جمهورية السودان Jumhūriyyat as-Sūdān Republic of Sudan
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: النصر لنا Al-Nasr Lana  (Arabic) "Victory is Ours"
Anthem: نحن جند لله جند الوطن  (Arabic) We are the Army of God and of Our Land
Capital		Khartoum 15°31′N 32°35′E / 15.517, 32.583
Largest city		Omdurman
Official languages		Arabic and English
Demonym		Sudanese
Government		Government of National Unity [1]
-	President	Omar Hassan al-Bashir
-	First Vice President	Salva Kiir
-	Second Vice President	Ali Osman Taha
Independence
-	from The British Empire and the Kingdom of Egypt	January 1, 1956
Area
-	Total	2,505,813 km² (10th) 967,495 sq mi
-	Water (%)	6
Population
-	July 2007 estimate	39,379,358 (33rd)
-	1993 census	24,940,683
-	Density	14/km² (194th) 36/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2007 estimate
-	Total	$107. The flag of Sudan ( علم السودان) was adopted on May 20, 1970, and consists of a red-white-black Tricolor with a green The current Coat of arms of Sudan was adopted in 1969. It shows a Secretary Bird bearing a shield from the time of Muhammad ibn Abdalla A motto (from the Italian word motto, meaning witticism sentence is a phrase meant to formally describe the general motivation or intention of a social group A national anthem is a generally patriotic musical composition that evokes and eulogizes the history traditions and struggles of its people recognized either by a nation's Nahnu Jund Allah Jund Al-Watan (نحن جند الله جند الوطن is the national anthem of Sudan Original (Arabic نحن جند Khartoum ( الخرطوم al-Kharṭūm) is the Capital of Sudan and of Khartoum State. In Sudan 's 1981 census the population was calculated at 21 million Omdurman (Standard Arabic Umm Durmān أم درمان is the largest city in Sudan and Khartoum State, lying on the western banks of the river An official language is a Language that is given a special legal status in a particular Country, State, or other territory Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States A demonym or gentilic is a word that denotes the members of a People or the inhabitants of a place For the government of parliamentary systems see Executive (government. This page contains a list of presidents and other heads of state of Sudan. Omar Hassan Ahmad al-Bashir ( Arabic: عمر حسن أحمد البشير born January 1 1944) is the President of Sudan. __FORCETOC__ For the Vice President of the United States, their roles and other information see Vice President of the United States. Salva Kiir Mayardit (born 1951 is the President of autonomous Government of Southern Sudan and the successor to the post of First Vice President __FORCETOC__ For the Vice President of the United States, their roles and other information see Vice President of the United States. Ali Osman Mohammed Taha (علي عثمان محمد طه also transliterated "Othman" or "Uthman" has been the Second Vice President of Sudan Anglo-Egyptian Sudan referred to the manner by which Sudan was administered between 1899 and 1956, when it was a condominium of Egypt New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC Year 1956 ( MCMLVI) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Area is a Quantity expressing the two- Dimensional size of a defined part of a Surface, typically a region bounded by a closed Curve. To help compare Orders of magnitude of different surface Areas here is a list of areas between 1 million km² and 10 million km² This is a list of the countries of the world sorted by total area. The square mile is an imperial and US unit of Area equal the area of a square of one statute mile. Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. In Mathematics, a percentage is a way of expressing a number as a Fraction of 100 ( per cent meaning "per hundred" In Biology a population is the collection of inter-breeding organisms of a particular Species; in Sociology List of countries by population in 2005|List of countries by population in 1907This is a list of countries ordered according to Population. Population density (in agriculture standing stock and Standing crop) is a measurement of Population per unit area or unit volume List of countries and dependencies by Population density in inhabitants/km² The purchasing power parity ( PPP) theory uses the long-term equilibrium Exchange rate of two currencies to equalize their Purchasing power. 8 billion (62nd)
-	Per capita	$2,522 ▲9. There are three lists of Countries of the world sorted by their Gross domestic product (GDP (the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation Per capita is a Latin phrase meaning for each head with Per meaning 'through' or 'by' 6% (134th)
HDI (2007)		▲ 0. This article includes three lists of Countries of the world sorted by their Gross domestic product (GDP at Purchasing power parity (PPP Per capita The Human Development Index ( HDI) is an index combining normalized measures of Life expectancy, Literacy, Educational attainment, and GDP 521 (medium) (148th)
Currency		Sudanese pound (SDG)
Time zone		East Africa Time (UTC+3)
-	Summer (DST)	not observed (UTC+3)
Internet TLD		.sd
Calling code		+249

Sudan (officially the Republic of Sudan) (Arabic: السودان ‎as-Sūdān)^[2] is the largest country in Africa^[3] and the Arab World, and tenth largest country in the world by area. This is a list of countries by Human Development Index as included in the United Nations Development Program 's Human Development Report 2007 A currency is a unit of exchange, facilitating the transfer of Goods and/or services It is one form of Money, where money is The Sudanese pound ( Arabic:) is the currency of Sudan. Arabic names for the denominations appear on Sudanese coins whilst both Arabic and English ISO 4217 is the International standard describing three-letter codes (also known as the currency code) to define the names of currencies established East Africa Time, or EAT, is a time zone used in eastern Africa. Daylight saving time ( DST A country This is a list of country calling codes defined by ITU-T recommendation E Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language This is a list of the countries of the world sorted by total area. It is bordered by Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the northeast, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the east, Kenya and Uganda to the southeast, Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Central African Republic to the southwest, Chad to the west and Libya to the northwest. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. The Red Sea is a Salt water Inlet of the Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia. Eritrea () ( Ge'ez: ኤርትራ ʾErtrā, Arabic: إرتريا Iritriya) officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page The Republic of Kenya is a country in East Africa. It is bordered by Ethiopia to the north Somalia to the northeast Tanzania to the south The Republic of Uganda is a Landlocked country in East Africa. The Democratic Republic of the Congo (République démocratique du Congo often referred to as DR Congo, DRC or RDC, and formerly known or referred to Central Africa|Central African FederationThe Central African Republic ( CAR) République Centrafricaine ʀepyblik sɑ̃tʀafʀikɛn or Centrafrique) is a Landlocked Chad (Tchad تشاد Tshād) officially known as the Republic of Chad, is a Landlocked country in Central Africa. Libya ( ليبيا ar-Latn Lībiyā; Libyan vernacular: Lībya; Amazigh:) officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab The country's name derives from the Arabic Bilad-al-sudan, literally "land of the blacks. "^[2]Sudan has recently emerged as the world's most unstable country according to the Failed States Index, mainly due to the Military Government and Darfur Conflict. This is a list of countries by order of appearance in the Fund For Peace 's Failed States Index A military dictatorship is a Form of government wherein the political power resides with the Military; it is similar but not identical to a Stratocracy, The War in Darfur is a military conflict in the Darfur region of western Sudan. Despite that, Sudan is still managing to be the sixth fastest growing economy in the world -GDP.

Contents 1 History of Sudan 1.1 Early history of Sudan 1.2 Christian kingdoms 1.3 The spread of Islam 1.4 Kingdom of Sinnar 1.5 Union with Egypt 1821-1885 1.6 Mahdist Revolt 1.7 Mahdist Rule: The Mahdiya 1.8 Anglo-Egyptian Sudan 1899-1956 1.9 Independence January 1, 1956 1.10 First Sudanese Civil War 1955 - 1972 1.11 Second Sudanese Civil War from 1983 - 2005 1.12 Southern Sudan 1.13 Darfur conflict 2003 - Present 1.14 Chad-Sudan conflict 1.15 Eastern Front 1.16 Humanitarian needs and 2007 floods 2 Politics 3 Foreign relations 4 Legal system 5 Human rights 6 States and districts 7 Autonomy, separation, conflicts 8 Geography 9 Economy 10 Demographics 10.1 Peoples of Sudan 11 Official languages 12 Culture 13 Sudanese writers, artists and singers 14 Education 15 See also 16 Books 17 Notes and references 18 External links

History of Sudan

Main article: History of Sudan

Early history of Sudan

Main article: Early history of Sudan

Archaeological evidence has confirmed that the area in the North of Sudan was inhabited at least 600,000 years ago. The history of Sudan is marked by influences (military and cultural on Sudan from neighboring areas (e The history of Sudan is marked by influences (military and cultural on Sudan from neighboring areas (e A settled culture appeared in the area around 80,000 BC, living in fortified villages, where they subsisted on hunting and fishing, as well as grain gathering and cattle herding while also being shepherds.

The area was known to the Egyptians as Kush and had strong cultural and religious ties to Egypt. Kush civilization centered in the confluence of the Blue Nile and the White Nile, and the confluence of the River Atbara and Nile in what In the 8th century BC, however, Kush came under the rule of an aggressive line of monarchs, ruling from the capital city, Napata, who gradually extended their influence into Egypt. About 750 BC, a Kushite king called Kashta conquered Upper Egypt and became ruler of Thebes until approximately 740 BC. His successor, Piankhy, subdued the delta, reunited Egypt under the Twenty-fifth Dynasty, and founded a line of kings who ruled Kush and Thebes for about a hundred years. Piye, (whose name was once transliterated as Piankhi) (d 721 BC was a Kushite king and founder of the Twenty-fifth dynasty of Egypt who ruled Egypt The dynasty's intervention in the area of modern Syria caused a confrontation between Egypt and Assyria. When the Assyrians in retaliation invaded Egypt, Taharqa (688-663 BC), the last Kushite pharaoh, withdrew and returned the dynasty to Napata, where it continued to rule Kush and extended its dominions to the south and east. Taharqa was pharaoh of Egypt, and a member of the Nubian or Twenty-fifth dynasty of Egypt.

In 590 BC, an Egyptian army sacked Napata, compelling the Kushite court to move to Meroe near the 6th cataract. The Meroitic kingdom subsequently developed independently of Egypt, and during the height of its power in the 2nd and 3rd centuries BC, Meroe extended over a region from the 3rd cataract in the north to Sawba, near present-day Khartoum (the modern day capital of Sudan). Khartoum ( الخرطوم al-Kharṭūm) is the Capital of Sudan and of Khartoum State.

The pharaonic tradition persisted among Meroe's rulers, who raised stelae to record the achievements of their reigns and erected pyramids to contain their tombs. A stele (from Greek:, stēlē, ˈstiːli plural stelae,, stēlai, ˈstiːlaɪ also found Latinised singular stela These objects and the ruins of palaces, temples and baths at Meroe attest to a centralized political system that employed artisans' skills and commanded the labour of a large work force. A well-managed irrigation system allowed the area to support a higher population density than was possible during later periods. By the 1st century BC, the use of hieroglyphs gave way to a Meroitic script that adapted the Egyptian writing system to an indigenous, Nubian-related language spoken later by the region's people.

In the 6th century AD, the people known as the Nobatae occupied the Nile's west bank in northern Kush. Eventually they intermarried and established themselves among the Meroitic people as a military aristocracy. Until nearly the 5th century, Rome subsidized the Nobatae and used Meroe as a buffer between Egypt and the Blemmyes. The Blemmyes ( Latin Blemmyae) are a race of Legendary creatures that were said to live in Africa, in Nubia, Kush, or About CE 350, an Axumite army from Abyssinia captured and destroyed Meroe city, ending the kingdom's independent existence.

