Sub-Roman Britain is a term derived from an archaeologists' label for the material culture of Britain in Late Antiquity. See also Kingdom of Great Britain Great Britain (Breatainn Mhòr Prydain Fawr Breten Veur Graet Breetain is the larger of the two main islands Late Antiquity (c 300-600 is a Periodization used by historians to describe the transitional centuries from Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages, in "Sub-Roman" was invented to describe the pottery in sites of the 5th century and the 6th century, initially with an implication of decay of locally-made wares from a higher standard under the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial It is now often used to denote a period of history. Although the culture of Britain in the period was mainly derived from Roman and Celtic, there were also "Saxons" (the British term for all the incomers) in Britain at this time and gradually the latter assumed more control, see Anglo-Saxon England. The History of Anglo-Saxon England covers the history of Early medieval England from the end of Roman Britain and the establishment of Anglo-Saxon The Picts in northern Scotland were also outside the applicable area. The Picts were a Confederation of tribes in what was later to become eastern and northern Scotland from Roman times until the 10th century Scotland ( Gaelic: Alba) is a Country in northwest Europethat occupies the northern third of the island of Great Britain.

Contents 1 Meaning of terms 2 Written accounts 3 Archaeological evidence 3.1 Interpretations 3.2 Narrative 4 Kingdoms 4.1 Religion 5 Anglo-Saxon migration 5.1 Linguistic evidence 5.2 Genetic evidence 5.3 Extent of the migrations 6 End of Roman Britain 7 Environmental change effects 8 Population changes 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links

Meaning of terms

History of the British Isles This box: view • talk • edit

By chronology Prehistoric Britain Bronze Age Britain Iron Age Prehistoric Scotland Prehistoric Wales Early Ireland Roman Roman Wales Sub-Roman Britain Early-Christian Ireland Early-Medieval Ireland Ireland 1691–1801 Medieval Britain Scotland in the Early Middle Ages Scotland in the High Middle Ages Scotland in the Late Middle Ages Norman invasion of Wales Wales in the Late Middle Ages Medieval Ireland: Gaelic, Norman Early-modern: Britain, Ireland Modern: History of the United Kingdom Ireland History of Ireland History of Northern Ireland History of Ireland (1801–1922) Irish Free State History of Wales By nation England Ireland Northern Ireland Republic of Ireland Isle of Man Scotland Wales See also: Guernsey Jersey Orkney Islands By topic Settlement of Great Britain and Ireland Constitutional history: Britain, Ireland Economic history: Britain, Ireland Military history of the United Kingdom History of English society Maritime history of Britain

The period of Sub-Roman Britain traditionally covers the history of England from the end of Roman imperial rule in the very early fifth century to the arrival of Saint Augustine in AD 597. The history of the British Isles has witnessed intermittent periods of competition and cooperation between the people that occupy the various parts of Great Britain, Prehistoric Britain was a period in the human occupation of Great Britain that was the later part of Prehistory, conventionally ending with the Roman invasion In Great Britain, the Bronze Age is considered to have been the period from around 2700 to 700 BC. In Britain and Ireland the Iron Age lasted from about the 7th century BC until the Roman conquest and until the 5th century in non- Romanised Archaeology and Geology continue to reveal the secrets of prehistoric Scotland, uncovering a complex and dramatic past before the Romans brought Scotland Prehistoric Wales in terms of human settlements covers the period from about 230000 years ago the date attributed to the earliest human remains found in what is now Wales Prehistory Mesolithic (8000 BC - 4500 BC What little is known of pre- Christian Ireland comes from a few references in Roman writings Roman Britain refers to those parts of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between AD 43 and 410 Up to and during the Roman occupation of Britain, the native inhabitants of Roman Britain spoke Brythonic languages (a sub-family of the Celtic languages The history of Ireland begins with the first known settlement in Ireland around 8000 BC when Hunter-gatherers arrived from Great Britain and continental The Early Medieval era in Ireland from 800 to 1166 is characterised by Viking raids then settlement in what had become a stable and wealthy country This period in Ireland's history was marked by the dominance of the so-called Protestant Ascendancy. Great Britain during the Middle Ages (from the 5th century withdrawal of Roman forces from the province of Britannia The Early Middle Ages, a period which corresponds in part with Early Historic Scotland and the Later Iron Age, is that era of Scottish pre-history and The history of Scotland in the High Middle Ages covers Scotland in the era between the death of Domnall II in 900 AD and the death of king Alexander III The history of Scotland in the Late Middle Ages might be said to be dominated by the twin themes of crisis and transition The Norman invasion of Wales began shortly after the Norman invasion of England. Wales in the Late Middle Ages covers the period from the death of Llywelyn ap Gruffydd in late 1282 to the incorporation of Wales into England by the Laws in Wales Acts Gaelic Ireland was the political order that existed in Ireland prior to the Norman invasion and that ran in parallel to the subsequent nominal Lordship The later medieval period in Ireland (" Norman Ireland " was dominated by the Cambro-Norman invasion of the country in 1171. Early Modern Britain is the History of the island of Great Britain roughly corresponding to the 16th 17th and 18th centuries Early Modern Ireland saw the first full conquest of Ireland by England and its colonization with Protestant settlers from England and Scotland The history of the United Kingdom — British history — as an unified Sovereign state begins with the legistlative union between the kingdoms of England The history of Ireland begins with the first known settlement in Ireland around 8000 BC when Hunter-gatherers arrived from Great Britain and continental Northern Ireland was established as a distinct region of the United Kingdom on 3 May 1921 under the terms of the Government of Ireland Act 1920. From 1801 to 1922 the whole island of Ireland formed a constituent part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (UK The Irish Free State (Saorstát Éireann (1922&ndash1937 was the state established as a Dominion on 6 December 1922 under the Anglo-Irish Treaty, signed by The country of Wales, or Cymru in Welsh has been inhabited by modern humans for at least 29000 years though continuous human habitation The history of England is similar to the history of Britain until the arrival of the Saxons The history of Ireland begins with the first known settlement in Ireland around 8000 BC when Hunter-gatherers arrived from Great Britain and continental Northern Ireland was established as a distinct region of the United Kingdom on 3 May 1921 under the terms of the Government of Ireland Act 1920. The Republic of Ireland first became an independent state on 6 December 1922 The Isle of Man has been the scene of human occupation since the end of the Last glacial period over 10000 years ago The history of Scotland begins around 10000 years ago when Humans first began to inhabit Scotland after the end of the Devensian glaciation, the last The country of Wales, or Cymru in Welsh has been inhabited by modern humans for at least 29000 years though continuous human habitation The Bailiwick of Guernsey (Bailliage de Guernesey is a British Crown dependency in the English Channel off the coast of Normandy. The island of Jersey and the other Channel Islands represent the last remnants of the medieval Duchy of Normandy that held sway in both France and Prehistoric Orkney See also Prehistoric Orkney As with Prehistoric Scotland generally the arrival of Hunter gatherers in Orkney had to The British Isles have a long history of migration from across Europe, starting in the Palaeolithic period The Constitution of the United Kingdom is said to be uncodified. Irish states have existed under a number of different names for nearly a thousand years This is a history of the economy of the United Kingdom and of the countries that joined to form it in 1707 and 1801 To 1800 The first settlers in Ireland were seafarers who survived largely by Fishing, Hunting and gathering. The military history of the United Kingdom covers the period from the birth of the united Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707 with the political union of England and The History of English society demonstrates innumerable changes over many centuries The Maritime history of the United Kingdom involves events including Shipping, Ports Navigation, and seamen, as well as marine The history of England is similar to the history of Britain until the arrival of the Saxons Augustine of Canterbury OSB (born c first third of the 6th century - died 26 May 604 was a Benedictine Monk who became the first Archbishop The date taken for the end of this period is arbitrary in that the Sub-Roman culture continued in the west of England and in Wales.

