A subatomic particle is an elementary or composite particle smaller than an atom. In Particle physics, an elementary particle or fundamental particle is a particle not known to have substructure that is it is not known to be made In Physics, a bound state is a composite of two or more building blocks ( particles or bodies) that behaves as a single object History See also Atomic theory, Atomism The concept that matter is composed of discrete units and cannot be divided into arbitrarily tiny Particle physics and nuclear physics are concerned with the study of these particles, their interactions, and non-atomic matter. Particle physics is a branch of Physics that studies the elementary constituents of Matter and Radiation, and the interactions between them Nuclear physics is the field of Physics that studies the building blocks and interactions of Atomic nuclei. Quark matter or QCD matter (see QCD) refers to any of a number of theorized phases of matter whose degrees of freedom include Quarks and Gluons

Subatomic particles include the atomic constituents electrons, protons, and neutrons. The electron is a fundamental Subatomic particle that was identified and assigned the negative charge in 1897 by J The proton ( Greek πρῶτον / proton "first" is a Subatomic particle with an Electric charge of one positive This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. Protons and neutrons are composite particles, consisting of quarks. In Physics, a bound state is a composite of two or more building blocks ( particles or bodies) that behaves as a single object In Physics, a quark (kwɔrk kwɑːk or kwɑːrk is a type of Subatomic particle. A proton contains two up quarks and one down quark, while a neutron consists of one up quark and two down quarks; the quarks are held together in the nucleus by gluons. Gluons ( Glue and the suffix -on) are Elementary particles that cause Quarks to interact and are indirectly responsible for the There are six different types of quark in all ('up', 'down', 'bottom', 'top', 'strange', and 'charm'), as well as other particles including photons and neutrinos which are produced copiously in the sun. In Physics, the photon is the Elementary particle responsible for electromagnetic phenomena Neutrinos are Elementary particles that travel close to the Speed of light, lack an Electric charge, are able to pass through ordinary matter almost The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. Most of the particles that have been discovered are encountered in cosmic rays interacting with matter and are produced by scattering processes in particle accelerators. For the 1962 Bruce Conner film see Cosmic Ray (film Cosmic rays are energetic particles originating from space that impinge on There are dozens of subatomic particles.

Helium atom (schematic)
The picture shows the first few hydrogen atom orbitals (energy eigenfunctions). These are cross-sections of the probability density that are color-coded (black=zero density, white=highest density).

Introduction to particles

In particle physics, the conceptual idea of a particle is one of several concepts inherited from classical physics, the world we experience, that are used to describe how matter and energy behave at the molecular scales of quantum mechanics. Particle physics is a branch of Physics that studies the elementary constituents of Matter and Radiation, and the interactions between them Matter is commonly defined as being anything that has mass and that takes up space. In Physics and other Sciences energy (from the Greek grc ἐνέργεια - Energeia, "activity operation" from grc ἐνεργός Quantum mechanics is the study of mechanical systems whose dimensions are close to the Atomic scale such as Molecules Atoms Electrons As physicists use the term, the meaning of the word "particle" is one which understands how particles are radically different at the quantum-level, and rather different from the common understanding of the term.

The idea of a particle is one which had to undergo serious rethinking in light of experiments which showed that the smallest particles (of light) could behave just like waves. A wave is a disturbance that propagates through Space and Time, usually with transference of Energy. The difference is indeed vast, and required the new concept of wave-particle duality to state that quantum-scale "particles" are understood to behave in a way which resembles both particles and waves. In Physics and Chemistry, wave–particle duality is the concept that all Matter and Energy exhibits both Wave -like and Another new concept, the uncertainty principle, meant that analyzing particles at these scales required a statistical approach. In Quantum physics, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that locating a particle in a small region of space makes the Momentum of the particle uncertain Statistics is a mathematical science pertaining to the collection analysis interpretation or explanation and presentation of Data. All of these factors combined such that the very notion of a discrete "particle" has been ultimately replaced by the concept of something like wave-packet of an uncertain boundary, whose properties are only known as probabilities, and whose interactions with other "particles" remain largely a mystery, even 80 years after quantum mechanics was established.

Energy

Energy and matter we have studied from Einstein's hypotheses are analogous: matter can be austerely denoted in terms of energy. In Physics and other Sciences energy (from the Greek grc ἐνέργεια - Energeia, "activity operation" from grc ἐνεργός Albert Einstein ( German: ˈalbɐt ˈaɪ̯nʃtaɪ̯n; English: ˈælbɝt ˈaɪnstaɪn (14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955 was a German -born theoretical Analogy is both the cognitive process of transferring Information from a particular subject (the analogue or source to another particular subject (the target and Thus, we have only discovered two mechanisms in which energy can be transferred. These are particles and waves. A wave is a disturbance that propagates through Space and Time, usually with transference of Energy. For example, light can be expressed as both particles and waves. A wave is a disturbance that propagates through Space and Time, usually with transference of Energy. This paradox is known as the Duality Paradox. A paradox is a true statement or group of statements that leads to a Contradiction or a situation which defies intuition; or inversely ^[1].

