The craft of stonemasonry has existed since the dawn of civilization - creating buildings, structures, and sculpture using stone from the earth. A Civilization is a society in which large numbers of people share a variety of common elements In Geology, rock is a naturally occurring aggregate of Minerals and/or Mineraloids The Earth's outer solid layer the ‘ Lithosphere These materials have been used to construct many of the long-lasting, ancient monuments, artifacts, cathedrals, and cities in a wide variety of cultures. In the fields of Architecture and Civil engineering, construction is a process that consists of the Building or assembling of Infrastructure A monument is a structure either explicitly created to commemorate a person or important event or which has become important to a social group as a part of their remembrance of past In Archaeology, an artifact or artefact is any object made or modified by a human culture, and often one later recovered by some archaeological This article is about the history and organisation of the cathedral A city is an Urban area with a large Population and a particular Administrative, Legal, or Historical status The awe-inspiring products of stonemasonry include the Easter Island statues, the Egyptian Pyramids, the Iranian Persepolis, the Greek Parthenon, Stonehenge, and Chartres Cathedral. Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now A pyramid is a Building where the upper surfaces are triangular and converge on one point Persepolis ( Old Persian: Pārsa, Modern Persian: تخت جمشید/پارسه Takht-e Jamshid or Chehel Minar) was the ceremonial The Parthenon ( Ancient Greek:) is a temple of the Greek goddess Athena, built in the 5th century BC on the Athenian Acropolis Stonehenge is a Prehistoric Monument located in the English county of Wiltshire, about west of Amesbury and north of Salisbury
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Definition
Stonemasonry is the craft of shaping rough pieces of rock into accurate geometrical shapes, mostly simple, but some of considerable complexity, and then arranging the resulting stones, often together with mortar, to form structures. Mortar is a workable paste formed by mixture of Cement, Water and fine aggregate Masonry to bind construction blocks together and fill the gaps between
- Quarrymen split the rock, and extract the resulting blocks of stone from the ground.
- Sawyers cut these rough blocks into cubes, to required size with diamond tipped saws.
- Banker masons are workshop based, and specialize in carving stones into the geometrical shapes required by a building's design. They can produce anything from stones with simple chamfers to tracery windows.
- Carvers cross the line from craft to art, and use their artistic ability to carve stone into foliage, figures, animals or abstract designs.
- Fixer masons specialize in the fixing of stones onto buildings, using lifting tackle, mortar, and sometimes metal fixings. The precise tolerances necessary make this a highly skilled job.
- Memorial masons carve gravestones and inscriptions.
The modern stonemason may be skilled and competent to carry out one or all of the various branches of stonemasonry. In some areas the trend is towards specialization, in other areas towards adaptability.
Types of stone
Stonemasons use all types of natural stone: igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary; while some also use artificial stone as well. Artificial stone is a name for various kinds of synthetic stone products used from the 19th century through the early 21st century
Igneous stones
Granite is one of the hardest stones, and requires such different techniques to sedimentary stones that it is virtually a separate trade. Granite (ˈɡrænɪt is a common and widely occurring type of intrusive, Felsic, igneous rock. With great persistence, simple moldings can and have been carved into granite, for example in many Cornish churches and the city of Aberdeen. Aberdeen ( pronounced; Aiberdeen Obar Dheathain is Scotland 's third most populous city and one of Scotland's 32 local government council Generally, however, it is used for purposes that require its strength and durability, such as kerbstones and breakwaters.
Igneous stone ranges from very soft rocks such as Pumice and Scoria to somewhat harder rocks such as Tuff and hard rocks such as Obsidian, Granite and Basalt. Pumice is a textural term for a volcanic rock that is a solidified frothy lava composed of highly microvesicular glass Pyroclastic with very thin translucent Scoria is a textural term for macrovesicular Volcanic rock. It is commonly but not exclusively Basaltic or andesitic in composition Tuff (from the Italian "tufo" is a type of rock consisting of consolidated volcanic ash ejected from vents during a volcanic eruption Obsidian is a naturally occurring Glass formed as an extrusive Igneous rock. Basalt (bəˈsɔːlt ˈbeisɔːlt ˈbæsɔːlt is a common Extrusive Volcanic rock. Easter Island's Rapa Nui culture had a specialisation in Igneous stone working to make the tremendous Ahus on which its iconic Moai were set. Moai (or mo‘ai) (ˈmoʊаɪ are Monolithic human figures carved from rock on the Polynesian island of Rapa Nui (Easter Island Most Moai were made of Tuff from Rano Raraku but their Ahus (which were usually much larger) were made of local stone. Moai (or mo‘ai) (ˈmoʊаɪ are Monolithic human figures carved from rock on the Polynesian island of Rapa Nui (Easter Island Tuff (from the Italian "tufo" is a type of rock consisting of consolidated volcanic ash ejected from vents during a volcanic eruption Rano Raraku is a volcanic crater formed of consolidated Volcanic ash, or Tuff, and located on the lower slopes of Terevaka in the Rapa Nui National
Some use was also made of Scoria, Basalt and Obsidian, in particular the Pukao were all made of light Scoria. See also Moai Pukao are the hats or topknots formerly placed on top of some Moai statues from Easter island. But all the Rapa Nui people had to work with were stone tools, in particularly Basalt Toki.