This period has attracted a great deal of academic and popular debate, in part because of the scarcity of the source material, and in part because this period is a time in which later national identities have found their origins. The term Post-Roman Britain is also used for the period, mainly in non-archaeological contexts. Both terms really apply to the old Roman province of Britannia, that is Britain south of the Forth-Clyde line. Control of the area between Hadrian's Wall and the Forth-Clyde line is unclear. Hadrian's Wall ( Latin: perhaps Vallum Aelium, "the Aelian wall" is a stone and turf Fortification built by the Roman North of the latter was Pictland which had a separate identity in this period.

The term Late Antiquity, implying wider horizons, is finding more use in the academic community, especially when transformations of classical culture common throughout the post-Roman West are examined; it is less successfully applied to Britain at the time. Late Antiquity (c 300-600 is a Periodization used by historians to describe the transitional centuries from Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages, in The period may also be considered as part of the Early Middle Ages, if continuity with the following periods is stressed. The Early Middle Ages is a period in the History of Europe following the fall of the Western Roman Empire spanning roughly five centuries from AD 500 A range of more dramatic names are given to the period in popular (and some academic) works: the Dark Ages, the Brythonic Age, the Age of Tyrants, or the Age of Arthur.

Written accounts

There is very little extant written material available from this period, though there is a considerable amount from later periods that may be relevant. A lot of it deals with the first few decades of the fifth century only. The sources can usefully be classified into British and continental, and into contemporary and non-contemporary.

Two primary contemporary British sources exist: the Confessio of Saint Patrick and Gildas' De Excidio Britanniae ("On The Ruin Of Britain"). Saint Patrick (Patricius Irish: Naomh Pádraig) was a Roman Britain -born Christian Missionary and is the Patron saint Saint Gildas (c 494 or 516 – c 570 was one of the best-documented figures of the Christian church in the British Isles during the sixth century ^[1]. Gildas is the nearest to a source of Sub-Roman history but there are many problems in using it. The document represents British history as he and his audience understood it. Though a few other documents of the period do exist they are not directly relevant to British history, such as Gildas' letters on monasticsm.

Patrick's Confessio reveals aspects of life in Britain, from whence he was abducted to Ireland. It is particularly useful in highlighting the state of Christianity at the time. Early Insular Christianity is a term used to cover Christianity in the British Isles during the post-Roman period (5th to 8th centuries Gildas' De Excidio Britanniae is a jeremiad; it is written as a polemic to warn contemporary rulers against sin, demonstrating through historical and biblical examples that bad rulers are always punished by God - in the case of Britain, through the destructive wrath of the Saxon invaders. A Jeremiad is a long literary work usually in Prose, but sometimes in Poetry, in which the author bitterly laments the state of society and its morals in a serious The Saxons or Saxon people were a Confederation of Old Germanic tribes. The historical section of De Excidio is short, and the material in it is clearly selected with Gildas' purpose in mind. There are no absolute dates given, and some of the details, such as those regarding the Hadrian and Antonine Walls are clearly wrong. Hadrian's Wall ( Latin: perhaps Vallum Aelium, "the Aelian wall" is a stone and turf Fortification built by the Roman The Antonine Wall is a stone and turf Fortification, built by the Romans across what is now the Central belt of Scotland Nevertheless, Gildas does provide us with an insight into some of the kingdoms that existed when he was writing, and to how an educated monk perceived the situation that had developed between the Anglo-Saxons and the Britons.

There are more continental contemporary sources that mention Britain, though these are highly problematic. The most famous is the so-called Rescript of Honorius, in which the Western Emperor Honorius tells the British civitates to look to their own defence. Flavius Honorius ( September 9, 384 &ndash August 15, 423) was Roman Emperor (393- 395 and then Western Roman Emperor The first reference to this rescript is written by the sixth-century Byzantine scholar Zosimus and is located randomly in the middle of a discussion of southern Italy; no further mention of Britain is made, which has led some, though not all, modern academics to suggest that the rescript does not apply to Britain, but to Bruttium in Italy. Zosimus ( ''fl'' 490s-510s was a Byzantine historian who lived in Constantinople during the reign of the Byzantine Emperor Anastasius Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Calabria ( Latin: Brutium) is a region in southern Italy, south of Naples, located at the "toe" of ^[2] The Gallic Chronicle (441 and 511) says prematurely that "Britain, abandoned by the Romans, passed in to the power of the Saxons" and provides information about St Germanus and his visit(s) to Britain, though again this text has received considerable academic deconstruction. ^[3] The work of Procopius, another sixth-century Byzantine writer, makes some references to Britain though the accuracy of these is uncertain. Procopius of Caesarea ( Προκόπιος ο Καισαρεύς, c

There are numerous later written sources that claim to provide accurate accounts of the period. The first to attempt this was the monk Bede, writing in the early eighth century. Bede (ˈbiːd (also Saint Bede, the Venerable Bede, or (from Latin Beda (beda (c He based his account of the Sub-Roman period in his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (c. The Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (in English: Ecclesiastical History of the English People) is a work in Latin by the 731) heavily on Gildas, though he tried to provide dates for the events Gildas describes. It was written from an anti-Briton point of view. Later sources, such as the Historia Brittonum often attributed to Nennius, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (again written from a non-Briton point of view, based on West Saxon sources) and the Annales Cambriae are all heavily shrouded in myth and can only be used as evidence for this period with caution. The Historia Brittonum, or The History of the Britons, is a historical work that was first written sometime shortly after AD 833 and exists in several Nennius, or Nemnivus, is either of two shadowy personages traditionally associated with the history of Wales. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a collection of Annals in Old English chronicling the history of the Anglo-Saxons. Annales Cambriae, or The Annals of Wales, is the name given to a complex of Cambro-Latin Chronicles deriving ultimately from a text compiled ^[4] There are also documents giving poetry (of Taliesin and Aneiron) and land deeds (Llandaff charters) that appear to date back to the 6th century.

After the Norman Conquest there were many books written that purport to give the history of the Sub-Roman Period. These have been influenced by the fictionalised account in Geoffrey of Monmouth's "History of the Kings of Britain". Geoffrey of Monmouth ( Gruffudd ap Arthur or Sieffre o Fynwy) (c Therefore they can only be regarded as showing how the legends grew. Not until modern times have serious studies of the period been undertaken.

