( June 6, 1901 – June 21, 1970) was the first President of Indonesia. In response, Suharto backed a co-opted faction led by Deputy Speaker of Parliament Suryadi. The Suryadi faction announced a party congress to sack Megawati would be held in Medan from June 20 - June 22. Medan is the capital of the province of North Sumatra, Indonesia.
In response, Megawati proclaimed that if sacked, her supporters would hold demonstrations in protest. The Suryadi faction went through with its sacking of Megawati, and the demonstrations manifested themselves throughout Indonesia. This led to several confrontations on the streets between protesters and security forces. A deal was eventually made with the military to allow Megawati's supporters to take over PDI headquarters in Jakarta, in exchange for a pledge of no further demonstrations. During this time, Megawati supporters organized "democracy forums" at the site, with several activists making speeches denouncing Suharto and his regime. [68]
After one month of this, police, soldiers, and persons claiming to be Suryadi supporters stormed the headquarters, killing Megawati supporters and arresting two-hundred. Those arrested were tried under the Anti-Subversion and Hate-spreading laws. [69] The day would become known as "Black Saturday" and mark the beginning of a renewed crackdown by the New Order government against supporters of democracy, now called the "Reformasi" or Reformation.
The 1997 Asian Financial Crisis had dire consequences for the Indonesian economy and society, and Suharto's regime. The Asian Financial Crisis was a period of Financial crisis that gripped much of Asia beginning in July 1997 and raised fears of a worldwide economic meltdown ( The Indonesian currency, the rupiah, took a sharp dive in value. A currency is a unit of exchange, facilitating the transfer of Goods and/or services It is one form of Money, where money is The rupiah ( sign: Rp; code: IDR) is the official Currency of Indonesia. Suharto came under scrutiny from international lending institutions, chiefly the World Bank, IMF and the United States, over longtime embezzlement of funds and some protectionist policies. The World Bank is an internationally supported Bank that provides financial and technical assistance to developing countries for development programs (e The International Monetary Fund ( IMF) is an International organization that oversees the Global financial system by following the Macroeconomic The United States of America —commonly referred to as the For the protectionist Australian political party from the 1880s to 1909 see Protectionist Party In December, Suharto's government signed a letter of intent to the IMF, pledging to enact austerity measures, including cuts to public services and removal of subsidies, in return for receiving the aid of the IMF and other donors. The International Monetary Fund ( IMF) is an International organization that oversees the Global financial system by following the Macroeconomic In Economics, austerity is when a national government reduces its spending in order to pay back Creditors Austerity is usually required when a government's fiscal In Economics, a subsidy (also known as a subvention is a form of financial assistance paid to a business or economic sector The International Monetary Fund ( IMF) is an International organization that oversees the Global financial system by following the Macroeconomic [70]
Beginning in early 1998, the austerity measures approved by Suharto had started to erode domestic confidence in the regime. In Economics, austerity is when a national government reduces its spending in order to pay back Creditors Austerity is usually required when a government's fiscal Prices for commodities such as kerosene and rice, and fees for public services including education rose dramatically. A commodity is anything for which there is demand but which is supplied without qualitative differentiation across a market The effects were exacerbated by widespread corruption.
Suharto stood for reelection for the seventh time in March 1998, justifying it on the grounds of the necessity of his leadership during the crisis. As in past years, he was unopposed for reelection. This sparked protests and riots throughout the country, now termed the Indonesian Revolution of 1998. Suharto retired in May 1998 following collapse of support for his three-decade long Presidency of Indonesia. Dissension within the ranks of his own Golkar party and military finally weakened Suharto, and on May 21, 1998 he stood down from power. Events 878 - Syracuse Italy is captured by the Muslim sultan of Sicily. Year 1998 ( MCMXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1998 Gregorian calendar) He was replaced by his deputy Jusuf Habibie. Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie (born June 25, 1936) more commonly known simply as Rudi Habibie or B J Habibie, was the third President of Indonesia [71]
Post-presidency
After his resignation, Suharto retired to a family compound in Central Jakarta, making few public appearances. Efforts to prosecute Suharto have mostly centered around alleged mismanagement of funds, and their force has been blunted due to health concerns. Suharto was never prosecuted.
