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The subject-object problem is a longstanding philosophical issue. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language It arises from the notion that the world consists of objects (what is observed) which are perceived or otherwise acted upon by subjects (observers). For other uses of Object see Object. In Philosophy, an object is a thing an Entity, or a Being. In Psychology and the Cognitive sciences perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory Information. Not to be confused with the subiectum or Hypokeimenon in Aristotelianism This results in multiple questions regarding how subjects relate to objects.

Kant's "Copernican revolution" was the inversion of the traditional relation between the subject of knowledge and the object of that knowledge. Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg The Copernican Revolution refers to the Paradigm shift away from the Ptolemaic model of the heavens which placed Earth at the center of the Universe Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding Instead of the observed objects affecting the observing subject, the subject's constitution affects the way that the objects are observed. Following this transcendental idealism theory, the possibility of knowledge was thus to be found in the structure of the subject itself, instead of in an objective reality from which nothing can be said. Transcendental idealism is a doctrine founded by German philosopher Immanuel Kant in the eighteenth century. Objectivity is both an important and very difficult concept to pin down in philosophy

Contents

The omniscient perspective

By far the most common problem in discourse since the Enlightenment is the assumption of the existence of a God's eye view. The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century That is, assuming that society can select a single perspective and apply it to all events, without needing to take into account the varying point of view of many cognitive beings moving through time and the fusion of this into one, omniscient, unified, perception of what "is". Perspective in theory of Cognition is the choice of a context or a Reference (or the result of this choice from which to Sense, Categorize Perspective in theory of Cognition is the choice of a context or a Reference (or the result of this choice from which to Sense, Categorize Cognition is a concept used in different ways by different disciplines but is generally accepted to mean the process of awareness or thought For other uses see Time (disambiguation Time is a component of a measuring system used to sequence events to compare the durations of E Prime is a proposed solution to this problem in the field of General Semantics. E-Prime, short for English-Prime, is a modified English Syntax and vocabulary lacking all forms of the verb To be: be is am The term General Semantics refers to a non- Aristotelian Educational Discipline created by Alfred Korzybski (1879–1950 during the years This objective perspective, as opposed to all others subjective points of view, is also what Georg Lukacs refers to with the concept of "totality". Objectivity is both an important and very difficult concept to pin down in philosophy György Lukács (pronounced in IPA dyɶrdyə ˈlukɑtʃ) ( April 13, 1885 – June 4, 1971) was a Hungarian Writers and critics of narrative prose call this view the omniscient narrator, who appears to know everything about the story being told, including what all the characters are thinking, and usually speaks in the third person. The third-person narrative is a Narrative mode applying the third person. Grammatical person, in Linguistics, is deictic reference to a participant in an event such as the speaker the Addressee, or others

In 19th and 20th Century philosophy

Immanuel Kant and especially his followers Fichte, Schelling and Hegel raised the issue of the relationship between the subject and the object, or what perceives and what is perceived. Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg Johann Gottlieb Fichte ( May 19, 1762 – January 27, 1814) was a German philosopher Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling ( January 27, 1775 – August 20, 1854) later von Schelling, was a German Philosopher Fichte reduced the notion of the self to the pure passive self that is not really an object. This notion was later explored by Husserl and by Dilthey in his notion of Das Verstehen. Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl (ˈhʊsɛrl April 8 1859 – April 26 1938) was a philosopher, known as the father of Wilhelm Dilthey (ˈdɪltaɪ November 19, 1833 &ndash October 1, 1911) was a German Historian, Psychologist