Some "Saints Lives" relating to Celtic clerics are early, but most are late and unreliable. St Thadeus is described as visiting a villa at Chepstow while St Cuthbert visited deserted Carlisle. Chepstow (Cas-gwent is a town in Monmouthshire, Wales, adjoining the border with Gloucestershire, England. Carlisle (pronounced CARLYLE(emphasis on the first syllable is a City in northern England the largest settlement in Cumbria.

Archaeological evidence

Archaeology provides further, though limited, evidence for this period since perishable cultural items have not survived. Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek grc ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia – grc ἀρχαῖος archaīos In the Sub-Roman period there seems to have been a culture of using less durable materials than in the Roman period. However, brooches, pottery and weapons have survived. The study of burials and cremations, and the grave goods associated with these, has done much to expand the understanding of cultural identities in the period. Burial, also called interment and inhumation, is the act of placing a person or object into the ground Cremation is the act of reducing a Corpse by burning, generally in a crematorium furnace or crematory fire Grave goods, in Archaeology and Anthropology, are the items buried along with the body ^[5] Archaeology has shown the continuity with Roman education, trade with the Mediterranean and with Celtic art.

Excavations of settlements have revealed how social structures might have been changing, and the extent to which life in Britain continued unaltered in certain aspects into the early medieval period. Excavations have taken place on hilltops, the so-called "hillforts", towns and monasteries. Work on towns has been particularly important in this respect. A town is a type of settlement ranging from a few to several thousand (occasionally hundreds of thousands inhabitants although it may be applied loosely even to huge metropolitan Work on the hill-forts has shown evidence of refurbishment in this period as well as evidence of overseas trade. One of the earliest major excavations was at Tintagel (Radford 1939). Tintagel (tɪnˈtædʒəl with the stress on the second syllable Cornish: Dintagell) is a village situated on the Atlantic coast of Cornwall Rectangular structures were uncovered which were interpreted as a monastery together with much Mediterranean pottery. Later re-interpretation suggests that it was a princely stronghold and trading post. Another important excavation was at Dinas Powys (Alcock 1963) which showed evidence of metalworking. Dinas Powys (previously Dinas Powis is a large Village and a community in the Vale of Glamorgan in South Wales. Alcock also led the excavations at South Cadbury (Alcock 1995). South Cadbury is a Village and Civil parish in the South Somerset council area of the English county of Somerset. Many other sites have now been shown to have been occupied during the Sub-Roman period, including Birdoswald and Saxon Shore forts. This article is about the farm at Birdoswald for the Roman fort see Banna (Birdoswald. The Saxon Shore ( Latin: litus Saxonicum) was a military command of the late Roman Empire, consisting of a series of fortifications on both sides of the Excavations in many towns have shown signs of occupation, particularly Wroxeter. See also Wroxeter (disambiguation Wroxeter (pronounced "Rock-Sitter" is a Village in the county of Shropshire, England, on "Sunken Featured Buildings" are associated with the Saxons and occur in some Roman towns.

Work on field systems and environmental archaeology has also highlighted the extent to which agricultural practice continued and changed over the period. The study of field systems (collections of fields in Landscape history is concerned with the size shape and orientation a number of fields Environmental archaeology is the study of the long-term relationship between humans and their environments Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture ^[6] Archaeology, however, has its limits, especially in dating. Although radio-carbon dating can provide a rough estimate, this is not accurate enough to associate archaeological finds with historical events. Radiocarbon dating is a Radiometric dating method that uses the naturally occurring Radioisotope Carbon-14 (14C to determine the age of Dendrochronology is accurate enough to do this, though few suitable pieces of wood have been uncovered. Dendrochronology (from Greek grc δένδρον dendron, "tree" grc χρόνος khronos, "time" and grc -λογία Coins would normally prove the most useful tool for dating, though this is not the case for sub-Roman Britain since no newly-minted coins are believed to have entered circulation after the very early fifth century. main - title Coin keywords numismatics coin review ^[7]

There is some archaeological evidence for Anglo-Saxons and Britons living on the same site. For example, in the cemetery at Wasperton, Warwickshire, it is possible to see one family adopting Anglo-Saxon culture over a long period. Geography Warwickshire is bounded to the northwest by the West Midlands Metropolitan county and Staffordshire, by Leicestershire to ^[8]

Interpretations

Narrative

Because of the sparse evidence for the period, many interpretations are possible. These have ranged from those taking all the sources at their face value (eg Alcock 1971, Morris 1973, Ashe 1985) to later ones discounting fully the non-contemporary sources. It is clear that any interpretation can only be tentative and dates more so.

At the start of the 5th century Britannia formed part of the western Roman empire under Honorius [1] [2]. However, signs of decline were already appearing and some Saxons may already have been in England as mercenaries. Roman troops were withdrawn by Stilicho in 402 and bulk coin payments ceased around this time. In 406 the army in Britain revolted, electing three successive "tyrants" the last of which took troops to the continent. He became a joint emperor as Constantine III but was defeated and subsequently executed in 411. Meanwhile there were barbarian raids on Britain in 408 but these seem to have been defeated. After 410 Honorious apparently sent letters to the cities of Britain telling them to fend for themselves, though this is sometimes disputed. Later civil wars seem to have broken out, which have been interpreted either as being between pro-Roman and independence groups or between "Established Church" and Pelagian parties (Myres 1965, Morris 1965), a class struggle between peasants and land owners (Thompson 1977, Wood 1984) and a coup by an urban elite (Snyder 1988). However, mostly life seems to have continued as before in the countryside and on a reduced scale in the towns as evidenced by the descriptions of St Germanus' visits. Feuding kingships replaced the centrally governed Roman provinces.

Gildas says that a "council" was convened by Vortigen to find ways of countering the barbarian threat, which opted to hire Saxon mercenaries following Roman practise. Vortigern (ˈvɔrtɨɡɝːn also spelled Vortiger and Vortigen and in Welsh Gwrtheyrn was a 5th century warlord in Britain, a leading ruler among After a while these turned against the British and plundered the towns. A British leader Ambrosius Aurelianus fought against them, in a number of battles apparently over a long period. Towards the end of this period there was the battle of Badon, around AD 500, which later sources claimed was won by King Arthur though Gildas does not identify him. King Arthur is a legendary British leader who according to medieval histories and romances, led the defence of Britain against the Saxon invaders Subsequent to this there was a long period of peace. The British seem to have been in control of England and Wales roughly west of a line from York to Bournemouth. The Saxons had control of Northumberland as well as East Anglia and southeast England.

Writing in Latin perhaps about AD 540, Gildas gives a preliminary account of the History of Britain but the earlier part is in error. He castigates five rulers in western Britain - Constantine of Dumnonia, Aurelius Caninus, Vortipor of the Demetae, Cuneglassus and Maglocunus - for their sins. He also attacks the British clergy. He gives information on the British diet, dress and entertainment. He writes that Britons were killed, emigrated or were enslaved but gives no idea of numbers of each type.