Investigations of wealth
In May 1999, a Time Asia estimated Suharto's family fortune at US$15 billion in cash, shares, corporate assets, real estate, jewelry and fine art. Time (trademarked in capitals as TIME) is a weekly American Newsmagazine, similar to Newsweek and In financial markets, a share is a Unit of account for various financial instruments including Stocks Mutual funds Limited partnerships Of this, US$9 billion is reported to have been deposited in an Austrian bank. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich The family is said to control about 36,000 km² of real estate in Indonesia, including 100,000 m² of prime office space in Jakarta and nearly 40 percent of the land in East Timor. Over US$73 billion is said to have passed through the family's hands during Suharto's 32-year rule.
On May 29, 2000, Suharto was placed under house arrest when Indonesian authorities began to investigate the corruption during his regime. Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian defeats the Sassanid army in the Battle of Ctesiphon, under the walls of the 2000 ( MM) was a Leap year that started on Saturday of the Common Era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. In Justice and Law, house arrest (also called home confinement, home detention, or electronic monitoring) is a measure by which In July 2000, it was announced that he was to be accused of embezzling US$571 million of government donations to one of a number of foundations under his control and then using the money to finance family investments. But in September court-appointed doctors announced that he could not stand trial because of his declining health. State prosecutors tried again in 2002 but then doctors cited an unspecified brain disease.
According to Transparency International, Suharto embezzled more money than any other world leader in history with an estimated US $15–35 billion embezzlement during his 32 years rule. Transparency International ( TI) is a leading international Non-governmental organization addressing corruption Embezzlement is the act of dishonestly appropriating or secreting assets usually financial in nature by one or more individuals to whom such assets have been entrusted [72]
On March 26, 2008, civil court judge Wahyono acquitted Suharto of corruption but ordered his charitable foundation Supersemar to pay $110m (£55m). Events 1026 - Pope John XIX crowns Conrad II as Holy Roman Emperor. [73]
Related legal cases
Unable to legally prosecute Suharto, the state has instead pursued legal actions against his former subordinates and members of his family. Suharto's son Hutomo Mandala Putra, more widely known as Tommy Suharto, was initially sentenced to 15 years in jail for arranging the murder of a judge who sentenced him to 18 months for his role in a land scam in September 2000. Tommy Suharto (born Hutomo Mandala Putra on July 15 1962) is the son of Suharto, the former President of Indonesia Contract killing occurs when a private contractor or a government hires someone to kill a specific person or people for a sum of money He became the first member of the Suharto family to be found guilty and jailed for a criminal offence. Tommy Suharto maintained his innocence, and won a reduction of his sentence to ten years in June 2005. On October 30, 2006, he was freed on "conditional release. "[74]
In 2003, Suharto's half-brother Probosutedjo was tried and convicted for corruption and the loss of $10 million from the Indonesian state. He was sentenced to four years in jail. He later won a reduction of his sentence to two years, initiating a probe by the Indonesian Corruption Eradication Commission into the alleged scandal of the "judicial mafia" which uncovered offers of $600,000 to various judges. Probosutedjo confessed to the scheme in October 2005, leading to the arrest of his lawyers. His full four year term was reinstated. After a brief standoff at a hospital, in which he was reportedly protected by a group of police officers, he was arrested on November 30, 2005.