Through the work of Albert Einstein, Louis de Broglie and many others, current scientific theory holds that all particles also have a wave nature. [1] This phenomenon has been verified not only for elementary particles, but also for compound particles like atoms and even molecules. In fact, according to traditional formulations of non-relativistic quantum mechanics, wave–particle duality applies to all objects, even macroscopic ones; we can't detect wave properties of macroscopic objects due to their small wavelengths. [2]

Interactions between particles have been scrutinized for many centuries, and a few simple laws underpin how particles proceed in collisions and interactions. The most angelic of these are the conservation of energy and momentum which facilitate us to elucidate calculations between particle interactions on scales of magnitude which diverge between planets and quarks^[2]. In Physics, the law of conservation of energy states that the total amount of Energy in an isolated system remains constant and cannot be created although it may A planet, as defined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU is a celestial body Orbiting a Star or stellar remnant that is In Physics, a quark (kwɔrk kwɑːk or kwɑːrk is a type of Subatomic particle. These are the prerequisite basics of Newtonian mechanics, a series of statements and equations in Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica originally published in 1687. Classical mechanics is used for describing the motion of Macroscopic objects from Projectiles to parts of Machinery, as well as Astronomical objects The Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ( Latin: "mathematical principles of natural philosophy" often Principia

Dividing an atom

The study of electrochemistry led G. Johnstone Stoney to postulate the existence of the electron (denoted e⁻) in 1874 as a constituent of the atom. Electrochemistry is a branch of Chemistry that studies Chemical reactions which take place in a Solution at the interface of an electron conductor George Johnstone Stoney ( February 15, 1826 &ndash July 5, 1911) was an Anglo-Irish Physicist most famous for introducing The electron is a fundamental Subatomic particle that was identified and assigned the negative charge in 1897 by J Year 1874 ( MDCCCLXXIV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common It was observed in 1897 by J. J. Thomson. Year 1897 ( MDCCCXCVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common Sir Joseph John “JJ” Thomson, OM, FRS (18 December 1856 &ndash 30 August 1940 was a British Physicist and Nobel laureate Subsequent speculation about the structure of atoms was severely constrained by the 1907 experiment of Ernest Rutherford which showed that the atom was mostly empty space, and almost all its mass was concentrated into the (relatively) tiny atomic nucleus. Year 1907 ( MCMVII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Ernest Rutherford 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson, OM, PC, FRS (30 August 1871 – 19 October 1937 was a New Zealand Physicist The nucleus of an Atom is the very dense region consisting of Nucleons ( Protons and Neutrons, at the center of an atom The development of the quantum theory led to the understanding of chemistry in terms of the arrangement of electrons in the mostly empty volume of atoms. In Atomic physics, the Bohr model created by Niels Bohr depicts the Atom as a small positively charged nucleus surrounded by Electrons Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties Protons (p⁺) were known to be the nucleus of the hydrogen atom. The proton ( Greek πρῶτον / proton "first" is a Subatomic particle with an Electric charge of one positive Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 Neutrons (n) were postulated by Rutherford and discovered by James Chadwick in 1932. This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. Sir James Chadwick, CH (20 October 1891 &ndash 24 July 1974 was an English Physicist and Nobel laureate in physics awarded for his discovery of the Year 1932 ( MCMXXXII) was a Leap year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar. The word nucleon denotes both the neutron and the proton. In Physics a nucleon is a collective name for two Baryons the Neutron and the Proton.

Electrons, which are negatively charged, have a mass of 1/1836 of a hydrogen atom, the remainder of the atom's mass coming from the positively charged proton. Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 The proton ( Greek πρῶτον / proton "first" is a Subatomic particle with an Electric charge of one positive The atomic number of an element counts the number of protons. See also List of elements by atomic number In Chemistry and Physics, the atomic number (also known as the proton Neutrons are neutral particles with a mass almost equal to that of the proton. Different isotopes of the same nucleus contain the same number of protons but differing numbers of neutrons. The mass number of a nucleus counts the total number of nucleons. The mass number ( A) also called atomic mass number or nucleon number, is the total number of Protons and Neutrons (together known as