In the late 6th century there was another period of Saxon expansion, starting with the capture by Wessex of Sarum in AD 552 and including entry into the Cotswold area after the battle of Dyrham, though the accuracy of the entries in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles for this period has been questioned. West Saxon redirects here For other meanings of Wessex or West Saxon see Wessex (disambiguation. This activity seems to have separated the Britons of the south-west of England (known later as the West Welsh) from those of Wales. (Just after the period being discussed, the battle of Chester seems to have separated the latter from those of the north of England. ) At the end of this period of British history the Britons were still in control of about half of England and Wales.

Kingdoms

Various British kingdoms existed at some point in the period. Some changed their names and some were absorbed by others. At times some of the kingdoms were united under a "Bretwalda" who was an overlord, while wars occurred between others. Bretwalda, also Brytenwalda, Bretenanwealda, is an Anglo-Saxon term the first record of which comes from the late ninth century Anglo-Saxon Chronicle During the period the boundaries are likely to have changed. The major ones were :-

• Badden - in Bath, Bristol and South Gloucestershire. [3]
• Cerin (UK) in Cirencester and western Gloucestershire. It is not to be confused with the town of Cerin in Slovakia. Čerín (Fanischhain Cserény is a Village and Municipality of the Zvolen District in the Banská Bystrica Region of central Slovakia
• Dumnonia - southwest England, mainly Devon and Cornwall but also at least parts of Somerset and Dorset. For the Brythonic colony of the same name in Brittany see Domnonée Dumnonia, sometimes referred to as Damnolia, was a Brythonic It may have contained a sub-kingdom known as [4] Cornovia.
• Dyfed - south west Wales
• Ergyng in south west Herefordshire, northern Monmouthshire and the Forest of Dean, Gloucestershire. The Kingdom of Dyfed was a sub-Roman and early medieval kingdom in south-west Wales. Ergyng (or Erging) was a Welsh kingdom of the sub-Roman and early medieval period between the 5th and 7th centuries.
• Gwent, Brycheiniog and Glywysing - in south Wales
• Glouvia - Gloucester and Northern [5]Gloucestershire. Gwent was one of the kingdoms or principalities of Mediæval Wales, in the Welsh Marches. Brycheiniog was a small independent kingdom of South Wales in the Early Middle Ages. Glywysing was a post-Roman and early medieval kingdom in South Wales.
• Luitcoyt in Lichfield, West Midlands county and Staffordshire. [6][7]
• Powys - mid Wales
• Gwynedd - north Wales
• Elmet - in south western Yorkshire
• Rheged - Cumbria and Lancashire
• Ebrauc -around York and northern Yorkshire
• Bryneich - became Bernicia
• Strathclyde (Yns Manau) - including the sub-kingdom of Selgovae
• Gododdin - centred on Trapain Law in Lothian

There were also areas that became Saxon kingdoms:-

• East Anglia - including Essex, Suffolk and Norfolk
• Kent
• Hwicce in Gloucestershire
• Sussex
• Middlesex
• Wessex - formed from Saxon areas in the upper Thames valley and around Southampton (including Isle of Wight), and later included a Dumnonian sub-kingdom known as Glasteining [8]
• Mercia - centred on Repton
• Northumbria - formed from Bernicia and Deira

Religion

Officially the Roman Empire was Christian at the start of the 5th century, but there is evidence of rural pagan temples being refurbished at the start of this period in western England.   Gwynedd (pr) is one of several Welsh Successor states that emerged in 5th-century post-Roman Britain. During the Early Middle Ages, between approximately the 5th century and early 7th century AD Elmet was an independent Celtic kingdom covering a broad area of Rheged IPA r̥ɛgɛd was a Brythonic kingdom of Sub-Roman Britain, whose inhabitants spoke Cumbric, a dialect of Brythonic closely related Ebrauc is the suggested name for a Brythonic kingdom of Sub-Roman Britain, based on the city of York. Bernicia was an Anglo-Saxon kingdom established by Anglian settlers of the 6th century in what is now the South-East of Scotland and the North-East of Strathclyde ( Gaelic: Srath Chluaidh) (lit "Valley of the Clyde" originally Brythonic Ystrad Clud, was one of the kingdoms The Novantae and Selgovae were peoples of the early second century who lived in what is now Galloway, in southwestern-most Scotland. The Gododdin (goˈdoðin were a Brythonic people of north-eastern Britain (modern north-east England and south-east Scotland) in the sub-Roman The Kingdom of the East Angles or Kingdom of East Anglia was one of the ancient Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. The Kingdom of Kent was a kingdom of Jutes in southeast England and was one of the seven traditional kingdoms of the so-called Anglo-Saxon heptarchy. The Hwicce (also spelt Hwicca or Wiccia) were one of the peoples of Anglo-Saxon England. The Kingdom of Sussex, ( Suth Seaxe, ie the South Saxons was one of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms the boundaries of which coincided in general with those of the earlier kingdom Middle Saxons were a people and their territory which later became with somewhat contracted boundaries the county of Middlesex, England. West Saxon redirects here For other meanings of Wessex or West Saxon see Wessex (disambiguation. The Thames Valley generally implies the region that drains into the River Thames (the Thames catchment) from west of Cirencester to London For the Brythonic colony of the same name in Brittany see Domnonée Dumnonia, sometimes referred to as Damnolia, was a Brythonic Mercia (ˈmɝsiə was one of the kingdoms of the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy. However, most temples seem to have been replaced eventually by Christian churches on the same site or nearby. "Celtic" churches or monasteries seem to have flourished during this period in the British areas, such as that at Glastonbury, but the "Saxons" were pagan. Glastonbury is a small town in Somerset, England, situated at a Dry point on the Somerset Levels, south of Bristol. This led to a great antipathy between the peoples. Many Roman cemeteries continued into much later times, such as that at Cannington. In the east there was a gradual transition by the Saxons from cremation to inhumation. Although the arrival of St Augustine is traditionally seen as the significant Christianising event for the Saxons, a bishop had already arrived in Kent with the king's wife and St Columba had preached to the northern Saxons (Angles?). Other Saxons remained pagan after this time.

In AD 429 a British Deacon Palladius had requested support from the Pope in Rome to combat Pelagianism. Pelagianism is a theological theory named after Pelagius (ad 354 – ad Bishops Germanus and Lupus were sent. During this time it is alleged that Germanus, a former military commander, led the British to the "Halelujah" victory, possibly in Wales. Germanus is said to have made a second visit to England later.