On July 9, 2007, Indonesian prosecutors filed a civil lawsuit against former President Suharto, to recover state funds ($440m or £219m, which allegedly disappeared from a scholarship fund, and a further $1. 1 billion in damages). [75]
On September 4, 2007, mediation at the Attorney General's Office (AGO) between prosecutors and lawyers for Suharto over the Supersemar foundation civil lawsuit succeeded and thus the trial will have to commence. Mediation, a form of Alternative dispute resolution (ADR or "appropriate Dispute resolution " aims to assist two (or more disputants in reaching The Supersemar, the Indonesian abbreviation for Surat Perintah Sebelas Maret (Order of March the Eleventh was a document ostensibly signed by the Indonesian [76]
On September 10, 2007, Indonesia's Supreme Court awarded Suharto damages against Time Asia magazine, ordering it to pay him one trillion rupiah ($128. In Law, damages refers to the money paid or awarded to a Claimant (England Pursuer (Scotland or Plaintiff (US following a successful Time (trademarked in capitals as TIME) is a weekly American Newsmagazine, similar to Newsweek and A newsmagazine, also spelled news magazine, is usually a weekly Magazine featuring articles or segments on current events The rupiah ( sign: Rp; code: IDR) is the official Currency of Indonesia. 59 million). The High Court reversed the judgment of an appellate court and Central Jakarta district court (made in 2000 and 2001). In non-legal contexts a judgment is a balanced weighing up of evidence preparatory to making a decision Court of Appeal, Court of Appeals, and Appellate Division redirect here for a list of specific courts using those titles see Court of Appeal Central Jakarta ( Indonesian: Jakarta Pusat) is a city of Jakarta, Indonesia. District courts are a category of Courts which exists in several nations Suharto had sued the U. In law a lawsuit is a civil action brought before a Court in which the party commencing the action the Plaintiff, seeks a legal or equitable remedy S. -based Time magazine seeking more than $US 27 billion in damages for libel over a 1999 article which reported that he transferred stolen money abroad. [77]
Health crises
After resigning from the presidency, Suharto was hospitalized repeatedly for stroke, heart, and intestinal problems. A stroke is the rapidly developing loss of brain functions due to a disturbance in the blood vessels supplying blood to the brain His declining health negatively affected the many attempts to prosecute Suharto on charges of corruption and human rights violations, as his lawyers successfully claimed that his condition rendered him unfit for trial.
On May 6, 2005, Suharto was taken to Pertamina Hospital in Jakarta with intestinal bleeding, believed to be from diverticulosis. Events 1527 - Spanish and German troops sack Rome; some consider this the end of the Renaissance. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Diverticulosis, otherwise known as " diverticular disease " is the condition of having diverticula in the colon which are outpocketings of the The political elite of Indonesia, including President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono and Vice President Jusuf Kalla, visited his bedside. General (Ret Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono (born September 9, 1949) is an Indonesian retired military general and the sixth President of Indonesia Jusuf Kalla (born Watampone, South Sulawesi; May 15, 1942) is the current Vice President of Indonesia and Chairman of the He was released and returned home, May 12, 2005. Events 1191 - Richard I of England marries Berengaria of Navarre. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
On May 26, 2005, the Jakarta Post reported that amid an effort by the government of President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono to crack down on corruption, Indonesian Attorney General Abdurrahman Saleh appeared before a Parliamentary commission to discuss efforts to prosecute New Order figures, including Suharto. Events 451 - The Battle of Avarayr between Armenian rebels and the Sassanid Empire takes place Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Jakarta Post is a daily English language newspaper in Indonesia. General (Ret Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono (born September 9, 1949) is an Indonesian retired military general and the sixth President of Indonesia Attorney General Abdurrahman remarked that he hoped Suharto could recover so that the government could begin inquiries into New Order human rights violations and corruption for purposes of compensation and recovery of state funds, but expressed skepticism that this would be possible. As a result, the Supreme Court of Indonesia has issued a decree making the office of the Attorney General responsible for supervising Suharto's medical care.