Christian kingdoms

By the 6th century, Ahmed Hassan took over Sudan, and three states had emerged as the political and cultural heirs of the Meroitic Kingdom. Nobatia in the North, also known as Ballanah, had its capital at Faras, in what is now Egypt; the central kingdom, Muqurra (Makuria), was centred at Dunqulah, about 150 kilometers south of modern Dunqulah; and Alawa (Alodia), in the heartland of old Meroe, which had its capital at Sawba (now a suburb of modern-day Khartoum). Alodia or Alwa was the southernmost of the three kingdoms of Christian Nubia; the other two were Nobatia and Makuria to the north In all three kingdoms, warrior aristocracies ruled Meroitic populations from royal courts where functionaries bore Greek titles in emulation of the Byzantine court.

A missionary sent by Byzantine empress Theodora arrived in Nobatia and started preaching the Gospel of Christ about 540 AD. This article is about the canonical books of the New Testament Christ is the English term for the Greek ( Khristós) meaning "the anointed " The Nubian kings became Monophysite Christians. Monophysitism (from the Greek monos meaning 'one alone' and physis meaning 'nature' or Monophysiticism is the Christological position that A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth However, Makuria was of the Melkite Christian faith, unlike Nobatia and Alodia. Makuria (مقرة al-Mukurra or al-Muqurra) was a kingdom located in what is today Northern Sudan and Southern Egypt. The term Melkite (also written Melchite) is used to refer to various Christian churches and their members originating in the Middle East. Nobatia (c 350 AD - 600 AD also known as Nobadia was an ancient African Christian kingdom in Lower Nubia and subsequently a region of the larger Alodia or Alwa was the southernmost of the three kingdoms of Christian Nubia; the other two were Nobatia and Makuria to the north

The spread of Islam

After many attempts at military conquest failed, the Arab commander in Egypt concluded the first in a series of regularly renewed treaties known as Albaqut (pactum) with the Nubians that governed relations between the two peoples for more than 678 years.

Islam progressed in the area over a long period of time through intermarriage and contacts with Arab merchants and settlers. In 1093, a Muslim prince of Nubian royal blood ascended the throne of Dunqulah as king.

The two most important Arabic-speaking groups to emerge in Nubia were the Jaali and the Juhayna. Both showed physical continuity with the indigenous pre-Islamic population. Today's northern Sudanese culture combines Nubian & Arabic elements.

Kingdom of Sinnar

During the 1500s, a people called the Funj, under a leader named Amara Dunqus, appeared in southern Nubia and supplanted the remnants of the old Christian kingdom of Alwa, establishing As-Saltana az-Zarqa (the Blue Sultanate)at Sinnar. The Funj are an ethnic group in present day Sudan. Their origins are not clearly known but they are recorded as moving into Nubia from the Sudd to the This article is about the region in Africa for other uses see Nubia (disambiguation. A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth Alodia or Alwa was the southernmost of the three kingdoms of Christian Nubia; the other two were Nobatia and Makuria to the north WikipediaWikiProject Indian cities for details --> Sinnar is a city and a Municipal council in Nashik district in the Indian state The Blue Sultanate eventually became the keystone of the Funj Empire. By the mid-16th century, Sinnar controlled Al Jazirah and commanded the allegiance of vassal states and tribal districts north to the 3rd cataract and south to the rain forests. The government was substantially weakened by a series of succession arguments and coups within the royal family. In 1820 Muhammad Ali of Egypt sent 4,000 troops to invade Sudan. This article is about the leader of Egypt For other people named Muhammad Ali or Mehmet Ali see Muhammad Ali (disambiguation and Mehemet Ali (disambiguation The pasha's forces accepted Sinnar's surrender from the last Funj sultan, Badi IV. Pasha or pacha, formerly bashaw, (paşa پاشا ( Persian: پاشا ( Armenian: Փաշա was a high rank in the Ottoman Empire Sultan (سلطان is an Islamic title with several historical meanings Badi IV ( 1724 - 1762) also known as Badi abu Shilluk, was a ruler of the Kingdom of Sennar.

Union with Egypt 1821-1885

Main article: History of Sudan under Muhammad Ali and his successors

In 1820, the Egyptian ruler Muhammad Ali Pasha invaded and conquered northern Sudan. The History of Sudan under Muhammad Ali and his successors traces the period from Muhammad Ali Pasha 's invasion of Sudan in 1820 until the fall of Khartoum to This article is about the leader of Egypt For other people named Muhammad Ali or Mehmet Ali see Muhammad Ali (disambiguation and Mehemet Ali (disambiguation Though technically the Wāli of Egypt under the Ottoman Sultan, Muhammad Ali styled himself as Khedive of a virtually independent Egypt. Wāli or vali is an administrative title that was used during the Ottoman Empire to designate governors of administrative divisions The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish For the HMS Khedive, see ''USS'' Cordova. Khedive (from Persian for "lord" was a title first Seeking to add Sudan to his domains, he sent his son Ibrahim Pasha to conquer the country, and subsequently incorporate it into Egypt. Ibrahim Basha (إبراهيم باشا ‎ (1789 &ndash November 10 1848) a 19th century general of Egypt. This policy was expanded and intensified by Ibrahim's son, Ismail I, under whose reign most of the remainder of modern-day Sudan was conquered. Isma'il Pasha, known as Ismail the Magnificent (إسماعيل باشا ( December 31, 1830 &ndash March 2, 1895) was Wāli The Egyptian authorities made significant improvements to the Sudanese infrastructure (mainly in the north), especially with regard to irrigation and cotton production.

Mahdist Revolt

Main article: Mahdist War

In 1879, the Great Powers forced the removal of Ismail and established his son Tewfik I in his place. The Mahdist War was a Colonial war of the late 19th century It was fought between the Mahdist Sudanese and the Egyptian and later British A great power is a Nation or State that has the ability to exert its influence on a global scale Tewfik Pasha (Tawfiq of Egypt (1852-1892 (محمد توفيق باشا was Khedive of Egypt and Sudan, and the sixth ruler from the Tewfik's corruption and mismanagement resulted in the Orabi Revolt, which threatened the Khedive's survival. The Urabi Revolt or Orabi Revolt (ˈʕoɾɑːˌbi also known as the Orabi Revolution, was an uprising in Egypt in 1879-82 against the Khedive Tewfik appealed for help to the British, who subsequently occupied Egypt and Sudan in 1882, ostensibly to guarantee the authority of the Khedive. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located In reality, however, the British largely took control of Egyptian and Sudanese affairs, fanning ever greater nationalist resentment.

Eventually, revolt broke out in Sudan, led by the Sudanese religious leader Muhammad ibn Abdalla, the self-proclaimed Mahdi (Guided One), who sought to purify Islam and end foreign domination in Sudan. Muhammad Ahmad ibn as Sayyid Abd Allah (otherwise known as The Mahdi or Muhammad Ahmed Al Mahdi Arabic:محمد أحمد المهدي ( August In Islamic eschatology the Mahdi ( ar مهدي, also Mehdi; "Guided One" is the prophesied redeemer of Islam who will stay on earth His revolt culminated in the fall of Khartoum and the death of the British General Charles George Gordon (Gordon of Khartoum) in 1885. Khartoum ( الخرطوم al-Kharṭūm) is the Capital of Sudan and of Khartoum State. Major-General, CB ( 28 January 1833 &ndash 26 January 1885) known as Chinese Gordon, Gordon Pasha The Egyptian and British forces withdrew from Sudan leaving the Mahdi to form a short-lived theocratic state.

Mahdist Rule: The Mahdiya

Main article: History of Sudan (1884-1898)

The Mahdiyah (Mahdist regime) imposed traditional Islamic laws. Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. Sudan's new ruler also authorized the burning of lists of pedigrees and books of law and theology because of their association with the old order and because he believed that the former accentuated tribalism at the expense of religious unity.

The Mahdiyah has become known as the first genuine Sudanese nationalist government. The Mahdi maintained that his movement was not a religious order that could be accepted or rejected at will, but that it was a universal regime, which challenged man to join or to be destroyed. Originally, the Mahdiyah was a jihad state, run like a military camp. Jihad (جهاد ʤɪhæːd an Islamic term, is a religious duty of Muslims. Sharia courts enforced Islamic law and the Mahdi's precepts, which had the force of law. Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. Six months after the fall of Khartoum, the Mahdi died of typhus, and after a power struggle amongst his deputies, Abdallahi ibn Muhammad, with the help primarily of the Baqqara Arabs of western Sudan, overcame the opposition of the others and emerged as unchallenged leader of the Mahdiyah. Typhus is any of several similar diseases caused by Louse -borne bacteria Abdullah Ibn-Mohammed or Abdullah al-Taaisha, also known as "The Khalifa " (عبدالله بن سيد محمد خليفة 1846 &ndash November 24 The Baggara Arabs or Baqqarah ( البقارة) are a nomadic Bedouin people inhabiting Africa from between Lake Chad and the Nile After consolidating his power, Abdallahi ibn Muhammad assumed the title of Khalifa (successor) of the Mahdi, instituted an administration, and appointed Ansar (who were usually Baqqara) as emirs over each of the several provinces.

Regional relations remained tense throughout much of the Mahdiyah period, largely because of the Khalifa's commitment to using the jihad to extend his version of Islam throughout the country. In 1887, a 60,000-man Ansar army invaded Ethiopia, penetrating as far as Gondar. NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page Gondar or Gonder ( Ge'ez: ጎንደር Gōnder, older ጐንደር Gʷandar, modern pronunciation Gʷender) is a city in In March 1889, king Yohannes IV of Ethiopia, marched on Metemma; however, after Yohannes fell in battle, the Ethiopian forces withdrew. Emperor Yohannes IV ( Ge'ez ዮሓንስ Yōḥānnis, Amharic Yōhānnis, also known as "John" c Metemma (also known as Metemma Yohannes) is a town in Abd ar Rahman an Nujumi, the Khalifa's best general, invaded Egypt in 1889, but British-led Egyptian troops defeated the Ansar at Tushkah. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. The failure of the Egyptian invasion broke the spell of the Ansar's invincibility. The Belgians prevented the Mahdi's men from conquering Equatoria, and in 1893, the Italians repulsed an Ansar attack at Akordat (in Eritrea) and forced the Ansar to withdraw from Ethiopia. The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those For the Astrometrical device please refer to Equatorium Equatoria ( Al-Istiwa'iyah in Arabic) began as a province Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Agordat (also Akordat or Ak'ordat, Ge'ez ኣቆርዳት was the former capital of the now defunct Barka Eritrea () ( Ge'ez: ኤርትራ ʾErtrā, Arabic: إرتريا Iritriya) officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page

Anglo-Egyptian Sudan 1899-1956

In the 1890s, the British sought to re-establish their control over Sudan, once more officially in the name of the Egyptian Khedive, but in actuality treating the country as British imperial territory. By the early 1890s, British, French, and Belgian claims had converged at the Nile headwaters. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom from 1 January 1801 until 12 April 1927 This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River Britain feared that the other imperial powers would take advantage of Sudan's instability to acquire territory previously annexed to Egypt. Apart from these political considerations, Britain wanted to establish control over the Nile to safeguard a planned irrigation dam at Aswan. Aswan (formerly spelled Assuan (in standard أسوان Aswān) Egyptian: Swenet ( trade) Coptic: Swān; Greek

Lord Kitchener led military campaigns from 1896 to 1898. Field Marshal Horatio Herbert Kitchener 1st Earl Kitchener, KG, KP, GCB, OM Kitchener's campaigns culminated in the Battle of Omdurman. At the Battle of Omdurman ( 2 September 1898) an army commanded by the British General Sir Horatio Kitchener defeated the army of Abdullah Following defeat of the Mahdists at Omdurman, an agreement was reached in 1899 establishing Anglo-Egyptian rule, under which Sudan was run by a governor-general appointed by Egypt with British consent. Muhammad Ahmad ibn as Sayyid Abd Allah (otherwise known as The Mahdi or Muhammad Ahmed Al Mahdi Arabic:محمد أحمد المهدي ( August Omdurman (Standard Arabic Umm Durmān أم درمان is the largest city in Sudan and Khartoum State, lying on the western banks of the river Anglo-Egyptian Sudan referred to the manner by which Sudan was administered between 1899 and 1956, when it was a condominium of Egypt This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. In reality, much to the revulsion of Egyptian and Sudanese nationalists, Sudan was effectively administered as a British colony. The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation The British Empire was the largest empire in history and for over a century was the foremost global power. The British were keen to reverse the process, started under Muhammad Ali Pasha, of uniting the Nile Valley under Egyptian leadership, and sought to frustrate all efforts aimed at further uniting the two countries. This article is about the leader of Egypt For other people named Muhammad Ali or Mehmet Ali see Muhammad Ali (disambiguation and Mehemet Ali (disambiguation The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River

During World War II, Sudan was directly involved militarily in the East African Campaign. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The East African Campaign refers to the battles fought in East Africa during World War II. Formed in 1925, the Sudan Defence Force (SDF) played an active part in responding to the early incursions into the Sudan from Italian East Africa during 1940. The Sudan Defence Force (SDF was a Sudanese military unit formed in 1925 as its name indicates to maintain the borders of the Sudan under the British administration Italian East Africa ( Italian: Africa Orientale Italiana, or AOI was a short-lived (1936-1941 Italian Colony in Africa consisting of In 1942, the SDF also played a part in the invasion of the Italian colony by British and Commonwealth forces.