In the north Whitehorn is said to be the earliest church in Scotland, being founded in the 5th century by St Ninian. Corotius (or Ceretic) was a Christian king who was the recipient of the letter from St Patrick. His base was Dumbarton Rock in Strathclyde and his descendant Riderch Hael is named in the "Life of St Columbus". Riderch I of Alt Clut (fl 580 died c 614 commonly known as Riderch or Rhydderch Hael (the Generous was a ruler of Alt Clut (the region around modern Dumbarton Riderch was a contemporary of Aedan mac Gabrain of Dal Riata and Urien of Rheged, as well as of Aethelfrith of Bernicia. Dál Riata (also Dalriada or Dalriata) was a Gaelic overkingdom on the western seaboard of Scotland with some territory on the northern Rheged IPA r̥ɛgɛd was a Brythonic kingdom of Sub-Roman Britain, whose inhabitants spoke Cumbric, a dialect of Brythonic closely related Bernicia was an Anglo-Saxon kingdom established by Anglian settlers of the 6th century in what is now the South-East of Scotland and the North-East of Unlike St Columba, Kentigern the supposed apostle to the Britons of the Clyde, and alleged founder of Glasgow, is a shadowy figure. Saint Mungo is the commonly used name for Saint Kentigern (also known as Cantigernus ( Latin) or Cyndeyrn Garthwys ( Welsh)

Anglo-Saxon migration

Linguistic evidence

Linguistics is a useful way of analysing the culture of a people, and to an extent political associations, in a period. Sutton Hoo near Woodbridge, Suffolk, England, is the site of two Anglo-Saxon cemeteries A review of the Brythonic language changes during this period is given by Kenneth H. Jackson^[9] Studies into Old English, P- and Q-Celtic and Latin have provided evidence for contact between the Britons, the Gaels, and the Anglo-Saxons. The Brythonic languages (or Brittonic languages or British languages) form one of the two branches of the Insular Celtic language family the other being Kenneth Hurlstone Jackson (1 November 1909 – 20 February 1991 was an English linguist and a translator who specialised in the Celtic languages. The Brythonic languages (or Brittonic languages or British languages) form one of the two branches of the Insular Celtic language family the other being The Goidelic languages, (also sometimes called particularly in colloquial situations the Gaelic languages or collectively Gaelic) historically formed a Dialect Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. For their language see Anglo-Saxon language. Anglo-Saxon is the term usually used to describe the invading Tribes in the south The general consensus has been that Old English has little evidence of linguistic contact. However, some scholars are suggesting that there is more evidence in the grammar than in the lexicon. Latin continued to be used for writing but the extent of its use for speech has been much disputed.

Similarly, studies of place-names give clues about the linguistic history of an area. England (except Cornwall) shows little evidence now of Celtic in its place names. There are scattered Celtic place names throughout, increasing towards the west. There are also Celtic river names and topographical names. The place-name and linguistic evidence has been explained by saying that the settlement of Anglo-Saxons, being politically and socially dominant in the south and east of Britain, meant that their language and culture also became dominant. Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic Names with a Latin element suggest continuity of settlement, while some place names have names of pagan German deities. Names of British origin are usually taken as indicating survival of a British population, though this may not be so. Names based on the Anglo-Saxon word for the British, wealh, are also taken as indicating British survival. One possible indication of British survival was the remnant of a Bythonic derived numeric system that was used by shepherds for counting sheep. This remained in use up to the early 20th C. , in parts of Northern and Central England. (see Yan Tan Tethera). Yan Tan Tethera was a traditional numeric Jargon used by Shepherds to count Sheep in northern England and southern Scotland

Inscriptions on stones provide another source of information on the settlements of Britons and "Saxons" in this period. Celtic inscribed stones occur in western England and Wales that relate to this period and the CISP project has been set up to record these and provide information online. In the northwest the inscriptions are written in runes and provide information on the settlement of Angles. (Inscriptions in northern Scotland are in ogham, some in an unknown language. )

Germanic dialects replaced Latin or Celtic in the eastern part of England.

Genetic evidence

Further information: Settlement of Great Britain and Ireland

Recent work analysing the Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA of people now living in Britain and on the continent has provided some insight into how population movements might have occurred during the Sub-Roman period. The British Isles have a long history of migration from across Europe, starting in the Palaeolithic period Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known A 2002 study from University College London was interpreted as showing that there may have indeed been substantially large scale Anglo-Saxon migration to central and eastern England (accounting for 50–100% of the population at the time in Central England). University College London ( UCL) is a multi-faculty university institution based in the United Kingdom and a constituent college of the University of London This article is mainly about the English Midlands For other uses see Midlands (disambiguation. ^[10] However a more complete study in 2003 indicates that this result had other interpretations and that there may have been substantially less Anglo-Saxon migration to other regions of England, and that the transition between England and Wales is more gradual than the earlier study suggested. The study also provides evidence that all areas of the British Isles have some pre-Anglo-Saxon genetic component. It was also unable to find discernible difference in the Y-chromosomes of the presumed modern day source populations of Anglo-Saxon and the later Danish Viking settlers, thus the survey registered both sets of chromosomes as belonging to the same group. ^[11]

Fresh interpretation of the above genetic evidence by Stephen Oppenheimer in The Origins of the British: A Genetic Detective Story and new DNA sampling (Y-chromosome and mtDNA) by Bryan Sykes for his book Blood of the Isles suggest that the contribution of Anglo-Saxons and other late invaders to the British gene pool may have been very limited, and that the majority of English people (about two-thirds) and British people (about three-quarters) descend from palæolithic settlers that migrated from the western European Ice Age refuge,^[12] this observation may support the idea of an ancient relationship between the populations of the Atlantic façade of Europe, though the eastern and south eastern coasts of Great Britain do not belong to this zone. Stephen Oppenheimer (born 1947 a British physician a member of Green College Oxford and an honorary fellow of Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, performs and The Y chromosome is the sex-determining Chromosome in most Mammals including Humans In mammals it contains the gene SRY, which triggers Mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA) is the DNA located in Organelles called mitochondria. Bryan Sykes is Professor of Human Genetics at the University of Oxford and a Fellow of Wolfson College. The term Paleolithic (or Palaeolithic) (from Greek παλαιός palaios, " Old " and λίθος Lithos, "stone" }} Atlantic Europe is a geographical and anthropological term for the western portion of Europe which borders the Atlantic Ocean. ^[13] Sykes and Oppenheimer claim that even in the east of England, where there is the best evidence for migration, no more than 10% of paternal lines may be designated as coming from an “Anglo-Saxon” migration event and that in the same English regions 69% of male lines are still of aboriginal origin. The East of England is one of the nine official Regions of England. Stephen Oppenheimer instead postulates a possible pre-Anglo-Saxon genetic relationship between the modern populations of England (especially the south and east) and the people living on the opposing North Sea regions, indicating a much older pre-Roman Germanic influence in south and east England. The North Sea is a marginal, Epeiric sea of the Atlantic Ocean on the European Continental shelf. There is some evidence that Y chromosome Haplogroup I, which occurs at similar frequencies around the North Sea coast may represent a mesolithic colonisation rather than an Anglo-Saxon migration as is contested by other researchers. In Human genetics, Haplogroup I is a Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup, a subgroup of haplogroup IJ, itself a derivative of Haplogroup F. The Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age was a period in the development of human technology in between the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age and the Neolithic or New Stone Age This haplogroup represents a migration from the Balkan refuge that may have travelled along inland European rivers rather than by the Atlantic coast. ^[14]