Chemistry concerns itself with the arrangement of electrons in atoms and molecules, and nuclear physics with the arrangement of protons and neutrons in a nucleus. Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties Nuclear physics is the field of Physics that studies the building blocks and interactions of Atomic nuclei. The study of subatomic particles, atoms and molecules, their structure and interactions, involves quantum mechanics and quantum field theory (when dealing with processes that change the number of particles). Quantum mechanics is the study of mechanical systems whose dimensions are close to the Atomic scale such as Molecules Atoms Electrons In quantum field theory (QFT the forces between particles are mediated by other particles The study of subatomic particles per se is called particle physics. Particle physics is a branch of Physics that studies the elementary constituents of Matter and Radiation, and the interactions between them Since many particles need to be created in high energy particle accelerators or cosmic rays, sometimes particle physics is also called high energy physics. For the 1962 Bruce Conner film see Cosmic Ray (film Cosmic rays are energetic particles originating from space that impinge on Particle physics is a branch of Physics that studies the elementary constituents of Matter and Radiation, and the interactions between them

History

J. J. Thomson discovered electrons in 1897. Sir Joseph John “JJ” Thomson, OM, FRS (18 December 1856 &ndash 30 August 1940 was a British Physicist and Nobel laureate The electron is a fundamental Subatomic particle that was identified and assigned the negative charge in 1897 by J Year 1897 ( MDCCCXCVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common In 1905 Albert Einstein demonstrated the physical reality of the photons which were postulated by Max Planck in order to solve the problem of black body radiation in thermodynamics. Year 1905 ( MCMV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting Albert Einstein ( German: ˈalbɐt ˈaɪ̯nʃtaɪ̯n; English: ˈælbɝt ˈaɪnstaɪn (14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955 was a German -born theoretical In Physics, the photon is the Elementary particle responsible for electromagnetic phenomena The Electromagnetic radiation emitted by a Black body. You may also be looking for Incandescence, the radiation from a body Ernest Rutherford discovered in 1907 in the gold foil experiment that the atom is mainly empty space, and that it contains a heavy but small atomic nucleus. Ernest Rutherford 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson, OM, PC, FRS (30 August 1871 – 19 October 1937 was a New Zealand Physicist Year 1907 ( MCMVII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year The Geiger-Marsden experiment (also called the Gold foil experiment or the Rutherford experiment) was an experiment done by Hans Geiger and Ernest The nucleus of an Atom is the very dense region consisting of Nucleons ( Protons and Neutrons, at the center of an atom The early successes of the quantum theory involved explaining properties of atoms in terms of their electronic structure. In Atomic physics, the Bohr model created by Niels Bohr depicts the Atom as a small positively charged nucleus surrounded by Electrons History See also Atomic theory, Atomism The concept that matter is composed of discrete units and cannot be divided into arbitrarily tiny In Atomic physics and Quantum chemistry, electron configuration is the arrangement of Electrons in an Atom, Molecule, or other The proton was soon identified as the nucleus of hydrogen. The proton ( Greek πρῶτον / proton "first" is a Subatomic particle with an Electric charge of one positive The neutron was postulated by Rutherford following his discovery of the nucleus, but was discovered by James Chadwick much later, in 1932. This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. Sir James Chadwick, CH (20 October 1891 &ndash 24 July 1974 was an English Physicist and Nobel laureate in physics awarded for his discovery of the Year 1932 ( MCMXXXII) was a Leap year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar. Neutrinos were postulated in 1931 by Wolfgang Pauli (and named by Enrico Fermi) to be produced in beta decays (the weak interaction) of neutrons, but were not discovered till 1956. Neutrinos are Elementary particles that travel close to the Speed of light, lack an Electric charge, are able to pass through ordinary matter almost Year 1931 ( MCMXXXI) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1931 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. In Nuclear physics, beta decay is a type of Radioactive decay in which a Beta particle (an Electron or a Positron) is emitted The weak interaction (often called the weak force or sometimes the weak nuclear force) is one of the four Fundamental interactions of nature Year 1956 ( MCMLVI) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Pions were postulated by Hideki Yukawa as mediators of the strong force which binds the nucleus together. In Particle physics, pion (short for pi meson) is the collective name for three Subatomic particles, and. né, was a Japanese Theoretical physicist and the first Japanese Nobel laureate. In particle physics the strong interaction, or strong force, or color force, holds Quarks and Gluons together to form Protons and The muon was discovered in 1936 by Carl D. Anderson, and initially mistaken for the pion. The muon (from the letter mu (μ--used to represent it is an Elementary particle with negative Electric charge and a spin of 1/2 Year 1936 ( MCMXXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Carl David Anderson ( 3 September 1905 &ndash 11 January 1991) was an American Physicist. In Particle physics, pion (short for pi meson) is the collective name for three Subatomic particles, and. In the 1950s the first kaons were discovered in cosmic rays. The 1950s Decade refers to the years of 1950 to 1959 inclusive In Particle physics, a kaon (/ˈkeɪɒn/ also called K-meson and denoted) is any one of a group of four Mesons distinguished by the fact that they For the 1962 Bruce Conner film see Cosmic Ray (film Cosmic rays are energetic particles originating from space that impinge on