From 1924 until independence in 1956, the British had a policy of running Sudan as two essentially separate territories, the north (Muslim) and south (Christian). The last British Governor-General was Sir Robert Howe. The term governor general or governor-general refers to a vice-regal representative of a Monarch in an independent realm or a major colonial circonscription Sir Robert George Howe GBE KCMG (born Derby, England, September 1893 died 22 June 1981) was a British Howe was Governor-General from 1947 to 1955.

Independence January 1, 1956

The continued British occupation of Sudan fueled an increasingly strident nationalist backlash in Egypt, with Egyptian nationalist leaders determined to force Britain to recognise a single independent union of Egypt and Sudan. With the formal end of Ottoman rule in 1914, Husayn Kamil was declared Sultan of Egypt and Sudan, as was his brother Fuad I who succeeded him. Sultan Husayn Kamil ( November 21, 1853 - October 9 1917) (سلطان حسين كامل was the Sultan of Egypt and Sultan of Egypt was the status held by the rulers of Egypt after the establishment of the Ayyubid Dynasty of Saladin in 1174 until the Ottoman conquest Fuad I, born Ahmed Fuad, ( Arabic: فؤاد الأول Fu'ād al-Awwal) ( March 26, 1868 - April 28, 1936 The insistence of a single Egyptian-Sudanese state persisted when the Sultanate was re-titled the Kingdom of Egypt and Sudan, but the British continued to frustrate these efforts. The Kingdom of Egypt ( المملكة المصرية) was the first modern Egyptian state, lasting from 1922 to 1953

The first real independence attempt was made in 1924 by a group of Sudanese military officers known as The White Flag Association. The group was led by first lieutenant Ali Abdullatif and first lieutenant Abdul Fadil Almaz. The latter led an insurrection of the military training academy, which ended in their defeat and the death of Almaz after the British army blew up the military hospital where he was garrisoned. This defeat was (allegedly) partially the result of the Egyptian garrison in Khartoum North not supporting the insurrection with artillery as was previously promised.

Even when the British ended their occupation of Egypt in 1936 (with the exception of the Suez Canal Zone), Sudan remained under British occupation. The Suez Canal is a Canal in Egypt. Opened in 1869 it allows Water transportation between Europe and Asia without circumnavigation The Egyptian Revolution of 1952 finally heralded the beginning of the march towards Sudanese independence. The Egyptian Revolution of 1952 (ثورة 23 يوليو 1952 also known as the July 23 Revolution, began with a military Coup d'état that took place on Having abolished the monarchy in 1953, Egypt's new leaders, Muhammad Naguib, whose mother was Sudanese, and Gamal Abdel-Nasser, believed the only way to end British domination in Sudan was for Egypt to officially abandon its sovereignty over Sudan. Muhammad Naguib (محمد نجيب) (born 20 February, 1901 &ndash 29 August, 1984) was the first President of Egypt, serving Gamal Abdel Nasser (جمال عبد الناصر Gamāl ‘Abd an-Nāṣir; - January 15 1918 September 28 1970) was the second President Since Britain's own claim to sovereignty in Sudan theoretically depended upon Egyptian sovereignty, the revolutionaries calculated that this tactic would leave Britain with no option but to withdraw. Their calculation proved to be correct, and in 1954 the governments of Egypt and Britain signed a treaty guaranteeing Sudanese independence on January 1, 1956. New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC Year 1956 ( MCMLVI) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.

Afterwards, the newly elected Sudanese government led by the first prime minister Ismail Al-Azhari, went ahead with the process of Sudanisation of the state's government, with the help and supervision of an international committee. Independence was duly granted and on January 1, 1956, in a special ceremony held at the People's Palace where the Egyptian and British flags were lowered and the new Sudanese flag, composed of green, blue and yellow stripes, was raised in their place. New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC Year 1956 ( MCMLVI) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. ^[4]

First Sudanese Civil War 1955 - 1972

Main article: First Sudanese Civil War

In 1955, the year before independence, a civil war began between northern and southern Sudan. The First Sudanese Civil War (also known as Anyanya rebellion or Anyanya I, after the name of the rebels was a conflict from 1955 to 1972 A civil war is a War between a State and domestic political actors that are in control of some part of the territory claimed by the state Southern Sudan is a region of Sudan, comprising ten of that country's states The southerners, anticipating independence, feared the new nation would be dominated by the north.

Historically, the north of Sudan had closer ties with Egypt and was predominantly Arab and Muslim while the south was predominantly a mixture of Christianity and Animism. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Animism (from Latin anima ( Soul, Life) commonly refers to a religious belief that Souls or Spirits exist in Animals These divisions had been further emphasized by the British policy of ruling the north and south under separate administrations. From 1924, it was illegal for people living above the 10th parallel to go further south and for people below the 8th parallel to go further north. The law was ostensibly enacted to prevent the spread of malaria and other tropical diseases that had ravaged British troops, as well as to facilitate spreading Christianity among the predominantly Animist population while stopping the Arabic and Islamic influence from advancing south. Malaria is a vector -borne Infectious disease caused by Protozoan Parasites It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions including Tropical diseases are diseases that are prevalent in or unique to tropical and subtropical regions The result was increased isolation between the already distinct north and south and arguably laid the seeds of conflict in the years to come.

The resulting conflict, known as the First Sudanese Civil War, lasted from 1955 to 1972. The First Sudanese Civil War (also known as Anyanya rebellion or Anyanya I, after the name of the rebels was a conflict from 1955 to 1972 In 1972, a cessation of the north-south conflict was agreed upon under the terms of the Addis Ababa Agreement, following talks which were sponsored by the World Council of Churches. The World Council of Churches ( WCC) is an international This led to a ten-year hiatus in the national conflict.

Second Sudanese Civil War from 1983 - 2005

Main article: Second Sudanese Civil War

In 1983, the civil war was reignited following President Gaafar Nimeiri's decision to circumvent the Addis Ababa Agreement. The Second Sudanese Civil War (sometimes referred to as Anyanya II) started in 1983 although it was largely a continuation of the First Sudanese Civil Gaafar Muhammad an-Nimeiry (otherwise known as Jaafar Nimeiry, Gaafar Nimeiry or Ga'far Muhammad an-Numayri; born 1 January 1930) President Gaafar Nimeiry attempted to create a federated Sudan including states in southern Sudan, which violated the Addis Ababa Agreement that had granted the south considerable autonomy.

Southern Sudan

The Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA), based in southern Sudan, was formed in May 1983. Finally, in June 1983, the Sudanese government under President Gaafar Nimeiry abrogated the Addis Ababa Peace Agreement (A. A. A. )[1]. The situation was exacerbated after President Gaafar Nimeiry went on to implement Sharia Law in September of the same year [2]. Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law.

The war continued even after Numeiri was ousted and a democratic government was elected with Al Sadig Al Mahdi's Umma Party having the majority in the parliament. Sadiq al-Mahdi ( Arabic: الصادق المهدي (also known as Sadiq Al Siddiq, born 1936 is a Sudanese political and religious figure The Umma Party ( Arabic: حزب الأمة Hizb al-Umma, translated into English as Nation Party is a secular Islamic centrist Political party in The leader of the SPLA John Garang refused to recognize the government and to negotiate with it as representative of Sudan but agreed to negotiate with government officials as representative of their political parties.

In 1989, a bloodless coup brought control of Khartoum into the hands of Omar al-Bashir and the National Islamic Front headed by Dr. Omar Hassan Ahmad al-Bashir ( Arabic: عمر حسن أحمد البشير born January 1 1944) is the President of Sudan. Hassan al-Turabi. Dr Hassan 'Abd Allah al-Turabi (الدكتور حسن عبد الله الترابي in Arabic) commonly called Hassan al-Turabi (sometimes transliterated The new government was of Islamic orientation and later it formed the Popular Defence Forces (al Difaa al Shaabi) and began to use religious propaganda to recruit people, as the regular army was demoralised and under pressure from the SPLA rebels. This worsened the situation in the tribal south, as the fighting became more intense, causing casualties among the Christian and animist minority.

The SPLA started as a Marxist movement, with support from the Soviet Union and the Ethiopian Marxist President Mengistu Haile Meriem. Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page In time, however, it sought support in the West by using the northern Sudanese government's religious propaganda to portray the war as a campaign by the Arab Islamic government to impose Islam and the Arabic language on the Christian south. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth

The war went on for more than 20 years, including the use of Russian-made combat helicopters and military cargo planes which were used as bombers to devastating effect on villages and tribal rebels alike. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending History Since 400 AD Chinese children have played with bamboo flying toys. "Sudan's independent history has been dominated by chronic, exceptionally cruel warfare that has starkly divided the country on racial, religious, and regional grounds; displaced an estimated four million people (of a total estimated population of thirty-two million); and killed an estimated two million people. "^[5] It damaged Sudan's economy and led to food shortages, resulting in starvation and malnutrition. The lack of investment during this time, particularly in the south, meant a generation lost access to basic health services, education, and jobs.

Peace talks between the southern rebels and the government made substantial progress in 2003 and early 2004. The peace was consolidated with the official signing by both sides of the Nairobi Comprehensive Peace Agreement 9 January 2005, granting southern Sudan autonomy for six years, to be followed by a referendum about independence. Nairobi (naɪˈroʊbɪ is the capital and largest city of Kenya. Peace, in the modern usage is a concept defined by the ideal state of relationship as absence of hostility at the international level that of a War. Events 475 - Byzantine Emperor Zeno is forced to flee his capital at Constantinople. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Southern Sudan is a region of Sudan, comprising ten of that country's states It created a co-vice president position and allowed the north and south to split oil deposits equally, but also left both the north's and south's armies in place. John Garang, the south's peace agreement appointed co-vice president died in a helicopter crash on August 1, 2005, three weeks after being sworn in. Dr John Garang de Mabior ( June 23, 1945 – July 30, 2005) was First Vice President Sudan and former leader of the Events 30 BC - Octavian (later known as Augustus enters Alexandria, Egypt, bringing it under the control of the Roman Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. This resulted in riots, but the peace was eventually able to continue.