Oppenheimer also postulates that the arrival of Germanic languages in England may be considerably earlier than previously thought, and that both mainland and English Belgae (from Gaul) may have been Germanic-speaking peoples and represented closely related ethnic groups (or a single cross channel ethnic group). The Germanic languages are a group of related languages that constitute a branch of the Indo-European (IE Language family. The Belgae were a group of tribes living in northern Gaul in the 1st century BC and later also attested in Britain. Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western ^[15]

Extent of the migrations

It has long been held that the Anglo-Saxons migrated to Britain in large numbers in the fifth and sixth centuries, substantially displacing the British people. The Anglo-Saxon historian Frank Stenton in 1943, although making considerable allowance for British survival, essentially sums up this view, arguing "that the greater part of southern England was overrun in the first phase of the war". Sir Frank Merry Stenton (1880 &ndash 15 September 1967 was a noted 20th century historian of Anglo-Saxon England. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland ^[16] This interpretation was based on the written sources, particularly Gildas but also the later sources such as the Anglo-Saxon historian Bede, that cast the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons as a violent event. Saint Gildas (c 494 or 516 – c 570 was one of the best-documented figures of the Christian church in the British Isles during the sixth century The place-name and linguistic evidence was also considered to support this interpretation, as very few British place-names survived in eastern Britain, very few British Celtic words entered the Old English language and the migration of Brythonic language and peoples from south-western Britain to Armorica, which eventually became Brittany. British was an ancient Celtic language spoken in much of southern and central Britain up to the central lowlands of Scotland and in Ireland. The Brythonic languages (or Brittonic languages or British languages) form one of the two branches of the Insular Celtic language family the other being Armorica or Aremorica is the name given in ancient times to the part of Gaul that includes the Brittany Peninsula and the territory between the Brittany (Breizh bʁejs Bretagne; Gallo: Bertaèyn) is a former independent Celtic kingdom and Duchy, now incorporated into This interpretation particularly appealed to earlier English historians, who wanted to further their view that England had developed differently from Europe with a limited monarchy and love of liberty. This, it was argued, came from the mass Anglo-Saxon invasions. Though fewer scholars would now utilise this argument, the traditional view is still held by some historians, Lawrence James recently writing that England was 'submerged by an Anglo-Saxon current which swept away the Romano-British. Lawrence James is a British Writer and Historian. He has written several works of popular history about the British Empire, and has been '^[17]

The traditional view has been deconstructed to a considerable extent since the 1990s. At the centre of this is a re-estimation of the numbers of Anglo-Saxons arriving in Britain during this period. A lower figure is now generally accepted, making it highly unlikely that the existing British population was substantially displaced by the Anglo-Saxons. ^[18] The Saxons are thus seen as a ruling elite with acculturisation of the local population. Thus "Saxon" graves may be of Britons.

End of Roman Britain

Various dates of the end of Roman Britain have been advanced, from the end of coinage importation in 402, to Constantine III's rebellion in 407, to the rebellion mentioned by Zosimus in 409, and the Rescript of Honorius in 410. Constantine III (died 411 by September 18) was a Roman general who declared himself Western Roman Emperor in 407 abdicating in 411 (and being killed Zosimus ( ''fl'' 490s-510s was a Byzantine historian who lived in Constantinople during the reign of the Byzantine Emperor Anastasius ^[19] It is perhaps better not to think of this in terms of modern decolonisation. Decolonization refers to the undoing of Colonialism, the establishment of governance or authority through the creation of settlements by another country or jurisdiction The dating of the end of Roman Britain is complex, and the exact process of it is probably unknowable.

There is some controversy as to why Roman rule ended in Britain. The view first advocated by Mommsen was that Rome left Britain. Mommsen is a surname and may refer to one of a family of German historians see Mommsen family: Theodor Mommsen Tycho Mommsen ^[20] This argument was substantiated over time, most recently by A. S. Esmonde-Cleary. ^[21] According to this argument, internal turmoil in the empire and the need to withdraw troops to fight off barbarian armies led Rome to abandon Britain. "Barbarian" is a pejorative term for an uncivilized person either in a general reference to a member of a nation or Ethnos perceived Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 It was the collapse of the imperial system that led to the end of imperial rule in Britain. However, Michael Jones has advanced an alternative thesis that argues that Rome did not leave Britain, but that Britain left Rome. ^[22] He highlights the numerous usurpers who came from Britain in the late fourth and early fifth century, and that a supply of coinage to Britain had dried up by the early fifth century, meaning administrators and troops were not getting paid. All of this, he argues, led the British people to rebel against Rome. Both of these arguments are open to criticism, though as yet no further developments have been made in understanding why the end of Roman Britain occurred.

Others may have lived in separate communities from those of the Anglo-Saxons, but under Anglo-Saxon rule. The laws of King Ethelbert of Kent, probably written in the early seventh century, make reference to a legal underclass known as laets who might represent British communities. While there is virtually no evidence of Anglo-Saxon Law per se (i There definitely is a British (wealh) underclass referred to in Ine of Wessex’s law code, written in the late seventh or early eighth centuries. Ine was King of Wessex from 688 to 726 He was unable to retain the territorial gains of his predecessor Cædwalla, who had brought much of Southern

However, the violent nature of the period should not be overlooked, and it is likely that this period was a time of endemic tension, alluded to in all of the written sources. This may have led to the deaths of a substantial number of the British population. There are also references to plagues. The evidence from land use suggests a decline in production, which might be a sign of population decline. ^[23]

It is clear that some British people migrated to the continent, which resulted in the region of Armorica in northwest Gaul becoming known as Brittany. Armorica or Aremorica is the name given in ancient times to the part of Gaul that includes the Brittany Peninsula and the territory between the Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Brittany (Breizh bʁejs Bretagne; Gallo: Bertaèyn) is a former independent Celtic kingdom and Duchy, now incorporated into There is also evidence of British migration to Gallaecia, in Hispania. Gallaecia or Callaecia was the name of a Roman province that comprised Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Gibraltar The dating of these migrations is uncertain, but recent studies suggest that the migration from southwestern Britain to Brittany may have begun as early as AD 300 and was largely ended by 500. These settlers, unlikely to be refugees if the date was this early, made their presence felt in the naming of the westernmost, Atlantic-facing provinces of Armorica, Kerne/Cornouaille ("Kernow/Cornwall") and Domnonea ("Devon"). Cornwall ( Kernow ˈkɛɹnɔʊ is the most southwesterly county of England, on the Peninsula that lies to the west of the River Tamar Devon is a large county in the South West of England. The county is also referred to as Devonshire, but that is an entirely unofficial name ^[24] However, there is clear linguistic evidence for close contacts between the southwest of Britain and Brittany across the sub-Roman period. ^[25]