Karl Marx's philosophy of dialectical materialism is founded on Hegel's doctrine of dialectics; although Marx, being concerned mostly with economics and political matters, rejected Hegel's idealism for materialism while keeping the Hegelian dialectic. Dialectical materialism, according to many followers of Karl Marx 's thinking is the philosophical basis of Marxism. Economics is the social science that studies the production distribution, and consumption of goods and services. In Western civilization, Idealism is the philosophy which maintains that the Ultimate nature of reality is ideal or based upon ideas values essences The so-called The Philosophy of materialism holds that the only thing that can be truly proven to exist is Matter, and is considered a form of Physicalism. 1960s New Left thinkers like Herbert Marcuse and the Frankfurt School, while coming out of a Marxist background, found the class struggle seemed irrelevant to current political issues. The 1960s decade refers to the years from the beginning of 1960 to the end of 1969 The New Left were the Left-wing movements in different countries in the 1960s and 1970s that unlike the earlier leftist focus on union activism instead adopted a Herbert Marcuse ( July 19, 1898 &ndash July 29, 1979) was a German philosopher and sociologist, and a member of The Frankfurt School is a school of neo-Marxist Critical theory, Social research, and Philosophy. Class struggle is the active expression of Class conflict looked at from any kind of socialist perspective Racial, and later, sexual politics were important matters of social debate at the time, leading the New Left to use sex roles, race, and similar identity politics divisions as proxies for the proletariat and the bourgeois capitalism of orthodox Marxism. Sexual Politics is a classic Feminist text written by Kate Millett. A gender role is defined as a set of perceived behavioural norms associated particularly with Males or Females in a given social group or system The term race or racial group usually refers to the concept of categorizing Humans into Populations or groups on the basis of various sets Identity politics is Political action to advance the interests of members of a group whose members are oppressed by virtue of a shared and marginalized Identity (such The proletariat (from Latin la ''proles'' "offspring" is a term used to identify a lower Social class; a member of such a class is proletarian Capitalism is the Economic system in which the Means of production are owned by private Persons and operated for Profit and where

A firm conviction that race and sex were subject to political manipulation therefore became an article of faith for these Marxist revisionists. Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions This opened the back door for a sort of linguistic, anti-materialist idealism. The doctrine of social construction took centre stage, as does the incorporation of deconstruction and critical theory. Deconstruction is a term used in Philosophy, Literary criticism, and the Social sciences, popularised through its usage by Jacques Derrida in In the Humanities and Social sciences, critical theory is the examination and critique of Society and Literature, drawing from knowledge across We are ultimately barred from certain knowledge of an outside world, if it exists, because all we know is in our mind, mediated by language; and language is a social game and a social convention. A language is a dynamic set of visual auditory or tactile Symbols of Communication and the elements used to manipulate them Therefore, not only is "the personal political," but indeed, all of science, physics, and anything else that is the subject of human discourse can and must be politicized. Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion.

The popular names of concepts from physics and mathematics, from Albert Einstein's theory of relativity to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, were used as metaphors, with the assurance that difficulty in observing subatomic particles translated into a universal, epistemological malaise, and that Einstein's relativity somehow lent support to moral relativism. Albert Einstein ( German: ˈalbɐt ˈaɪ̯nʃtaɪ̯n; English: ˈælbɝt ˈaɪnstaɪn (14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955 was a German -born theoretical This page is about the scientific concept of relativity for philosophical or sociological theories about relativity see Relativism. In Quantum physics, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that locating a particle in a small region of space makes the Momentum of the particle uncertain Metaphor (from the Greek: μεταφορά - metaphora, meaning "transfer" is language that directly compares seemingly unrelated subjects Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge This article attempts to confine itself to discussion of relativism in morals and ethics

Those who accept these premises believe that in ethics, social science and linguistics, the subject-object problem is a confusion resulting from a shifting, inconsistent or vague assignment of observer and observed, active and passive, status in a sentence. Ethics is a major branch of Philosophy, encompassing right conduct and good life The social sciences comprise academic disciplines concerned with the study of the social life of human groups and individuals including Anthropology, Communication studies Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields Depending on how one views language, and mathematics as a language, this confusion may extend quite deeply into philosophy of all kinds including that of law, science and mathematics itself. The central question involved in discussing mathematics as a language can be stated as follows What do we mean when we talk about the language of mathematics Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Law is a system of rules enforced through a set of Institutions used as an instrument to underpin civil obedience politics economics and society Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and