The United Nations Mission in Sudan (UNMIS) was established under UN Security Council Resolution 1590 of March 24, 2005. The United Nations Mission in the Sudan (UNMIS was established by the UN Security Council under UN Security Council Resolution 1590 of 24 March 2005 Events 1401 - Mongol emperor Timur sacks Damascus. 1603 - James VI of Scotland Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Its mandate is to support implementation of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement, and to perform functions relating to humanitarian assistance, and protection and promotion of human rights. Humanitarianism is an active belief in Humanism (the idea of the value of human life whereby Humans practice benevolent treatment and provide assistance to other humans Human rights refers to the "basic Rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled

In October 2007 the former southern rebel Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM) withdrew from government in protest over slow implementation of a landmark 2005 peace deal which ended the civil war. Observers say the biggest obstacle to reconciliation is the unresolved status of the oil-rich region of Abyei, which is on the north-south border. Few weeks afterwards, leading Islamist opposition party leader Hassan al-Turabi affirmed that South Sudan could unilaterally split from the north because of a dispute over the region of Abyei. ^[6]

Darfur conflict 2003 - Present

Main article: Darfur conflict

Just as the long north-south civil war was reaching a resolution, some tribal clashes occurred in the western region of Darfur in the early 1970s between the pastoral tribes and the agricultural tribes after Africa's greatest famine. The War in Darfur is a military conflict in the Darfur region of western Sudan. A civil war is a War between a State and domestic political actors that are in control of some part of the territory claimed by the state Darfur (دار فور daar foor, lit "realm of the Fur " is a region in Sudan. The rebels accused the central government of neglecting the Darfur region economically, although there is uncertainty regarding the objectives of the rebels and whether they merely seek an improved position for Darfur within Sudan or outright "secession. " Both the government and the rebels have been accused of atrocities in this war, although most of the blame has fallen on Arab militias known as the Janjaweed, who are armed men appointed by the Al Saddiq Al Mahdi administration to stop the long standing chaotic disputes between Darfur tribes. The Janjaweed ( Arabic: جنجويد; variously transliterated Janjawid, Janjawed or Jingaweit etc Sadiq al-Mahdi ( Arabic: الصادق المهدي (also known as Sadiq Al Siddiq, born 1936 is a Sudanese political and religious figure According to declarations by the United States Government, these militias have been engaging in genocide; the fighting has displaced hundreds of thousands of people, many of them seeking refuge in neighbouring Chad. Genocide is the deliberate and systematic destruction in whole or in part of an ethnic racial religious or national group Chad (Tchad تشاد Tshād) officially known as the Republic of Chad, is a Landlocked country in Central Africa. The government claimed victory over the rebels after capturing a town on the border with Chad in early 1994. However, the fighting resumed in 2003.

On September 9, 2004, the United States Secretary of State Colin Powell termed the Darfur conflict a "genocide", claiming it as the worst humanitarian crisis of the 21st century. Events 1000 - Battle of Svolder, Viking Age. 1379 - Treaty of Neuberg, splitting the Austrian "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " The United States Secretary of State (commonly abbreviated as SecState) is the head of the United States Department of State, concerned with Foreign affairs Colin Luther Powell, KCB (Honorary MSC, (born April 5, 1937) is a retired General in the United States Army. Humanitarianism is an active belief in Humanism (the idea of the value of human life whereby Humans practice benevolent treatment and provide assistance to other humans A crisis (plural crises may occur on a personal or societal level ^[7] There have been reports that the Janjaweed have been launching raids, bombings, and attacks on villages, killing civilians based on ethnicity, raping women, stealing land, goods, and herds of livestock. ^[8] So far, over 2. 5 million civilians have been displaced and the death toll is variously estimated at 200,000^[9] to 400,000 killed. ^[10]

On May 5, 2006, the Sudanese government and Darfur's largest rebel group the SLM (Sudan Liberation Movement) signed the Darfur Peace Agreement, which aimed at ending the three-year long conflict. Events 553 - The Second Council of Constantinople begins 1215 - Rebel Barons renounce their allegiance to King John Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Darfur (دار فور daar foor, lit "realm of the Fur " is a region in Sudan. ^[11] The agreement specified the disarmament of the Janjaweed and the disbandment of the rebel forces, and aimed at establishing a temporal government in which the rebels could take part. ^[12] The agreement, which was brokered by the African Union, however, was not signed by all of the rebel groups. The African Union (abbreviated AU in English, and UA in its other working languages is a Confederation consisting of 53  African ^[12]

Since the agreement was signed, however, there have been reports of wide-spread violence throughout the region. A new rebel group has emerged called the "National Redemption Front" (which is made up of the 4 main rebel groups who refused to sign the May peace agreement). ^[13] Recently, both the Sudanese government and government-sponsored Muslim militias have launched large offensives against the rebel groups, resulting in more deaths and more displacements. Clashes among the rebel groups have also contributed to the violence. ^[13] Recent fighting along the Chad border has left hundreds of soldiers and rebel forces dead and nearly a quarter of a million refugees cut from aid. ^[14] In addition, villages have been bombed and more civilians have been killed. UNICEF recently reported that around 80 infants die each day in Darfur as a result of malnutrition. The United Nations Children's Fund (or UNICEF) was created by the United Nations General Assembly on December 11, 1946 Malnutrition is a general term for a medical condition caused by an improper or insufficient diet.

The people in Darfur are predominantly black Africans of Muslim beliefs, whereas the Janjaweed militia is made up of Black Arabs. The term African people can refer to people who live in Africa, or people who trace their ancestry to Indigenous inhabitants of Africa. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion The Janjaweed ( Arabic: جنجويد; variously transliterated Janjawid, Janjawed or Jingaweit etc The term militia is commonly used today to refer to a military force composed of ordinary Citizens to provide defense emergency law enforcement or Paramilitary service Afro-Arab (sometimes referred to as African Arab) refers to people who possess both Black African and Arab ancestry ^[15]

The International Criminal Court has indicted State Minister for Humanitarian Affairs Ahmed Haroun and alleged Muslim Janjaweed militia leader Ali Mohammed Ali Mohammed Ali aka Ali Kosheib, in relation to the atrocities in the region. The International Criminal Court ( ICC or ICCt) was established in 2002 as a permanent tribunal to prosecute individuals for Genocide, crimes against

Ahmed Haroun belongs to the Bargou tribe one of the non Arab tribes of Darfur and is alleged to have incited attacks on specific (non Arab) ethnic groups. Ahmed Mohammed Haroun (or Ahmad Harun أحمد هارون is one of two Sudanese men wanted by the International Criminal Court (ICC for War crimes

Ali Kosheib is an ex soldier and a leader of the popular defence forces and is alleged to be one of the key leaders responsible for attacks on villages in west Darfur.

Chad-Sudan conflict

Main article: Chad-Sudan conflict

The Chad-Sudan conflict officially started on December 23, 2005, when the government of Chad declared a state of war with Sudan and called for the citizens of Chad to mobilize themselves against the "common enemy",^[16] which the Chadian government sees as the Rally for Democracy and Liberty (RDL) militants, Chadian rebels backed by the Sudanese government, and Sudanese militiamen. The current civil war in Chad began in December 2005. The conflict involved Chadian government forces and several Chadian rebel groups The current civil war in Chad began in December 2005. The conflict involved Chadian government forces and several Chadian rebel groups Events 962 - Byzantine-Arab Wars: Under the future Emperor Nicephorus Phocas, Byzantine troops stormed the city Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Politics of Chad takes place in a framework of a presidential Republic, whereby the President of Chad is both Head of state and Head of Chad (Tchad تشاد Tshād) officially known as the Republic of Chad, is a Landlocked country in Central Africa. The Rally for Democracy and Liberty, abbreviated as RDL (Rassemblement pour la Démocratie et la Liberté in French) is a Chadian Rebel group The militants attacked villages and towns in eastern Chad, stealing cattle, murdering citizens, and burning houses. Over 200,000 refugees from the Darfur region of northwestern Sudan currently claim asylum in eastern Chad. Darfur (دار فور daar foor, lit "realm of the Fur " is a region in Sudan. Chadian president Idriss Déby accuses Sudanese President Omar Hasan Ahmad al-Bashir of trying to "destabilize our country, to drive our people into misery, to create disorder and export the war from Darfur to Chad. This is a list of famous people from Chad. See also Heads of state of Chad, Sayfawa dynasty A; Ibrahim Abatcha Lieutenant General Idriss Déby Itno (born 1952 is the President of Chad and the head of the Patriotic Salvation Movement. Omar Hassan Ahmad al-Bashir ( Arabic: عمر حسن أحمد البشير born January 1 1944) is the President of Sudan. "

The incident prompting the declaration of war was an attack on the Chadian town of Adré near the Sudanese border that led to the deaths of either one hundred rebels (as most news sources reported) or three hundred rebels. Adré is the main town of the Assoungha department in the Ouaddaï Region of Chad. The Sudanese government was blamed for the attack, which was the second in the region in three days,^[17] but Sudanese foreign ministry spokesman Jamal Mohammed Ibrahim denied any Sudanese involvement, "We are not for any escalation with Chad. Jamal Mohammed Ibrahim is the foreign ministry Spokesman for Sudan. We technically deny involvement in Chadian internal affairs. " The Adre attack led to the declaration of war by Chad and the alleged deployment of the Chadian air force into Sudanese airspace, which the Chadian government denies. ^[18]

The leaders of Sudan and Chad signed an agreement in Saudi Arabia on May 3, 2007 to stop fighting from the Darfur conflict along their countries' 1,000-kilometre (600 mi) border. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, KSA ( المملكة العربية السعودية, al-Mamlaka al-ʻArabiyya as-Suʻūdiyya) or Suudi Events 1491 - Kongo monarch Nkuwu Nzinga is baptised by Portuguese missionaries adopting the baptismal name of João Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. The War in Darfur is a military conflict in the Darfur region of western Sudan. ^[19]

Eastern Front

Main article: Eastern Front (Sudan)

The Eastern Front is a coalition of rebel groups operating in eastern Sudan along the border with Eritrea, particularly the states of Red Sea and Kassala. The Eastern Front is a coalition of rebel groups operating in eastern Sudan along the border with Eritrea, particularly the states of Red Sea Eritrea () ( Ge'ez: ኤርትራ ʾErtrā, Arabic: إرتريا Iritriya) officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in Below is a list of the 25 states of Sudan organized by their original provinces under British rule Red Sea (البحر الأحمر transliterated: al-Bahr al-Ahmar is one of the 26 wilayat or states of Sudan. Kassala ( Arabic: كسلا called Ash Sharqiyah during 1991 — 1994) is one of the 26 wilayat (states of The Eastern Front's Chairman is Musa Mohamed Ahmed. Musa Mohamed Ahmed is the leader of Eastern Front, a rebel group based in eastern Sudan. While the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) was the primary member of the Eastern Front, the SPLA was obliged to leave by the January 2005 agreement that ended the Second Sudanese Civil War. The Second Sudanese Civil War (sometimes referred to as Anyanya II) started in 1983 although it was largely a continuation of the First Sudanese Civil Their place was taken in February 2004 after the merger of the larger Beja Congress with the smaller Rashaida Free Lions, two tribal based groups of the Beja and Rashaida people, respectively. The Beja Congress is a political group comprising several ethnic entities most prominently the Beja, of the eastern region of Sudan. The Rashaida Free Lions ( Arabic: al-usud al-hurra, الأسود الحُرة are an armed group of the Rashaida people that was active in the eastern regions The Beja (البيجا are an ethnic group dwelling in parts of North Africa and the Horn of Africa. The Rashaida are a Bedouin people populating either side of the Red Sea. ^[20] The Justice and Equality Movement (JEM), a rebel group from Darfur in the west, then joined. The Justice and Equality Movement (JEM is a rebel group involved in the Darfur conflict of Sudan. Darfur (دار فور daar foor, lit "realm of the Fur " is a region in Sudan.