On April 24, 2006, Attorney General Abdurrahman announced that a team of twenty doctors would be asked to evaluate Suharto's health and fitness for trial. Events 1479 BC - Thutmose III ascends to the throne of Egypt, although power effectively shifts to Hatshepsut (according to Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. One physician, Brigadier General Dr Marjo Subiandono, stated his doubts about by noting that "[Suharto] has two permanent cerebral defects. "[78] In a later Financial Times report, Attorney General Abdurrahman discussed the re-examination, and called it part of a "last opportunity" to prosecute Suharto criminally. The Financial Times ( FT) is a British international business Newspaper. Attorney General Abdurrahman left open the possibility of filing suit against the Suharto estate. "[79]
On May 4, 2006, Suharto was again admitted to Pertamina Hospital for intestinal bleeding. Events 1256 - The Augustinian monastic order is constituted at the Lecceto Monastery when Pope Alexander IV Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. His doctors stated further that Suharto was suffering from partial organ failure and in unstable condition. Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS, previously known as multiple organ failure (MOF, is altered organ function in an acutely ill patient requiring [80]
Death
On January 4, 2008, Suharto, 86, was rushed to the Pertamina hospital, Jakarta with complications arising from a weak heart, swelling of limbs and stomach, and partial renal failure. Events 46 BC - Titus Labienus defeats Julius Caesar in the Battle of Ruspina. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Pertamina ( Perusahaan Tambang Minyak Negara, lit 'State Oil Company' is an Indonesian Government-owned Corporation which extracts and refines Jakarta (also DKI Jakarta) is the Capital and largest city of Indonesia. [81] His health fluctuated for several weeks but progressively worsened with anaemia and low blood pressure due to heart and kidney complications, internal bleeding, fluid on his lungs, and blood in his feces and urine which caused a haemoglobin drop. Anemia ( AmE) or anæmia/anaemia ( BrE) (from the Ancient Greek grc-Latn anaîmia, meaning “without blood” is defined as a qualitative Blood pressure is also the title of a short story by Damon Runyan in Guys and Dolls and Other Stories Hemoglobin ( also spelled haemoglobin and abbreviated Hb or Hgb) is the Iron -containing Oxygen -transport Metalloprotein [82] Doctors reported his "very critical condition" after almost all his organ functions failed, and that there was only a 50-50 chance that he would survive, though some Indonesians believed Suharto would not die easily because he practiced Kejawen mysticism. Javanese beliefs ( Kebatinan or Kejawen) have principles embodying a "search for inner self" but at the core is the concept of Peace Of Mind [83] On January 23, 2008 Suharto's health worsened further, as a sepsis infection spread through his body. Events 393 - Roman Emperor Theodosius I proclaims his nine year old son Honorius co-emperor 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Sepsis is a serious medical condition characterized by a whole-body inflammatory state (called a Systemic inflammatory response syndrome or SIRS caused [84] His family consented to the removal of life support machines, and he died on 27 January at 1:10 p. Events 98 - Trajan becomes Roman Emperor after the death of Nerva. m. local time. [85]
Suharto's body was taken from Jakarta to the Giri Bangun mausoleum complex, part of the Mangkunegaran burial site in Karanganyar, near the Central Java city of Solo. Jakarta (also DKI Jakarta) is the Capital and largest city of Indonesia. Astana Giribangun, (also "Giri Bangun" is a Mausoleum complex for the Suharto family of former President of the Republic of Indonesia A mausoleum ( plural: mausolea is an external free-standing building constructed as a monument enclosing the interment space or burial chamber of a deceased person or persons Mangkunegaran is a small hereditary principality located within the region of Surakarta in Indonesia. Karanganyar is a regency (kabupaten in the southeastern part of Central Java province in Indonesia, north of Surakarta. He was buried alongside his late wife in a state military funeral with full honours, with the Kopassus elite forces and Kostrad commandos as the honour guard and pallbearers and Commander of Group II Kopassus Surakarta Lt. Kopassus, abbreviation for Komando Pasukan Khusus (Army Special Force Command is an Indonesian Army Special forces group that conducts Special KOSTRAD (Komando Strategis Cadangan Angkatan Darat is the Indonesian Army 's Strategic Reserve Command An honor guard, or ceremonial guard, is a ceremonial escort often military in nature usually composed of volunteers who are carefully screened for their ability and physical A pallbearer is one of several Funeral participants who helps carry the Casket of a deceased person from a religious or memorial service or Colonel Asep Subarkah. [86] In attendance were the incumbent president, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono as "Ceremony Inspector", and vice-president, government ministers, and armed forces chiefs of staff. General (Ret Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono (born September 9, 1949) is an Indonesian retired military general and the sixth President of Indonesia Suharto's eldest daughter Siti Hardiyanti Rukmana spoke at the funeral requesting, in accordance with Javanese custom, forgiveness for her any misdoings of her father. Siti