In Galicia, in the northwest corner of the Iberian peninsula, another region of traditional Celtic culture, the Suebian Parochiale, drawn up about 580, includes a list of the principal churches of each diocese in the metropolitanate of Braga (the ecclesia Britonensis, now Bretoña), which was the seat of a bishop who ministered to the spiritual needs of the British immigrants to northwestern Spain: in 572 its bishop, Mailoc, had a Celtic name. Galicia (occasionally Galiza) is an autonomous community in northwest Spain. The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra The Suebi or Suevi (from Proto-Germanic * swēbaz based on the Proto-Germanic root * swē- meaning "one's own" Braga (ˈBrag-uh a city and municipality in northwestern Portugal, is the capital of the district of Braga, the oldest archdiocese ^[26]. The settlers had brought their Celtic Christianity with them but finally accepted the Latin Rite at the Council of Toledo in 633. Celtic Christianity, or Insular Christianity (sometimes called the Celtic Church or the British Church) broadly refers to the Early Medieval Councils of Toledo ( Concilia toletana) From the fifth to the Seventh century, about thirty Synods, variously counted were held at Toledo The diocese stretched from Ferrol to the Eo River. This article refers to Ferrol Galicia For other uses see Ferrol (disambiguation. The Eo is a River in northwestern Spain. Some 91 km in length its estuary forms the boundary between the regions of Galicia and Asturias. In Spain, the area has sometimes been dubbed "the third Britain" or "the last Britain". ^[27]

Non-Anglo-Saxon kingdoms began appearing in western Britain, which are first referred to in Gildas's De Excidio Britanniae. To an extent these kingdoms may have derived from Roman structures. ^[28] However, it is also clear that they drew on a strong influence from Hibernia, which was never part of the Roman Empire. Hibernia is the Classical Latin name for the island of Ireland. Archaeology has helped further the study of these kingdoms, notably at sites like Tintagel or the South Cadbury hill-fort. Tintagel (tɪnˈtædʒəl with the stress on the second syllable Cornish: Dintagell) is a village situated on the Atlantic coast of Cornwall South Cadbury is a Village and Civil parish in the South Somerset council area of the English county of Somerset.

In the north there developed the British kingdoms of the Hen Ogledd, the "Old North", comprising Ebrauc (probable name), Bryneich, Rheged, Strathclyde, Elmet and Gododdin. Yr Hen Ogledd is a Welsh term meaning 'The Old North' and referring to the sub-Roman Brythonic kingdoms of what is now Northern England Ebrauc is the suggested name for a Brythonic kingdom of Sub-Roman Britain, based on the city of York. Bernicia was an Anglo-Saxon kingdom established by Anglian settlers of the 6th century in what is now the South-East of Scotland and the North-East of Rheged IPA r̥ɛgɛd was a Brythonic kingdom of Sub-Roman Britain, whose inhabitants spoke Cumbric, a dialect of Brythonic closely related Strathclyde ( Srath Chluaidh in Gaelic, meaning "valley of the River Clyde" is a Historic subdivision of Scotland, and was one of the regional During the Early Middle Ages, between approximately the 5th century and early 7th century AD Elmet was an independent Celtic kingdom covering a broad area of The Gododdin (goˈdoðin were a Brythonic people of north-eastern Britain (modern north-east England and south-east Scotland) in the sub-Roman Fifth and sixth century repairs along Hadrian's Wall have been uncovered, and at Whithorn in southwestern Scotland (possibly the site of St Ninian's monastery). Hadrian's Wall ( Latin: perhaps Vallum Aelium, "the Aelian wall" is a stone and turf Fortification built by the Roman Whithorn ( Taigh Mhàrtainn in Gaelic) is a former Royal burgh in Dumfries and Galloway, Scotland, about ten miles south of Wigtown Scotland ( Gaelic: Alba) is a Country in northwest Europethat occupies the northern third of the island of Great Britain. Chance discoveries have helped document the continuing urban occupation of some Roman towns such as Wroxeter and Caerwent. See also Wroxeter (disambiguation Wroxeter (pronounced "Rock-Sitter" is a Village in the county of Shropshire, England, on Caerwent (Caer-went is a Village and community in Monmouthshire, Wales, located about 5 miles west of Chepstow and 11 miles east ^[29] Continued urban use might be associated with an ecclesiastical structure. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings

Western Britain has attracted those archaeologists who wish to place King Arthur as a historical figure. King Arthur is a legendary British leader who according to medieval histories and romances, led the defence of Britain against the Saxon invaders ^[30] Though there is little contemporary written evidence for this, and archaeological evidence does suggest a possibility that a Romano-British king might have wielded considerable power during the sub-Roman period, as demonstrated by the creation of sites such as Tintagel and earthworks such as the Wansdyke. Tintagel (tɪnˈtædʒəl with the stress on the second syllable Cornish: Dintagell) is a village situated on the Atlantic coast of Cornwall Wansdyke (from Woden 's Dyke) is an early medieval series of defensive linear earthworks in the West Country of England, Such interpretations continue to attract the popular imagination and the scepticism of academics.

While pushed back politically and linguistically, British scholars and ecclesiastics were to play a very important role in civilizing the Anglo-Saxon newcomers through sharing literacy, ecclesiastical social constructs and historical memory of the Roman period in Britain, particularly after the Christianizing of the Anglo-Saxons by Augustine. Coming from a fully oral cultural background the Anglo-Saxons were heavily influenced by the more developed Christianized and literate culture of the Britons. British scholars were often employed at Anglo-Saxon courts to assist in the management of the kingdoms. Through this process, British culture was re-introduced to those parts of Britain lost to the British politically. The culture of the United Kingdom &mdash British culture &mdashrefers to the patterns of human activity and Symbolism associated with the British people and The epitome of this process is the adoption of the legendary British war leader, Arthur, as the national hero of the English, due to the literary work of Welsh historians.

Environmental change effects

There is evidence for climate change in the fifth century, with conditions turning cooler and wetter. Climate change is any long-term significant change in the “average weather” that a given region experiences This shortened the growing season and made uplands unsuited to growing grain. Dendrochronology reveals a particular climatic event in 540. Dendrochronology (from Greek grc δένδρον dendron, "tree" grc χρόνος khronos, "time" and grc -λογία ^[31] Michael Jones suggests that declining agricultural production from land that was already fully exploited had considerable demographic consequences. ^[32]

Population changes

It is thought that the population of Britain decreased after the Roman period from perhaps three million to about half this. Roman Britain refers to those parts of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between AD 43 and 410 The reduction seems to have been caused by the environmental change above but perhaps also by plague and smallpox (around 600 AD, the smallpox spreads from India into Europe). Plague is a deadly Infectious disease caused by the enterobacteria Yersinia pestis (Pasteurella pestis. Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. Events By Place World The population of the Earth rises to about 208 million people ^[33] It is known that the plague of Justinian entered the Mediterranean world in the 6th century and first arrived in the British Isles in 544 or 545, when it reached Ireland. The 6th century is the period from 501 to 600 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. ^[34] It is estimated that the Plague of Justinian killed as many as 100 million people across the world. The Plague of Justinian was a Pandemic that afflicted the Byzantine Empire, including its capital Constantinople, in the years 541 – 542 It caused Europe's population to drop by around 50% between 550 and 700. Medieval Demography is the study of human Demography in Europe during the Middle Ages. ^[35] It has also been suggested that the plague affected the Britons more than the Saxons because of their trading links to the Mediterranean. ^[36]