Both the Free Lions and the Beja Congress stated that government inequity in the distribution of oil profits was the cause of their rebellion. They demanded to have a greater say in the composition of the national government, which has been seen as a destabilizing influence on the agreement ending the conflict in Southern Sudan. Southern Sudan is a region of Sudan, comprising ten of that country's states

The Eastern Front had threatened to block the flow of crude oil, which travels from the oil fields of the south-central regions to outside markets through Port Sudan. Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit An oil field is a region with an abundance of Oil wells extracting Petroleum (crude oil from below ground Sao Paulo Stock Exchangejpg|thumb| Virtual market arena where buyer and seller are not present and trade via intemediates and electronical information A government plan to build a second oil refinery near Port Sudan was also threatened. An oil refinery is an industrial Process plant where Crude oil is processed and refined into more useful Petroleum products, such as Gasoline The government was reported to have three times as many soldiers in the east to suppress the rebellion and protect vital infrastructure as in the more widely reported Darfur region.

The Eritrean government in mid-2006 dramatically changed their position on the conflict. From being the main supporter of the Eastern Front they decided that bringing the Sudanese government around the negotiating table for a possible agreement with the rebels would be in their best interests. They were successful in their attempts and on the 19 June 2006, the two sides signed an agreement on declaration of principles. Events 1179 - The Norwegian Battle of Kalvskinnet outside Nidaros. ^[21] This was the start of four months of Eritrean-mediated negotiations for a comprehensive peace agreement between the Sudanese government and the Eastern Front, which culminated in signing of a peace agreement on 14 October 2006, in Asmara. Events 1066 - Norman Conquest: Battle of Hastings - In England on Senlac Hill seven miles from Hastings, the forces The agreement covers security issues, power sharing at a federal and regional level, and wealth sharing in regards to the three Eastern states Kassala, Red Sea and Al Qadarif. Kassala ( Arabic: كسلا called Ash Sharqiyah during 1991 — 1994) is one of the 26 wilayat (states of Red Sea (البحر الأحمر transliterated: al-Bahr al-Ahmar is one of the 26 wilayat or states of Sudan. Al Qadarif (also called Gedarif) also (gedaref(القضارف is the capital of the state of Al Qadarif in Sudan.

Humanitarian needs and 2007 floods

The humanitarian branch of the United Nations, consisting of several UN agencies coordinated by OCHA, works to bring life-saving relief to those in need. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security "OCHA" redirects there See Ocha for other possible meanings It is estimated by OCHA, that over 3. "OCHA" redirects there See Ocha for other possible meanings 5 million people in Darfur (including 2. Darfur (دار فور daar foor, lit "realm of the Fur " is a region in Sudan. 2 million IDPs) are heavily reliant on humanitarian aid for their survival. Internally displaced persons (IDPs are people forced to flee their homes but who unlike refugees remain within their country's borders ^[22] By contrast, in 2007 OCHA, under the leadership of Eliane Duthoit, started to gradually phase out in Southern Sudan, where humanitarian needs are gradually diminishing, and are slowly but markedly leaving the place to recovery and development activities. Eliane Duthoit (born 1946 Brittany) a French citizen is a senior United Nations official at the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs Southern Sudan is a region of Sudan, comprising ten of that country's states ^[23]

In July 2007, many parts of the country were devastated by flooding, prompting an immediate humanitarian response by the United Nations and partners, under the leadership of acting United Nations Resident Coordinators David Gressly and Oluseyi Bajulaiye. On 3 July 2007, Flash floods started to devastated many parts of Sudan, including some areas in conflict-battered Darfur and war-torn Southern The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security A United Nations Resident Coordinator is the highest United Nations official in a country (except when there is a mission of the Department of Peacekeeping Operations David Gressly is a senior United Nations official With a background as a Peace Corps volunteer and as an official of the United Nations Children's Fund Oluseyi Bajulaiye, a national of Nigeria, is a senior United Nations official with a background in the UNHCR activities dealing with refugees and humanitarian programs ^[24] Over 400,000 people were directly affected, with over 3. 5 million at risk of epidemics. ^[25] The United Nations have allocated US$ 13. 5 million for the response from its pooled funds, but will launch an appeal to the international community to cover the gap. ^[26]

Politics

Main article: Politics of Sudan

Sudan has an authoritarian government in which all effective political power is in the hands of President Omar al-Bashir. The politics of Sudan takes place in the framework of an authoritarian Republic in which all effective political power is in the hands of President Omar Hassan Ahmad al-Bashir ( Arabic: عمر حسن أحمد البشير born January 1 1944) is the President of Sudan. Bashir and his party have controlled the government since he led the military coup on 30 June 1989. Events 350 - Roman usurper Nepotianus, of the Constantinian dynasty, is defeated and killed by troops of the Usurper Year 1989 ( MCMLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link displays 1989 Gregorian calendar)

From 1983 to 1997, the country was divided into five regions in the north and three in the south, each headed by a military governor. After the military coup on April 6, 1985, regional assemblies were suspended. Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats Caecilius Metellus Scipio and Marcus Porcius Cato in the Battle of Thapsus Year 1985 ( MCMLXXXV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link displays 1985 Gregorian calendar) The RCC was abolished in 1993, and the ruling National Islamic Front changed its name to the National Congress Party. The Revolutionary Command Council for National Salvation ( RCC) was the authority by which the military government of Sudan under Lt For the Afghan Pashtun political party led by Pir Pir Sayyed Ahmad Gillani, see National Islamic Front (Afghanistan. This article or section does not cite its references or sources. The new party included some non Muslim members; mainly Southern Sudanese Politicians, some of whom were appointed as ministers or state governors. After 1997, the structure of regional administration was replaced by the creation of twenty-six states. The executives, cabinets, and senior-level state officials are appointed by the president, and their limited budgets are determined by and dispensed from Khartoum. The states, as a result, remain economically dependent upon the central government. Khartoum state, comprising the capital and outlying districts, is administered by a governor. Khartoum (also Al Khartum) (الخرطوم is one of the 26 wilayat or states of Sudan.

In December 1999, a power struggle climaxed between President al-Bashir and then-speaker of parliament Hassan al-Turabi, who was the NIF founder and an Islamic ideologue. The term speaker is a title often given to the presiding officer of a legislative body Dr Hassan 'Abd Allah al-Turabi (الدكتور حسن عبد الله الترابي in Arabic) commonly called Hassan al-Turabi (sometimes transliterated Al-Turabi was stripped of his posts in the ruling party and the government, parliament was disbanded, the constitution was suspended, and a state of national emergency was declared by presidential decree. Parliament resumed in February 2001 after the December 2000 presidential and parliamentary elections, but the national emergency laws remained in effect. Al-Turabi was arrested in February 2001, and charged with being a threat to national security and the constitutional order for signing a memorandum of understanding with the SPLA. Since then his outspoken style has had him in prison or under house-arrest, his most recent stint beginning in March 2004 and ending in June 2005. During that time he was under house-arrest for his role in a failed coup attempt in September 2003, an allegation he has denied. According to some reports, the president had no choice but to release him, given that a coalition of National Democratic Union (NDA) members headquartered in both Cairo and Eritrea, composed of the political parties known as the SPLM/A, Umma Party, Mirghani Party, and Turabi's own National People's Congress, were calling for his release at a time when an interim government was preparing to take over in accordance with the Naivasha agreement and the Machokos Accord.

See also: List of Presidents of Sudan

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Sudan

Sudan has had a troubled relationship with many of its neighbors and much of the international community due to what is viewed as its aggressively Islamic stance. This page contains a list of presidents and other heads of state of Sudan. The foreign relations of Sudan are generally in line with the Muslim Arab world, but are also based on Sudan 's economic ties with the People's Republic For much of the 1990s, Uganda, Kenya and Ethiopia formed an ad-hoc alliance called the "Front Line States" with support from the United States to check the influence of the National Islamic Front government. The Republic of Uganda is a Landlocked country in East Africa. The Republic of Kenya is a country in East Africa. It is bordered by Ethiopia to the north Somalia to the northeast Tanzania to the south NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page The United States of America —commonly referred to as the For the Afghan Pashtun political party led by Pir Pir Sayyed Ahmad Gillani, see National Islamic Front (Afghanistan. The Sudanese Government supported anti-Uganda rebel groups such as the Lord's Resistance Army. Beginning from the mid-1990s Sudan gradually began to moderate its positions as a result of increased US pressure following the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings and the new development of oil fields previously in rebel hands. In the 1998 US Embassy bombings ( August 7, 1998) hundreds of people were killed in simultaneous Car bomb explosions at the United States Sudan also has a territorial dispute with Egypt over the Hala'ib Triangle. The Hala'ib Triangle (مثلث حلايب in Arabic, transliterated Muthallath Halāʾib or Muṯallaṯ Ḥalāʾib is an area of land measuring 20580 km² located Since 2003, the foreign relations of Sudan have centered on the support for ending the Second Sudanese Civil War and condemnation of government support for militias in the Darfur conflict. The Second Sudanese Civil War (sometimes referred to as Anyanya II) started in 1983 although it was largely a continuation of the First Sudanese Civil The War in Darfur is a military conflict in the Darfur region of western Sudan.

The United States has listed Sudan as a state sponsor of terrorism since 1993.  [3] U.S. firms have been barred from doing business in Sudan since 1997. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the [4] In 1998, the Al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory in Khartoum was destroyed by a US cruise missile strike because of its alleged production of chemical weapons and links to al-Qaeda. The Al-Shifa ( Arabic for "healing" pharmaceutical Factory in Khartoum North, Sudan was constructed between 1992 Al-Qaeda, alternatively spelled al-Qaida, al-Qa`ida or al-Qa`idah, ( Arabic:; ar-Latn ''al-qāʿidah'' Translation: The

On December 23, 2005, Chad, Sudan's neighbour to the west, declared war on Sudan and accused the country of being the "common enemy of the nation [Chad]. Events 962 - Byzantine-Arab Wars: Under the future Emperor Nicephorus Phocas, Byzantine troops stormed the city Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Chad (Tchad تشاد Tshād) officially known as the Republic of Chad, is a Landlocked country in Central Africa. " This happened after the December 18 attack on Adre, which left about 100 people dead. Events 218 BC - Second Punic War: Battle of the Trebia - Hannibal 's Carthaginian forces defeat those of the A statement issued by Chadian government on December 23, accused Sudanese militias of making daily incursions into Chad, stealing cattle, killing people and burning villages on the Chadian border. Events 962 - Byzantine-Arab Wars: Under the future Emperor Nicephorus Phocas, Byzantine troops stormed the city The statement went on to call for Chadians to form a patriotic front against Sudan. [5] The Organization of the Islamic Conference(OIC) have called on Sudan and Chad to exercise self-restraint to defuse growing tensions between the two countries. The Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC is an International organization with a permanent delegation to the United Nations. [6] On May 11, 2008 Sudan announced it was cutting diplomatic relations with Chad, claiming that it was helping rebels in Darfur to attack the Sudanese capital Khartoum ^[27] . Events 330 - Byzantium is renamed ''Nova Roma'' during a dedication ceremony but is more popularly referred to as Constantinople 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Darfur (دار فور daar foor, lit "realm of the Fur " is a region in Sudan. Khartoum ( الخرطوم al-Kharṭūm) is the Capital of Sudan and of Khartoum State.