Hardiyanti Rukmana, or "Mbak Tutut" as she is more familiarly known in Indonesia, is the eldest daughter of former Indonesian President Suharto. The Javanese are an Ethnic group native to the Indonesian island of Java. Tens of thousands of people lined the streets to see the convoy. [87] Condolences were offered by many regional heads of state, although certain regional leaders such as Helen Clark boycotted the funeral [88], and Indonesia's President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono declared a week of official mourning. Helen Elizabeth Clark (born 26 February 1950 is the 37th and current Prime Minister of New Zealand. General (Ret Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono (born September 9, 1949) is an Indonesian retired military general and the sixth President of Indonesia [89]
See also
Further reading
- McDonald, H. See also Timeline of Indonesian history Indonesia is an archipelagic country of 17508 islands (6000 inhabited stretching along the Equator See also History of Indonesia This is a timeline of Indonesian history. , Suharto's Indonesia, Fontana Books, 1980, Blackburn, Australia, ISBN 0-00-635721-0
- Schwarz, A. 1999, A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia's Search for Stability, Westview Press; 2nd edition (October 1999), ISBN 0-8133-3650-3
- McGlynn, John H. et al, Indonesia in the Soeharto years. Issue, incidents and images, Jakarta 2007, KITLV
References
General
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Notes
- ^ Berger, Marilyn. "Suharto Dies at 86; Indonesian Dictator Brought Order and Bloodshed", New York Times, 2008-01-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1077 - Walk to Canossa: The Excommunication of Henry IV Holy Roman Emperor is lifted Retrieved on 2008-01-30. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1648 - Eighty Years' War: The Treaty of Münster is signed ending the conflict between the Netherlands and Spain
- ^ Schwarz (1994), p. 175
- ^ Friend (2003), pages 107–109; Chris Hilton (writer and director). Shadowplay [Television documentary]. Vagabond Films and Hilton Cordell Productions. ; Ricklefs (1991), pages 280–283, 284, 287–290
- ^ Miguel, Edward; Paul Gertler, David I. Levine (January 2005). "Does Social Capital Promote Industrialization? Evidence from a Rapid Industrializer". Econometrics Softare Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley.
- ^ a b c McDonald, Hamish (28 January 2008), “No End to Ambition”, Sydney Morning Herald, <http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/no-end-to-ambition/2008/01/27/1201368944638.html>
- ^ Leo Suryadinata (1976). "Indonesian Policies toward the Chinese Minority under the New Order". Asian Survey 16 (8): 770–787.
- ^ A detailed statistical report prepared for the Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor Benetech Human Rights Data Analysis Group (9 February 2006). The Commission for Reception Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor (more commonly known by its Portuguese acronym CAVR Comissão de Acolhimento Verdade e Reconciliação Events 474 - Zeno crowned as co-emperor of the Byzantine Empire. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. The Profile of Human Rights Violations in Timor-Leste, 1974-1999. A Report to the Commission on Reception, Truth and Reconciliation of Timor-Leste. Human Rights Data Analysis Group (HRDAG).
- ^ time.com
- ^ a b Haskin, Colin, "Suharto dead at 86", Globe and Mail, January 27, 2008
- ^ BBC NEWS | Business | Suharto tops corruption rankings
- ^ a b McDonald (1980), page 9
- ^ Elson, Robert E. (2001). Suharto: A Political Biography. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 1-6. 052177326.
- ^ McDonald (1980), pages 12-13
- ^ McDonald (1980), pages 13
- ^ Elson, Robert E. (2001). Suharto: A Political Biography. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 8. 052177326.
- ^ McDonald (1980), pages 13
- ^ Oudang, R. (1954). Perkembangan kepolisian di Indonesia. Jakarta: Mahabarata, 36.
- ^ Elson, R. E. (2001). Suharto: A Political Biography. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 9. 052177326.
- ^ Elson, R. E. (2001). Suharto: A Political Biography. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 14-15. 052177326.
- ^ Elson, R. E. (2001). Suharto: A Political Biography. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 15-17. 052177326.
- ^ Elson, R. E. (2001). Suharto: A Political Biography. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 20-25, 28-29. 052177326.
- ^ Elson, R. E. (2001). Suharto: A Political Biography. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 29-38,42-44. 052177326.
- ^ McDonald, Hamish (1980). Suharto's Indonesia. Fontana Books, pp. 24-25. ISBN 0-00-635721-0.
- ^ McDonald, Hamish (1980). Suharto's Indonesia. Fontana Books, p. 25. ISBN 0-00-635721-0.
- ^ McDonald, Hamish (1980). Suharto's Indonesia. Fontana Books, pp. 30-31. ISBN 0-00-635721-0.
- ^ McDonald, Hamish (1980). Suharto's Indonesia. Fontana Books, pp. 31-32. ISBN 0-00-635721-0.
- ^ Ricklefs (1991), page 282
- ^ Ricklefs (1991), pages 272- 280
- ^ Ricklefs (1991), page 281
- ^ Vickers (2005), page 156
- ^ Friend (2003), page 104
- ^ Friend (2003), page 104
- ^ Ricklefs (1991), p. 282.