According to a new study, an apartheid-like system existed in early Anglo-Saxon England, which prevented the native British genes getting into the Anglo-Saxon population by restricting intermarriage and wiped out a majority of original British genes in favour of Germanic ones. Constructing a chronology of the early Anglo-Saxon period is highly complex and the limitations of our source material place restrictions on just how accurate any chronology can be For their language see Anglo-Saxon language. Anglo-Saxon is the term usually used to describe the invading Tribes in the south The Germanic peoples are a historical group of Indo-European -speaking peoples originating in Northern Europe and identified by their use of the Germanic According to research led by University College London, Anglo-Saxon settlers enjoyed a substantial social and economic advantage over the native Celtic Britons^[37] who lived in what is now England, for more than 300 years from the middle of the 5th century. University College London ( UCL) is a multi-faculty university institution based in the United Kingdom and a constituent college of the University of London Celts (ˈkɛlts or /ˈsɛlts/, see Names of the Celts England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland The 5th century is the period from 401 to 500 in accordance with the Julian calendar in Anno Domini / Common Era. ^[38][39][40]

Stephen Oppenheimer maintains that all invasions since the Romans have had very little impact upon the gene pool of the British Isles, and that its inhabitants nearly all belong to the same genetic group as the original inhabitants of the Isles. Stephen Oppenheimer (born 1947 a British physician a member of Green College Oxford and an honorary fellow of Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, performs and He says that most people on the Isles are genetically similar to the Basque peoples of northern Spain, from 90% in Wales to 66% in East Anglia (named after the Germanic Anglo-Saxons, in England. For their language see Anglo-Saxon language. Anglo-Saxon is the term usually used to describe the invading Tribes in the south England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland Archaeologists have uncovered Celtic artifacts in England dating from later times than the supposed Anglo-Saxon 'apartheid' of Britons was believed to take place. Areas around the Pennines still retained a strong Celtic culture, a prime example being the speaking of the Cumbric language until late into the 12th Century, and the Cornish language even longer, until the 18th Century. The Pennines are a low-rising Mountain range in Northern England and southern Scotland. Cumbric was the Brythonic Celtic language, often considered to be a Dialect of Welsh, spoken in Northern England and southern For the Cornish-English dialect see West Country dialects and List of Cornish dialect words. Celtic traditions and words have survived even until today, such as Cornish, Cumbrian and Lancashire wrestling, the Northumbrian smallpipes and many placenames (such as Pen-y-Ghent in Cumbria). The Northumbrian smallpipes (also known as the Northumbrian pipes are bellows-blown Bagpipes from the North East of England. Pen-y-ghent is a mountain in the Yorkshire Dales. It is one of the so-called Three Peaks, the other two being Ingleborough and Whernside The influx of Irish immigrants into English cities such as Manchester (where 35% of the population are believed to be of Irish descent), during the Irish Diaspora, could be seen as a reversal of the displacement of Celtic peoples from England. Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland The Irish diaspora (Diaspóra na nGael consists of Irish Emigrants and their descendants in countries such as Great Britain, the United States

See also

Notes

References

• Oppenheimer, S. (2006). Stephen Oppenheimer (born 1947 a British physician a member of Green College Oxford and an honorary fellow of Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, performs and The Origins of the British: A Genetic Detective Story: Constable and Robinson, London. ISBN 978-1-84529-158-7.

Further reading

• Leslie Alcock, 1963. Dinas Powys, University of Wales Press .
• Leslie Alcock, Arthur's Britain: History and Archaeology AD 367 - 634, Allen Lane, The Penguin Press, Harmondsworth, 1971 ISBN 0-7139-0245-0.
• Alcock Leslie, 1972. By South Cadbury is that Camelot, (London) Thames and Hudson.
• Alcock Leslie (et al), 1995. Cadbury Castle, Somerset: the early Medieval Archaeology. University of Wales Press.
• Rob Collins & James Gerrard (ed. ), Debating Late Antiquity in Britain AD 300-700, (Oxford: British Archaeological Review, 2004).
• Dark Kenneth, 1992. "A Sub-Roman Redefense of Hadrian's Wall" in Britannia 23, pp111-120.
• Dark Kenneth, 1993. Civitas to Kingdom: British Continuity 300-800. Leicester University Press.
• Kenneth Dark, Britain and the End of the Roman Empire, (Stroud: Tempus, 2000).
• Davies Wendy, 1978. An Early Welsh Microcosm: Studies in the Llandaff Charters. Royal Historical Society.
• David N. Dumville, 'Sub-Roman Britain: History and Legend', History 62 (1977), pp. 173-92.
• A. S. Esmonde-Cleary, The Ending of Roman Britain, (London: Batsford, 1989)
• Paul Fouracre (ed. ), The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume I, c. 500-c. 700, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005)
• Michael E. Jones, The End of Roman Britain, (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1996).
• Higham Nicholas, 1992. Rome, Britain and the Anglo-Saxons. London, Seaby.
• Higham Nicholas, 1994. The English Conquest: Gildas and Britain in the Fifth Century. Manchester University Press.
• Jones Michael, 1996. The End of Roman Britain. Cornell University Press.
• Lapidge Michael and Dumville David, 1984. Gildas: New Approaches. Woodbridge, Boydell.
• Morris John, 1973. The Age of Arthur.
• Morris, John, 1980. Nennius,: British History and the Welsh Annals. Phillimore.
• Arthurian Period Sources volumes 1-9, General Editor John Morris, published Phillimore & Co, Chichester (includes full text of Gildas & Nennius, St Patrick material and various annals and charters).
• Myres John, 1960. Pelagius and the End of Roman Rule in Britain. Journal of Roman Studies 50, 21-36.
• Francis Pryor, Britain AD: A Quest for Arthur, England and the Anglo-Saxons. Harper Collins. 2004 ISBN 0-00-718186-8.
• Radford C A R, 1939. Tintagel Castle. Reprinted by English Heritage 1985.
• Ridley Ronald, 1982. Zosimus: New History. Sydney.
• Snyder Christopher, 1996. An Age of Tyrants, Pennsalvania University Press.
• Thomas, Charles, 1993. Tintagel: Arthur and Archaeology. English Heritage.
• Thompson EA, 1984. St Germanus of Auxere and the Ens of Roman Britain. Woodbrige, Boydell.
• Winterbottom Michael, 1978. Gildas, The Ruin of Britain and Other Works. Phillimore.
• Ian Wood, 'The Fall of the Western Empire and the End of Roman Britain', Britannia vol. 18, 1987 pp. 251-262.

External links

• Early British Kingdoms - describes the various early kingdoms and their rulers.
• Vortigern Studies website - while Vortigern-focused, it is an in-depth resource for navigating the issues in sub-Roman British history.

Preceded by Britannia

Sub-Roman Britain 410– circa 550

Succeeded by The Heptarchy

Roman Britain refers to those parts of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between AD 43 and 410 Events By place Western Roman Empire Alaric I deposes Priscus Attalus as Emperor. Events By place Byzantine Empire January 16 — Gothic War (535–552: The Ostrogoths, under King Totila Heptarchy ( Greek: seven + realm) is a collective name applied to the Anglo-Saxon ancient kingdoms of south east and central

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