On December 27, 2005, Sudan became one of the few states to recognize Moroccan sovereignty over Western Sahara. Events 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed 1512 - The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. Western Sahara ( Arabic: الصحراء الغربية; transliterated: as-Ṣaḥrā' al-Gharbīyah; Sahara Occidental is a territory  [7]

On June 20, 2006 President Omar al-Bashir told reporters that he would not allow any UN peacekeeping force into Sudan. Events 451 - Battle of Chalons: Flavius Aetius ' defeats Attila the Hun. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. President al-Bashir denounced any such mission as "colonial forces. " [8]

On November 17, 2006, UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan announced that "Sudan has agreed in principle to allow the establishment of a joint African Union and UN peacekeeping force in an effort to solve the crisis in Darfur" - but had stopped short of setting the number of troops involved. Events 284 - Diocletian is proclaimed emperor by his soldiers Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Kofi Atta Annan, GCMG (born 8 April 1938 is a Ghanaian Diplomat who served as the seventh Secretary-General of the United Nations Annan speculated that this force could number 17,000. ^[28] Despite this claim, no additional troops have been deployed as of late December 2006. Violence continues in the region and on December 15, 2006, prosecutors at the International Criminal Court (ICC) stated they would be proceeding with cases of human rights violations against members of the Sudan government. Events 533 - Byzantine general Belisarius defeats the Vandals, commanded by King Gelimer, at the Battle of Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. The International Criminal Court ( ICC or ICCt) was established in 2002 as a permanent tribunal to prosecute individuals for Genocide, crimes against ^[29] A Sudanese legislator was quoted as saying that Khartoum may permit UN peace keepers to patrol Darfur in exchange for immunity from prosecution for officials charged with war crimes and crimes against humanity.

Legal system

The legal system in Sudan is based on English common law and Islamic law; as of 20 January 1991, the now defunct Revolutionary Command Council imposed Islamic law in the northern states; Islamic law applies to all residents of the northern states regardless of their religion; however, the CPA establishes some protections for non-Muslims in Khartoum; some separate religious courts; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations; the southern legal system is still developing under the CPA following the civil war; Islamic law will not apply to the southern states.

The judicial branch of the government consist of: Constitutional Court of nine justices; National Supreme Court; National Courts of Appeal; other national courts; National Judicial Service Commission will undertake overall management of the National Judiciary ^[30]. In Law, the judiciary or judicial system is the system of Courts which administer Justice in the name of the sovereign or State

Human rights

Main article: Human rights in Sudan

A letter dated August 14, 2006, from the Executive Director of Human Rights Watch found that the Sudanese government is both incapable and unwilling to protect its own citizens in Darfur and that its militias are guilty of crimes against humanity. Some Human rights organizations have documented a variety of abuses and atrocities carried out by the Sudanese government over the past several years Events 1183 - Taira no Munemori and the Taira clan take the young Emperor Antoku and the three sacred treasures Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. The letter added that these human rights abuses have existed since 2004. ^[31]

Some reports attribute part of the violations to the rebels as well as the government and the Janjaweed. The Janjaweed ( Arabic: جنجويد; variously transliterated Janjawid, Janjawed or Jingaweit etc The US State Department's human rights report issued in March 2007 claims that "All parties to the conflagration committed serious abuses, including widespread killing of civilians, rape as a tool of war, systematic torture, robbery and recruitment of child soldiers"^[32]

Both government forces and militias allied with the government are known not only to attack civilians in Darfur, but also humanitarian workers. Sympathizers of rebel groups are arbitrarily detained, as are foreign journalists, human rights defenders, student activists, and displaced people in and around Khartoum, some of whom face torture. Human rights defender is a term used to describe people who individually or with others act to promote or protect human rights The rebel groups have also been accused in a report issued by the American government of attacking humanitarian workers and of killing innocent civilians. [9]

States and districts

Main articles: States of Sudan and Districts of Sudan

Sudan is divided into twenty-five states (wilayat, sing. wilayah) which in turn are subdivided into 133 districts. Below is a list of the 25 states of Sudan organized by their original provinces under British rule The States of Sudan are subdivided into 133 Districts The districts are listed below by state Al Jazirah Al Kamlin Below is a list of the 25 states of Sudan organized by their original provinces under British rule A wilāyah (ولاية or vilâyet (in Persian and Ottoman Turkish) is an administrative division usually In linguistics grammatical number is a Grammatical category of nouns pronouns and adjective and verb agreement that expresses count distinctions (such as "one" A wilāyah (ولاية or vilâyet (in Persian and Ottoman Turkish) is an administrative division usually The States of Sudan are subdivided into 133 Districts The districts are listed below by state Al Jazirah Al Kamlin The states are:

Al Jazirah Al Qadarif Blue Nile Central Equatoria East Equatoria Junqali Kassala

Khartoum Lakes North Bahr al Ghazal North Darfur North Kurdufan Northern Red Sea (al-Bahr al-Ahmar)

River Nile Sennar South Darfur South Kurdufan Unity Upper Nile

Warab West Bahr al Ghazal West Darfur West Equatoria White Nile

Autonomy, separation, conflicts

• Southern Sudan is an autonomous region intermediate between the states and the national government. Southern Sudan is a region of Sudan, comprising ten of that country's states Southern Sudan is scheduled to have a referendum on independence in 2011. ^[33] As agreed in the peace agreement a new currency, the Sudan Pound was launched throughout the country on January 10, 2007, and will replace the Sudanese Dinar. Events 49 BC - Julius Caesar crosses the Rubicon, signaling the start of civil war. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. The Southern Sudanese government tried to launch a new currency, but stopped after the central Sudanese government declared that such a move constituted a breach of the peace agreement.
• Darfur, a region of three western states, is plagued by a violent conflict between the Sudanese government and a group of rebelling peoples of the region. Darfur (دار فور daar foor, lit "realm of the Fur " is a region in Sudan. (see Darfur conflict, Transitional Darfur Regional Authority). The War in Darfur is a military conflict in the Darfur region of western Sudan. The Transitional Darfur Regional Authority (TDRA is an interim authority for the Darfur region of Sudan.
• There was also an insurgency in the east led by the Eastern Front. The Eastern Front is a coalition of rebel groups operating in eastern Sudan along the border with Eritrea, particularly the states of Red Sea On October 14, 2006, both the Sudanese government and the Eastern Front signed a power-sharing agreement ending the insurgency. Events 1066 - Norman Conquest: Battle of Hastings - In England on Senlac Hill seven miles from Hastings, the forces Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Sudan

Sudan is situated in northern Africa, bordering the Red Sea and it has a coastline of 853 km along the Red Sea. Sudan is located in northeastern Africa. It borders the Red Sea between Egypt on the north and Eritrea and Ethiopia on the southeast The Red Sea is a Salt water Inlet of the Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia. ^[34] With an area of 2,505,810 square kilometres (967,499 sq mi), it is the largest country in the continent and tenth largest in the world. The square mile is an imperial and US unit of Area equal the area of a square of one statute mile. It borders the countries of Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Libya and Uganda. Central Africa|Central African FederationThe Central African Republic ( CAR) République Centrafricaine ʀepyblik sɑ̃tʀafʀikɛn or Centrafrique) is a Landlocked Chad (Tchad تشاد Tshād) officially known as the Republic of Chad, is a Landlocked country in Central Africa. The Democratic Republic of the Congo (République démocratique du Congo often referred to as DR Congo, DRC or RDC, and formerly known or referred to This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Eritrea () ( Ge'ez: ኤርትራ ʾErtrā, Arabic: إرتريا Iritriya) officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page The Republic of Kenya is a country in East Africa. It is bordered by Ethiopia to the north Somalia to the northeast Tanzania to the south Libya ( ليبيا ar-Latn Lībiyā; Libyan vernacular: Lībya; Amazigh:) officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab The Republic of Uganda is a Landlocked country in East Africa. It is dominated by the River Nile and its tributaries. The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River

The terrain is generally flat plains, broken by several mountain ranges; in the west the Jebel Marra is the highest range; in the south is the highest mountain Mount Kinyeti Imatong, near the border with Uganda; in the east are the Red Sea Hills. The Marrah Mountains ( Jebel Marra, جبل مرة bad mountains) is a range of volcanic peaks created by a Massif that rises up to 3000 m The Republic of Uganda is a Landlocked country in East Africa. ^[35]

The Blue and White Niles meet in Khartoum to form the River Nile, which flows northwards through Egypt to the Mediterranean Sea. The Blue Nile ( Amharic: ዓባይ transliterated ʿ Abbai, but pronounced Abbai; Arabic: النيل الأزرق transliterated The White Nile ( Arabic: النيل الأبيض transliterated: an-Nīl al-Ābyadˤ) is a River of Africa, one of the two main Khartoum ( الخرطوم al-Kharṭūm) is the Capital of Sudan and of Khartoum State. The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Blue Nile's course through Sudan is nearly 800 km long and is joined by the rivers Dinder and Rahad between Sennar and Khartoum. The Blue Nile ( Amharic: ዓባይ transliterated ʿ Abbai, but pronounced Abbai; Arabic: النيل الأزرق transliterated Khartoum ( الخرطوم al-Kharṭūm) is the Capital of Sudan and of Khartoum State. The White Nile within Sudan has no significant tributaries. The White Nile ( Arabic: النيل الأبيض transliterated: an-Nīl al-Ābyadˤ) is a River of Africa, one of the two main

The amount of rainfall increases towards the south. In the north there is the very dry Nubian Desert; in the south there are swamps and rain forest. The Nubian Desert, is in the eastern region of the Sahara Desert, it spans 50000 km² of northeastern Sudan between the Nile and the Red Sea Sudan’s rainy season lasts for about three months (July to September) in the north, and up to six months (June to November) in the south. The dry regions are plagued by sand storms, known as haboob, which can completely block out the sun. A haboob is a type of intense sandstorm commonly observed in the Sahara desert (typically Sudan) as well as across the Arabian Peninsula throughout Kuwait and in In the northern and western semi-desert areas, people rely on the scant rainfall for basic agriculture and many are nomadic, traveling with their herds of sheep and camels. Nomadic people, (from the νομάδες nomádes, "those who let pasture herds" also known as nomads, are communities of people that Camels are Even-toed ungulates within the Genus Camelus. The Dromedary, one-humped or Arabian camel has a single hump and the Nearer the River Nile, there are well-irrigated farms growing cash crops. The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil usually for assisting in growing crops In Agriculture, a cash crop is a crop which is grown for Money. ^[36]

There are several dams on the Blue and White Niles. The Blue Nile ( Amharic: ዓባይ transliterated ʿ Abbai, but pronounced Abbai; Arabic: النيل الأزرق transliterated The White Nile ( Arabic: النيل الأبيض transliterated: an-Nīl al-Ābyadˤ) is a River of Africa, one of the two main Among them are the Sennar and Roseires on the Blue Nile, and Jebel Aulia dam on the White Nile. The Blue Nile ( Amharic: ዓባይ transliterated ʿ Abbai, but pronounced Abbai; Arabic: النيل الأزرق transliterated The White Nile ( Arabic: النيل الأبيض transliterated: an-Nīl al-Ābyadˤ) is a River of Africa, one of the two main There is also Lake Nubia on the Sudan-Egyptian border. Lake Nasser ( Arabic: بحيرة ناصر transliterated: Buhayrat Nasir is a vast reservoir in southern Egypt and northern Sudan