- ^ Ricklefs (1991), page 281-282
- ^ Friend (2003), page 105
- ^ Ricklefs (1991), pages 281-282
- ^ Friend (2003), page 105
- ^ Ricklefs (1991), pages 281-282
- ^ Vickers (2005), page 157
- ^ Ricklefs (1991), page 287
- ^ "Army in Jakarta Imposes a Ban on Communists", New York Times, 19 October 1965.
- ^ Vickers (2005), page 157
- ^ Ricklefs (1991), page 287
- ^ Vickers (2005), pages 158-159
- ^ Vickers (2005), page 159
- ^ McDonald (1980), page 53
- ^ McDonald (1980), page 52
- ^ Vickers (2005), page 157
- ^ Ricklefs (1991), p. 288; Friend (2003), p. 113; Vickers (2005), p. 159; Robert Cribb (2002). "Unresolved Problems in the Indonesian Killings of 1965-1966". Asian Survey 42 (4): 550–563. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.
- ^ Kahin, George McT. and Kahin, Audrey R. Subversion as Foreign Policy: The Secret Eisenhower and Dulles Debacle in Indonesia. New York: The New Press, 1995.
- ^ Vickers (2005), pages 159-60
- ^ Schwartz (1994), pages 2 & 22
- ^ Vickers (2005), page 160
- ^ "Sukarno Removes His Defense Chief", New York Times, 22 February 1965.
- ^ Vickers (2005), page 160
- ^ Schwartz (1994), page 2
- ^ Ricklefs (1991), p. 295.
- ^ Schwartz (1994), page 2
- ^ Schwartz (1994), page 3
- ^ Schwartz (1994), page 106
- ^ Indonesia Economic. Commanding Heights. PBS/WBGH. Retrieved on May 23 2005.
- ^ Koerner, Brendan. "How Did Suharto Steal $35 Billion? Cronyism 101", Slate, March 26, 2004. Events 1026 - Pope John XIX crowns Conrad II as Holy Roman Emperor. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " Retrieved on 2006-02-04. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 211 - Roman Emperor Septimius Severus dies leaving the Roman Empire in the hands of his two quarrelsome sons
- ^ Simpson, Brad. "Indonesia's 1969 Takeover of West Papua Not by "Free Choice"", National Security Archive, July 9, 2004. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again "
- ^ Benetech Human Rights Data Analysis Group (9 February 2006). Events 474 - Zeno crowned as co-emperor of the Byzantine Empire. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. The Profile of Human Rights Violations in Timor-Leste, 1974-1999. A Report to the Commission on Reception, Truth and Reconciliation of Timor-Leste. Human Rights Data Analysis Group (HRDAG).
- ^ H.AMDT.647 (A003): An amendment to prohibit any funds appropriated in the bill to be used for military education and training assistance to Indonesia. THOMAS (Library of Congress). Retrieved on 2006-02-04. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 211 - Roman Emperor Septimius Severus dies leaving the Roman Empire in the hands of his two quarrelsome sons
- ^ United Nations High Commission on Human Rights resolution 1993/97: Situation in East Timor. United Nations. Retrieved on 2006-02-04. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 211 - Roman Emperor Septimius Severus dies leaving the Roman Empire in the hands of his two quarrelsome sons
- ^ worldpolicy.org
- ^ Aspinall, Ed. "What happened before the riots?", Inside Indonesia, October-December 1996.
- ^ "Indonesia: Arrests, torture and intimidation: The Government's response to its critics", Amnesty International, November 27, 1996. Amnesty International (commonly known as Amnesty or AI) is a Western based international Non-governmental organization which defines its mission as "to Events 1095 - Pope Urban II declares the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont Year 1996 ( MCMXCVI) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display full 1996 Gregorian calendar)
- ^ Vickers (2005), pp. 203-207.
- ^ Vickers (2005), pp. 203-207.