The development of new particle accelerators and particle detectors in the 1950s led to the discovery of a huge variety of hadrons, prompting Wolfgang Pauli's remark: "Had I foreseen this, I would have gone into botany". In experimental and applied Particle physics and Nuclear engineering, a particle detector, also known as a radiation detector, is a device used to Year 1950 ( MCML) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. In Particle physics, a hadron ( from the ἁδρός hadrós, " stout, thick " ( The classification of hadrons through the quark model in 1961 was the beginning of the golden age of modern particle physics, which culminated in the completion of the unified theory called the standard model in the 1970s. In Physics, the quark model is a classification scheme for Hadrons in terms of their valence quarks, i Year 1961 ( MCMLXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Standard Model of Particle physics is a theory that describes three of the four known Fundamental interactions together with the Elementary particles This article is about the Decade 1970-1979 For the Year 1970 see 1970. The discovery of the weak gauge bosons through the 1980s, and the verification of their properties through the 1990s is considered to be an age of consolidation in particle physics. The 1980s was the decade spanning from January 1 1980 to December 31 1989. The 1990s collectively refers to the years between and including 1990 and 1999 Among the standard model particles the existence of the Higgs boson remains to be verified— this is seen as the primary physics goal of the accelerator called the Large Hadron Collider in CERN. The Higgs Boson is a hypothetical massive scalar Elementary particle predicted to exist by the Standard Model of Particle physics The European Organization for Nuclear Research (Organisation Européenne pour la Recherche Nucléaire known as CERN All currently known particles fit into the standard model.

Visualisation

In 2000 a group of scientists from University of Michigan joined forces with designer Jan-Henrik Andersen with a goal "to nurture a future consensus on how to visually represent subatomic particle energy and matter". The University of Michigan Ann Arbor ( U of M, U-M, UM or simply Michigan) is a top-ranked Coeducational public research They resulted in a project "Sized Matter: perception of the extreme unseen" where series of particles such as photon and some atomic events were depicted possibly closely to what is 'natural'.

References

1. ^ Einstein, Albert; Robert W. Albert Einstein ( German: ˈalbɐt ˈaɪ̯nʃtaɪ̯n; English: ˈælbɝt ˈaɪnstaɪn (14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955 was a German -born theoretical Lawson (1920). Relativity: The Special & General Theory. Special relativity (SR (also known as the special theory of relativity or STR) is the Physical theory of Measurement in Inertial General relativity or the general theory of relativity is the geometric theory of Gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1916 New York Henry Holt and Company. ISBN 1-58734-092-5.  
2. ^ Isaac Newton - Newton's Laws of Motion (Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica). Sir Isaac Newton, FRS (ˈnjuːtən 4 January 1643 31 March 1727) Biography Early years See also Isaac Newton's early life and achievements Newton's laws of motion are three Physical laws which provide relationships between the Forces acting on a body and the motion of the The Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ( Latin: "mathematical principles of natural philosophy" often Principia 1687.

See also

• Poincare symmetry, CPT invariance, spin statistics theorem, bosons and fermions. In Physics and Mathematics, the Poincaré group, named after Henri Poincaré, is the group of isometries of Minkowski spacetime CPT symmetry is a fundamental symmetry of Physical laws under transformations that involve the inversions of charge, parity and The spin-statistics theorem in Quantum mechanics relates the spin of a particle to the statistics obeyed by that particle In Particle physics, bosons are particles which obey Bose-Einstein statistics; they are named after Satyendra Nath Bose and Albert Einstein In Particle physics, fermions are particles which obey Fermi-Dirac statistics; they are named after Enrico Fermi.
• Particle physics, list of particles, the quark model and the standard model. Particle physics is a branch of Physics that studies the elementary constituents of Matter and Radiation, and the interactions between them This is a list of the different types of particles known and hypothesized In Physics, the quark model is a classification scheme for Hadrons in terms of their valence quarks, i The Standard Model of Particle physics is a theory that describes three of the four known Fundamental interactions together with the Elementary particles
• Ylem

External links

• particleadventure.org: The Standard Model
• particleadventure.org: Particle chart
• University of California: Particle Data Group
• Annotated Physics Encyclopædia: Quantum Field Theory
• Jose Galvez: Chapter 1 Electrodynamics (pdf)