Rich mineral resources are available in Sudan including: petroleum, natural gas, gold, silver, chromite, asbestos, manganese, gypsum, mica, zinc, iron, lead, uranium, copper, kaolin, cobalt, granite, nickel and tin. Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit Natural gas is a Gaseous Fossil fuel consisting primarily of Methane but including significant quantities of Ethane, Propane, Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 Silver (ˈsɪlvɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol " Ag " (argentum from the Ancient Greek: ἀργήντος - argēntos gen Chromite is iron magnesium chromium oxide (Fe MgCr2O4 It is an Oxide Mineral belonging to the Spinel group Asbestos is a group of Minerals with long thin fibrous Crystals The word "asbestos" (῾ἀσβεστος is derived from a Greek adjective Manganese (ˈmæŋgəniːz is a Chemical element, designated by the symbol Mn. Gypsum is a very soft Mineral composed of Calcium sulfate dihydrate with the Chemical formula Ca[[sulfur S]] O 4·2 The word "mica" is thought to be derived from the Latin word la micare, "glitteren" in reference to the brilliant appearance of this mineral (especially Zinc (ˈzɪŋk from Zink is a Metallic Chemical element with the symbol Zn and Atomic number 30 Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 Characteristics Lead has a dull luster and is a dense, Ductile, very soft highly Uranium (jʊˈreɪniəm is a silvery-gray Metallic Chemical element in the Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 Kaolinite is a Clay mineral with the chemical composition Al 2 Si 2 O 5( OH)4 Cobalt (ˈkoʊbɒlt is a hard lustrous silver-grey Metal, a Chemical element with symbol Co. Granite (ˈɡrænɪt is a common and widely occurring type of intrusive, Felsic, igneous rock. Nickel (ˈnɪkəl is a metallic Chemical element with the symbol Ni and Atomic number 28 Tin is a Chemical element with the symbol Sn (stannum and Atomic number 50 ^[37]

Desertification is a serious problem in Sudan. Desertification is the degradation of land in arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting primarily from human activities and influenced by climatic variations ^[38] There is also concern over soil erosion. Erosion is the carrying away or displacement of solids ( Sediment, Soil, rock and other particles usually by the agents of currents such as wind Agricultural expansion, both public and private, has proceeded without conservation measures. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture The conservation movement also known as nature conservation is a political social and to some extent scientific movement that seeks to protect natural resources including The consequences have manifested themselves in the form of deforestation, soil desiccation, and the lowering of soil fertility and the water table. Deforestation is the conversion of Forested areas to non-forest land for use such as Arable land, Pasture, urban use logged area or wasteland Soil fertility is the characteristic of soil that supports abundant plant life The water table is the level at which the ground water pressure is equal to Atmospheric pressure. ^[39]Image:Focus SUDAN 15.jpg

The nation's wildlife is threatened by hunting. As of 2001, twenty-one mammal species and nine bird species are endangered, as well as two types of plants. Mammals ( class Mammalia) are a class of Vertebrate Animals characterized by the presence of Sweat glands, including sweat glands Endangered species include: the waldrapp, northern white rhinoceros, tora hartebeest, slender-horned gazelle, and hawksbill turtle. The Northern Bald Ibis, Hermit Ibis, or Waldrapp ( Geronticus eremita) is a large migratory Bird found in barren semi-desert The White Rhinoceros or Square-lipped rhinoceros ( Ceratotherium simum) is one of the five species of Rhinoceros that still exist and is one of the few The Hartebeest ( Alcelaphus buselaphus) is a Grassland Antelope found in West Africa, East Africa and Southern Africa A GAZelle (ГАЗе́ль is a series of mid-sized Trucks Vans and Buses made by Russian car manufacturer GAZ. The hawksbill turtle ( Eretmochelys imbricata) is a Critically endangered Sea turtle belonging to the family Cheloniidae. The Sahara oryx has become extinct in the wild. ORYX is an encryption algorithm used in cellular communications ^[40]

In May 2007, it was announced that hundreds of wild elephants have been located on a previously unknown, treeless island in the Sudd swampland region of southern Sudan. Elephants ( family: Elephantidae) are large land Mammals of the order Proboscidea. (PLEASE add sections!!! The Sudd ( Arabic سد sadd, "barrier" is a vast Swamp formed by the White Nile, here called the Bahr A swamp is a Wetland featuring temporary or permanent inundation of large areas of land by shallow bodies of water The exact location being kept secret to protect the animals from poachers. Poaching is the illegal Hunting, Fishing or Harvesting of wild plants or animals ^[41]

Mount Dair in central Sudan

A swamp in southern Sudan

Sudan satellite image

See also: List of cities in Sudan

Economy

Main article: Economy of Sudan

Despite being the sixth fastest growing economy in the world, new economic policies, and infrastructure investments, Sudan still faces formidable economic problems as it must rise from a very low level of per capita output. This is a List of cities in Sudan: Macro-economic trend Sudan 's primary resources are agricultural, but oil production and export are taking on greater importance since October 2000 Since 1997, Sudan has been implementing the macroeconomic reforms recommended by the IMF. The International Monetary Fund ( IMF) is an International organization that oversees the Global financial system by following the Macroeconomic In 1999, Sudan began exporting crude oil and in the last quarter of 1999 recorded its first trade surplus. Increased oil production (the current production is about 520,000 barrels per day (83,000 m³/d)) revived light industry, and expanded export processing zones helped sustain GDP growth at 6. 1% in 2003. These gains, along with improvements to monetary policy, have stabilized the exchange rate. Currently oil is Sudan's main export, and the production is increasing dramatically. With rising oil revenues the Sudanese economy is booming at a growth rate of about 9% in 2007. Sustained growth is expected next year, not only because of increasing oil production, but also due to the boost of hydroelectricity (annual electricity yield of 5. Hydroelectricity is electricity generated by Hydropower, ie the production of power through use of the gravitational force of falling water 5 TWh) by Merowe Dam, which will produce energy later this year. The Merowe High Dam, also known as Merowe Multi-Purpose Hydro Project or Hamdab Dam, is a large construction project in northern Sudan, about 350 km north

Rich mineral resources are available in Sudan including: petroleum, natural gas, gold, silver, chrome, asbestos, manganese, gypsum, mica, zinc, iron, lead, uranium, copper, kaolin, cobalt, granite, nickel and tin.  [24]

Agriculture production remains Sudan's most important sector, employing 80% of the work force and contributing 39% of GDP, but most farms remain rain-fed and susceptible to drought. Chronic instability — including the long-standing civil war between the Muslim north and the Christian/animist south, adverse weather, and weak world agricultural prices — ensure that much of the population will remain at or below the poverty line for years.

See also: Communications in Sudan and Transport in Sudan

The Merowe Dam, also known as Merowe Multi-Purpose Hydro Project or Hamdab Dam, is a large construction project in northern Sudan, about 350 km north of the capital Khartoum. Communication in Sudan Pre-privatization era (up to 1994 Sudan has known telecommunication services as early as 1897 Transport in Sudan during the early 1990s included an extensive Railroad system that served the more important populated areas except in the far south a meager road network The Merowe High Dam, also known as Merowe Multi-Purpose Hydro Project or Hamdab Dam, is a large construction project in northern Sudan, about 350 km north It is situated on the river Nile, close to the 4th Cataract where the river divides into multiple smaller branches with large islands in between. Merowe is a city about 40 km downstream from the construction site at Hamdab. The main purpose of the dam will be the generation of electricity. Its dimensions make it the largest contemporary hydro power project in Africa. The construction of the dam will be finished by mid 2008, supplying more than 90% of the population with electricity. Other gas powered electricity stations are under construction in Khartoum state, these are also due to be completed by 2008.

Despite the American sanctions, the Sudanese economy is the one of the fastest growing in the world according to a New York Times report of October 2006. ^[42]

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Sudan

In Sudan's 1993 census, the population was recorded to be 25 million. In Sudan 's 1981 census the population was calculated at 21 million A census is the procedure of acquiring information about every member of a given population No comprehensive census has been carried out since then due to the continuation of the civil war. A 2006 United Nations estimate put the population at about 37 million. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security The population of metropolitan Khartoum (including Khartoum, Omdurman, and Khartoum North) is growing rapidly and is estimated at about 5 to 7 million, including around 2 million displaced persons from the southern war zone as well as western and eastern drought-affected areas. Omdurman (Standard Arabic Umm Durmān أم درمان is the largest city in Sudan and Khartoum State, lying on the western banks of the river Khartoum North ( al-Khartūm Bahrī) is a city close to but distinct from Khartoum in central Sudan.

Sudan has 597 tribes that speak over 400 different languages dialects, ^[43] but there are two distinct major cultures – Arabs with Nubian roots and non-Arab Africans – consisting of hundreds of ethnic and tribal divisions and language groups. The northern states cover most of Sudan and include most of the urban centers. Most of the 22 million Sudanese who live in this region are Arabic-speaking Muslims, though the majority also use a traditional non-Arabic mother tongue (e. g. Nubian, Beja, Fur, Nuban, Ingessana, etc) as education is in Arabic language. Among these are several distinct tribal groups: the camel-raising Kababish of northern Kordofan; the Dongolawiyin (الدنقلاويين); the Ga’aliyin (الجعلين); the Rubatab (الرباطاب); the Manasir (المناصير); the Shaiqiyah (الشايقيّة); the Bideiria ; the semi-nomadic Baggara of Kurdufan and Darfur; the Beja in the Red Sea area and who extend into Eritrea; and the Nubians of the northern Nile areas, some of whom have been resettled on the Atbara River. Camels are Even-toed ungulates within the Genus Camelus. The Dromedary, one-humped or Arabian camel has a single hump and the The Manasir people (المناصير constitute one of many Sunni Afro-Arab Riverine Tribes of Northern Sudan. Kurdufan (sometimes Kordofan) is a former province of central Sudan. Darfur (دار فور daar foor, lit "realm of the Fur " is a region in Sudan. The Beja (البيجا are an ethnic group dwelling in parts of North Africa and the Horn of Africa. Shokrya in the Butana land, Bataheen bordering the Ga’alin and Shokrya in the south west of Butana. Butana (Arabic البطانة is a region in Sudan. It is bordered by the Nile from Khartoum to Atbarah, by the Atbarah River from Butana (Arabic البطانة is a region in Sudan. It is bordered by the Nile from Khartoum to Atbarah, by the Atbarah River from Rufaa, Halaween, Fulani (فولاني) and many other tribes have settled in the Gazeera region and on the banks of the Blue Nile, Damazine and the Dindir region. The Blue Nile ( Amharic: ዓባይ transliterated ʿ Abbai, but pronounced Abbai; Arabic: النيل الأزرق transliterated The Nuba of southern Kurdufan and Fur in the western reaches of the country.

It is important to distinguish the Sudanese Arab from other Arabs of the Middle East. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. Sudanese Arabs are descended primarily from the ancient Nubians. In terms of racial origin, it is not clear what specific racial or ethnic group the Nubians originated from. Over a period of centuries, Arab immigration into the Sudan, intermarriage among Nubians and Arabs, and the introduction of Islam and the Arabic language, Arabised the Nubians into the Sudanese Arab of today. In appearance, the Nubians are similar to some Ethiopians and Eritreans; at one point, they shared a common history with the latter (See ancient Kush, and Axum). NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page Eritrea () ( Ge'ez: ኤርትራ ʾErtrā, Arabic: إرتريا Iritriya) officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in This process of Arabisation was repeated throughout North Africa and the Middle East, i. e. , in Libya, where the indigenous Berbers and conquering Arabs merged to form the modern Libyan Arab, as distinguished from the Persians of Iran, who accepted Islam, but rejected Arabic, and an Arab identity. Libya ( ليبيا ar-Latn Lībiyā; Libyan vernacular: Lībya; Amazigh:) officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics.