- ^ "Suharto tops corruption rankings", BBC News, 25 March 2004. Events 1199 - Richard I is wounded by a crossbow bolt while fighting France which leads to his death on April 6. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " Retrieved on 2006-02-04. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 211 - Roman Emperor Septimius Severus dies leaving the Roman Empire in the hands of his two quarrelsome sons
- ^ bbc.co.uk, Suharto charity told to pay $110m
- ^ BBC
- ^ "Civil suit filed against Suharto", BBC News, 9 July 2007. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
- ^ Jakartapost.com, Mediation fails, Soeharto civil trial continues
- ^ News.com.au, Suharto wins $128m in damages
- ^ "Former Indonesian dictator unfit to stand trial - doctor", Associated Press, April 23, 2006. Events 215 BC - A temple is built on the Capitoline Hill dedicated to Venus Erycina to commemorate the Roman defeat at Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar.
- ^ Donnan, Shawn. "Jakarta makes final attempt to pursue Suharto charges", Financial Times, April 28, 2006. Events 1192 - Assassination of Conrad of Montferrat (Conrad I King of Jerusalem, in Tyre, two days after his title Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar.
- ^ "Suharto's condition is 'unstable'", BBC News, 5 May 2006. Events 553 - The Second Council of Constantinople begins 1215 - Rebel Barons renounce their allegiance to King John Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar.
- ^ arabtimesonline.com, AFP, Indonesia's ailing Suharto 'getting worse': doctors
- ^ Afp.google.com, Health of Indonesia's ailing Suharto improving: doctors; [1]; BBC NEWS, Suharto condition 'deteriorating'
- ^ Yahoo! News, Doctor gives Suharto "only 50-50 chance"
- ^ Jakarta Post, Suharto's health deteriorates, infection spreads, January 24 2008; OkeZone.com
- ^ Indonesia ex-leader Suharto dies; aljazeera.net; SBS Australia
- ^ Tempointeraktif.com - Presiden Tiba di Astana Giribangun
- ^ time.com
- ^ NZ won't sign Suharto condolence book, January 29, 2008
- ^ Geoff Thompson, Suharto's body arrives home, ABC News January 27 2008
External links
- Mohammed Suharto Biography - From FamousMuslims. com.
- "Suharto, Inc." - A 24 May 1999 TIME Asia expose on Suharto's regime and family, published on the first anniversary of Suharto's resignation. Events 1218 - The Fifth Crusade leaves Acre for Egypt. 1276 - Magnus Ladulås is crowned Year 1999 ( MCMXCIX) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1999 Gregorian calendar) Time (trademarked in capitals as TIME) is a weekly American Newsmagazine, similar to Newsweek and
- Shadow Play - Website accompanying a 2002 PBS documentary on Indonesia, with emphasis on the Suharto-era and the transition from New Order to Reformation. The Public Broadcasting Service ( PBS) is a Non-profit Public broadcasting Television service with 354 member TV stations in the
- "Suharto to Iraq: Nothing has changed" – Article by British journalist and Suharto critic John Pilger on the fortieth anniversary of the Indonesian Civil War in Zmag (originally published in the New Statesman). John Richard Pilger (born October 9, 1939) is a multi-award-winning Australian born journalist and documentary filmmaker from Zmags ApS is a Danish media company specializing in bringing traditional printed material online using a mixture of Adobe Flash and serverside programming The New Statesman is a British Left-wing political Magazine published weekly in London.
- Tiger Tales: Indonesia - Website accompanying a 2002 BBC World Service radio documentary on Indonesia, focusing on early Suharto era. Features interviews with Indonesian generals and victims of the regime. Program is available in streaming RealAudio format.
- news.bbc.co.uk, Life in pictures: Indonesia's Suharto - The pictures of Suharto in BBC.
- Obituary in The Times, January 28, 2008
- Financial Times obituary
- The Guardian obituary
- Jakarta Riot 1998 Gallery
| Military offices | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Pranoto Reksosamudra |
Indonesian Army Chief of Staff 1965–1967 |
Succeeded by Maraden Panggabean |
| Vacant
Title last held by
T B SimatupangAs Chief of Staff of the Battle Forces |
Commander-in-Chief of the Indonesian Armed Forces 1969–1973 |
Succeeded by Maraden Panggabean |
| Political offices | ||
| Preceded by Sukarno |
President of Indonesia 1967–1998 |
Succeeded by Jusuf Habibie |
| Preceded by Dobrica Ćosić |
Secretary General of Non-Aligned Movement 1992–1995 |
Succeeded by Ernesto Samper Pizano |
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