In science

In physics

There are related concerns in philosophy of physics where observers are known to affect a result, e. Philosophy of physics is the study of the fundamental philosophical questions underlying modern Physics, the study of Matter and Energy g. in quantum mechanics, in a way which defies the conventional assignment of an object role to experimenter, with everything else as a subject. Quantum mechanics is the study of mechanical systems whose dimensions are close to the Atomic scale such as Molecules Atoms Electrons This can lead among other things to confirmation bias. In Psychology and Cognitive science, confirmation bias is a tendency to search for or interpret new information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions and avoids

In mathematics

Cognitive science of mathematics raises some similar concerns with philosophy of mathematics. The cognitive science of mathematics is the study of mathematical ideas (concepts using the techniques of Cognitive science. The philosophy of mathematics is the branch of Philosophy that studies the philosophical assumptions foundations and implications of Mathematics. Among them, the assignment of objective status to mathematical objects as in Platonism, although they are formalisms used in a linguistic fashion for communications between living beings, and thus subject to the same subject-object problems as other forms of such communication. Platonism is the Philosophy of Plato or the name of other philosophical systems considered closely derived from it This raises some concerns, dating back as far as Eugene Wigner's 1960 observations on the matter, that what we call foundations of mathematics and cosmology may be not observable or discoverable absolutes, but rather, aspects of humanity and its cognition. Eugene Paul "EP" Wigner ( Hungarian Wigner Pál Jenő) ( November 17, 1902 &ndash January 1, 1995) was a Year 1960 ( MCMLX) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Foundations of mathematics is a term sometimes used for certain fields of Mathematics, such as Mathematical logic, Axiomatic set theory, Proof theory Physical cosmology, as a branch of Astronomy, is the study of the large-scale structure of the Universe and is concerned with fundamental questions about its Cognition is a concept used in different ways by different disciplines but is generally accepted to mean the process of awareness or thought Nick Bostrom in 2002 addressed this concern with a theory of anthropic bias. Nick Bostrom (born Niklas Boström in 1973 is a Swedish philosopher at the University of Oxford known for his work on the Anthropic principle See also 2002 (disambiguation Year 2002 ( MMII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. In Physics and Cosmology, the anthropic principle states that humans should take into account the constraints that human existence imposes on the kind of theoretical

In clinical trials

One of the purposes of blinding clinical trials is to avoid the introduction of bias caused by investigators beliefs about the therapy being tested influencing perceptions, measurements, and actions. The blind method is a part of the Scientific method, used to prevent research outcomes from being influenced by either the Placebo effect or the Observer Making effective decisions and ensuring patient care while investigators remain unaware of what treatment particular patients receive has been a continuing problem in the design of clinical trials.

The phenomenon of adaptive designs - designs whose characteristics can change mid-trial based on the information obtained so far -- has created further problems in avoiding bias. Adaptive technology is the name for products which help people who cannot use regular versions of products primarily people with physical disabilities such as limitations to vision hearing Susan Ellenberg, Thomas Fleming, and David DeMets expressed concern that using data monitoring committees to alter the parameters of a clinical trial through an adaptive design in a manner known to the investigators could introduce bias into the trial. Thomas Fleming may refer to Thomas Fleming Earl of Wigtown (d Increasing the sample size, for example, could signal that the experimental product was not as efficacious as originally hoped. The authors expressed concern that participant-observer bias would need to be assessed and addressed in order to ensure the reliability of adaptive designs. [1]

Other approaches

See also

External links

References

  1. ^ Susan Ellenberg, Thomas Fleming, David DeMets, Data Monitoring Committees in Clinical Trials: A Practical Perspective (John Wiley & Sons Inc. Kenneth Earl "Ken" Wilber Jr (b January 31, 1949, Oklahoma City, U Philosophy of mind is the branch of Philosophy that studies the nature of the Mind, Mental events Mental functions mental properties , 2002) ISBN 0-471-48986-7
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