The Southern region has a population of around 6 million and a predominantly rural, subsistence economy. This region has been affected by war for all but 10 years since independence in 1956, resulting in serious neglect, lack of infrastructure development, and major destruction and displacement. More than 2 million people have died, and more than 4 million are internally displaced or have become refugees as a result of the civil war and war-related impacts. Here a majority of the population practices traditional indigenous beliefs, although some practice Christianity, a result of Christian missionary efforts. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings A missionary is a member of a Religion who works to convert those who do not share the missionary's faith someone who proselytizes. The south also contains many tribal groups and many more languages are used than in the north. The Dinka, whose population is estimated at more than 1 million, are the largest of the many black African tribes of Sudan. The Dinka are a group of tribes of south Sudan, inhabiting the swamplands of the Bahr el Ghazal region of Along with the Shilluk and the Nuer they are Nilotic tribes. Shilluk prefer to be known as Chollo, rather than the more widely known term Shilluk and their language as dhok-Chollo, dhok being the Chollo word The Nuer are a confederation of tribes located in Southern Sudan and western Ethiopia. Nilotic people or Nilotes, in its contemporary usage refers to some Ethnic groups mainly in Southern Sudan, Uganda, Kenya, and northern The Azande, Bor, and Jo Luo are “Sudanic” tribes in the west, and the Acholi and Lotuhu live in the extreme south, extending into Uganda. Niam-Niam redirects here Niam-Niam can also refer to a Mancala game with a 2×8 and stores Jo-Luo, also known as Jur Chol, are an ethnic group in Sudan numbering between sixty to seventy thousand Acholi (also Acoli) is an Ethnic group from the districts of Gulu, Kitgum and Pader in northern Uganda (an area commonly The Republic of Uganda is a Landlocked country in East Africa.

The "lingua franca" in Southern Sudan is a variant of Arabic called "Juba Arabic"; the English language is used by the educated elite. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States

Some western African tribes like the Fallata, also known as Fulani and Hausa, have migrated to Sudan long times ago and have settled in various regions of Sudan, mainly in the north, and most of them speak Arabic as well as their original languages. The Fula or Fulbe or Fulani (the latter being an Anglicisation of the word in their language Fulɓe) are an ethnic group of

Peoples of Sudan

• Arakeien
• Abddallab
• Ababda
• Ashraf
• Azande
• Bataheen
• Baggara
• Beja
• Bideiria Dahmshiia
• Dinka
• Fulbe
• Fur people
• Hausa
• Halfaween
• Hamar
• Hasania
• Horefaen
• Ja'Alin
• Gaalin
• Luo
• Madi
• Mahas
• Manasir
• Masalit
• Mundari
• Nuba
• Nuer
• Rashaida
• Rubatab
• Shaigiya
• Shokrya
• Zande
• Zaghawa
• Sudanese Arabs
• Tama People

People	Location
Acholi	east
Pari	east
Anuak	south central
The Bari	Juba
Didinga	east
Fula (Fulani)	Blue Nile, East and Tulus
Kakwa	southwest
Lotuko	east
Madi
Shilluk
Toposa

Official languages

See also: Languages of Sudan

According to the 2005 constitution, Sudan's official languages are Arabic and English:^[44]

Article 8:

1. All indigenous languages of Sudan are national languages and shall be respected, developed and promoted. The Ababda (or Ababde) (the Gebadei of Pliny, and possibly the Troglodytes of other classical writers are Nomads living in the area between Niam-Niam redirects here Niam-Niam can also refer to a Mancala game with a 2×8 and stores The Baggara Arabs or Baqqarah ( البقارة) are a nomadic Bedouin people inhabiting Africa from between Lake Chad and the Nile The Beja (البيجا are an ethnic group dwelling in parts of North Africa and the Horn of Africa. The Dinka are a group of tribes of south Sudan, inhabiting the swamplands of the Bahr el Ghazal region of The Fula or Fulbe or Fulani (the latter being an Anglicisation of the word in their language Fulɓe) are an ethnic group of The Fur ( fòòrà in Fur, فور in Arabic) are a people of the western Sudan, principally inhabiting the region of Darfur Hasania (or Hassania) are members of a Muslim tribe of Arabic origin Ja'alin (from Jd'al to settle ie " the squatters " an African tribe of Semitic stock Gaalin is a Muslim ethnic group of Sudan. This is an Arabic speaking group The Mahas is ethnic group located in Northern Sudan along the banks of the Nile. The Manasir people (المناصير constitute one of many Sunni Afro-Arab Riverine Tribes of Northern Sudan. The Masalit ( masara in Masalit; Arabic: ماساليت are a people of Darfur in western Sudan and Wadai in eastern The Mundari are a small Nilotic tribe of Cattle herders and agriculturalists native to Southern Sudan. For the musical form see Andalusi nubah or Nuubaat. Nuba is a collective term used here for the humans who inhabit the Nuba Mountains The Nuer are a confederation of tribes located in Southern Sudan and western Ethiopia. The Rashaida are a Bedouin people populating either side of the Red Sea. The Shaigiya are the biggest and most notorious tribe in Africa The Zaghawa (also spelled Zakhawa) are an African ethnic group or tribe mainly living in eastern Chad and western Sudan, including Sudanese Arabs are an Ethnic group of Afro-Arab origin They are believed to be the largest group living in Northern and Central Sudan, with a population Acholi (also Acoli) is an Ethnic group from the districts of Gulu, Kitgum and Pader in northern Uganda (an area commonly Pari (also spelled Paeri) is an ethnic group in Sudan. They also call themselves Jo-Pari (people of Pari The Anuak are a river people whose villages are scattered along the banks and rivers of southeastern Sudan and western Ethiopia, in the Gambela Region. The Bari ethnic groups in the Sudan occupy the Savanna lands of the Nile Valley. The Didinga are an ethnic group of about 100000 people who inhabit the Didinga Hills region in East Equatoria in the southeastern corner of Sudan. The Fula or Fulbe or Fulani (the latter being an Anglicisation of the word in their language Fulɓe) are an ethnic group of Lotuko is an ethnic group in Sudan. Their population exceeds 100000 For other uses see Madi (disambiguation. Multichannel Audio Digital Interface, or MADI, is an industry-standard electronic communications Shilluk prefer to be known as Chollo, rather than the more widely known term Shilluk and their language as dhok-Chollo, dhok being the Chollo word Toposa is an ethnic group in Sudan. They speak Toposa, a Nilotic language. Sudan is a multilingual country with Arabic dominating in the north and other languages in the south Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States
2. Arabic is a widely-spoken national language in Sudan.
3. Arabic, as a major language at the national level and English shall be the official working languages of the national government and the languages of instruction for higher education.
4. In addition to Arabic and English, the legislature of any sub-national level of government may adopt any other national language as an additional official working language at its level.
5. There shall be no discrimination against the use of either Arabic or English at any level of government or stage of education.

Culture

• Culture of Sudan
• Music of Sudan
• Islam in Sudan

According to estimates, Sudan is predominantly Muslim. Sudanese culture melds the behaviors practices and beliefs of about 578 tribes communicating in 145 different languages in a region microcosmic of Africa, with geographic Sudan has a rich and unique musical culture that has been through chronic instability and repression during the modern History of Sudan. Sudan is a religiously mixed country although Muslims have dominated national government institutions since independence in 1956 A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Approximately 70% of the population adheres to Islam, while approximately 20-25% of the population subscribe to animist or indigenous beliefs. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Animism (from Latin anima ( Soul, Life) commonly refers to a religious belief that Souls or Spirits exist in Animals The remaining 5-10% of the population (concentrated largely in the south) are Christian. Sudan's largest Christian denominations are the following: the Roman Catholic Church, the Episcopal Church of the Sudan, the Presbyterian Church in the Sudan, and the Coptic Orthodox Church. The Episcopal Church of the Sudan is an autonomous province of the Anglican Communion in Sudan. Presbyterianism is a family of Christian denominations within the Reformed branch of Protestant Western Christianity History of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria Apostolic foundation Egypt is identified in the Bible as the place of refuge that the

• The Sudanese never asked China or Russia in aid for energy independance by having nuclear power plants to improve the economic well being of Sudan and even neighbouring regions.

Sudanese writers, artists and singers

• List of Sudanese writers
• List of Sudanese singers

Education

Main article: Education in Sudan

Institutions of higher education in Sudan include:

Academy of Medical Sciences Ahfad University for Women Bayan Science and Technology College Mycetoma Research Centre Omdurman Ahlia University Omdurman Islamic University

Sudan University of Science and Technology University of Gezira University of Juba University of Khartoum

See also

List of Sudan-related topics List of cities in Sudan Butana Darfur conflict Education in Sudan Facing Sudan Human rights issues in Sudan Josephine Bakhita (patron saint) Kush Lost Boys of Sudan

Merowe Dam Project Military of Sudan Nubia Prime Ministers of Sudan Roman Catholicism in Sudan Sudan Boy Scouts Association Sudanese refugees in Egypt Sudanese teddy bear blasphemy case United Nations Mission in Sudan

Books

• "Sudan: Race, Religion and Violence" by Jok Madut Jok Oneworld Publications ISBN 1851683666

• "Sudan: The Bradt Travel Guide" by Paul Clammer ISBN 1841621145

Notes and references

• Short History Of Sudan, iUniverse (April 30, 2004), ISBN-13: 978-0595314256. A kibibyte (a contraction of ki lo bi nary byte) is a unit of Information or Computer storage, established by the International Events 313 - Roman emperor Licinius unifies the entire Eastern Roman Empire under his rule "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again "

• The Problem of Dar Fur iUniverse, Inc. (July 21, 2005), ISBN-13: 978-0595365029

• UN Intervention in Dar Fur, iUniverse, Inc. Events 356 BC - Herostratus sets fire to the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. (February 9, 2007), ISBN-13: 978-0595429790

• Quo Vadis bilad as-Sudan? The Contemporary Framework for a National Interim Constitution, in: Law in Africa Vol. Events 474 - Zeno crowned as co-emperor of the Byzantine Empire. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. 8, (Cologne 2005), pp. 63-82. ISSN 1435-0963

• The River War, Winston Churchill. An account of the Anglo-Egyptian reconquest of the Sudan in which he participated.

• Karari:The Sudanese Account of the Battle of Omdurman, 'Ismat Hasan Zulfo, translated by Peter Clark, Frederick Warne, London 1980

• The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia, D. A. Welsby, The British Muuseum Press, 2002

• Kingdoms of the Sudan, R. S. O'Fahey and J. L. Spauling, Methuen, London 1974. Covers Sinnar and Dar Fur.

• Darfur; The Ambiguous Genocide, Gérard Prunier, Cornell University Press, New York 2007.
• Slavery in Mauritania and Sudan: The State Against Blacks in The Modern African State: Quest for Transformation, Godfrey Mwakikagile, Nova Science Publishers, Inc. Godfrey Mwakikagile is a Tanzanian writer who was born in Kigoma in western Tanganyika on 4 October 1949. , Huntington, New York, 2001.

External links

• Government of Sudan official homepage (in Arabic)
• Sudan.Net
• Sudan Photographic Exhibition - Documentary photographer's images of Sudan's displaced
• The Juba Post - South Sudan's Independent Newspaper
• Al Rai el am- Biggest Sudan newspaper-Arabic
• IRIN humanitarian news and analysis - Sudan
• Photos of industrial and military production - Sudan
• Sudan Organisation Against Torture
• Africa Floods Appeal
• SudanList Classified Advertising
• Sudanese Online News (in Arabic)

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