Metamorphic
Marble has traditionally been used for carving statues, and for facing many Byzantine and Renaissance Italian buildings. Marble is a nonfoliated Metamorphic rock resulting from the Metamorphism of Limestone, composed mostly of Calcite (a crystalline form of The traditional home of the marble industry is the area around Carrara in Italy, from where a bright white marble is extracted in vast quantities. Carrara is a City in the Province of Massa-Carrara ( Tuscany, Italy) famous for the white or blue-gray Marble quarried there Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest
Slate is a popular choice of stone for memorials and inscriptions, as its fine grain and hardness means it leaves details very sharp. Slate is a fine-grained foliated homogeneous, Metamorphic rock derived from an original Shale -type Sedimentary rock composed of Clay
Sedimentary
Many of the world's most famous buildings have been built of sedimentary stone, from Durham Cathedral to St Peter's in Rome. The Cathedral Church of Christ Blessed Mary the Virgin and St Cuthbert of Durham, commonly referred to as Durham Cathedral, in the city of Durham, England The Basilica of Saint Peter (Basilica Sancti Petri officially known in Italian as the Basilica di San Pietro in Vaticano and commonly known as St Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 There are two main types of sedimentary stone, limestones and sandstones. Limestone is a Sedimentary rock composed largely of the Mineral Calcite ( Calcium carbonate: CaCO3 Sandstone is a Sedimentary rock composed mainly of Sand -size Mineral or rock grains. Many start off soft when they are taken from the ground, allowing them to be cut and carved into shape with relative ease, and then they harden slowly when exposed to the air. Examples of limestones include Bath and Portland stone. York stone is a famous sandstone.
Training
Traditionally medieval stonemasons served a seven year apprenticeship. A similar system still operates in some countries, such as Germany.
In other countries, such as the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States, there is a less formal structure. One can simply learn the trade by observing others while working under those who have already mastered the trade. In some areas colleges offer courses which teach not only the manual skills but also related fields such as drafting and blueprint reading or construction conservationism. There also exist some government regulated apprenticeship programs which vary in length and combine on-the-job learning with classroom sessions. Electronic Stonemasonry training resources enhance traditional delivery techniques 1. Hands-on workshops are a good way to learn about stonemasonry also. 2 Those wishing to become stonemasons should have little problem working at heights, possess reasonable hand-eye co-ordination, be moderately physically fit, and have basic mathematical ability. Most of these things can be developed while learning.
Tools
Stonemasons use a wide variety of tools to handle and shape stone blocks (ashlar) and slabs into finished articles. A broader definition of a tool is an entity used to interface between two or more domains that facilitates more effective action of one domain upon the other Ashlar is dressed stone work of any type of stone Ashlar blocks are large rectangular blocks of Masonry sculpted to have square edges and even faces The basic tools for shaping the stone are a mallet, chisels, and a metal straight edge. A mallet is a type of hammer with a head made of softer materials than the Steel normally used in hammerheads so as to avoid damaging a delicate surface A chisel is a Tool with a characteristically shaped Cutting edge (such that wood chisels have lent part of their name to a particular grind) of blade on A straightedge is a tool with an accurately straight edge used for drawing or cutting straight lines or checking the straightness of lines With these one can make a flat surface - the basis of all stonemasonry.
Chisels come in a variety of sizes and shapes, dependent upon the function for which they are being used. There are different chisels for different materials and sizes of material being worked, for removing large amounts of material and for putting a fine finish on the stone.
Mixing mortar is normally done today with mortar mixers which usually use a rotating drum or rotating paddles to mix the mortar.
The trowel is used for the application of the mortar between and around the stones as they are set into place. The Masonry trowel is a hand Trowel used in Brickwork or Stonework for leveling spreading and shaping mortar or concrete Filling in the gaps (joints) with mortar is referred to as pointing. Pointing in smaller joints can be accomplished using tuck pointers, pointing trowels, and margin trowels, among other tools. Tuckpointing is a way of using two contrasting colours of mortar in Brickwork, one colour matching the bricks themselves to give an artificial impression that very
At least one tool bears the name of the tradesmen that use it, and that is the Stonemason's hammer. A Stonemason's hammer has one flat traditional face and a short or long Chisel -shaped blade This hammer can be used in place of a chisel in certain circumstances. The hammer can also be used to make shims and chinks while holding a small stone in one hand and striking it with the hammer.
Stonemasons use a Lewis together with a crane or winch to hoist building stones into place. A Lewis is a category of lifting devices used by Stonemasons to lift large stones into place with a crane, chain block or Winch. A crane is a lifting machine equipped with a Winder, Wire ropes or Chains and sheaves that can be used both to lift and lower materials and to
Today power tools such as compressed-air chisels, abrasive spinners and angle grinders are much used: these save time and money, but are hazardous and require just as much skill as the hand tools that they augment. Of note is many of the basic tools of stonemasonry have remained virtually the same throughout vast amounts of time, even thousands of years.
History
Stonemasonry is one of the earliest trades in civilisation's history. A Civilization is a society in which large numbers of people share a variety of common elements During the time of the Neolithic Revolution and domestication of animals, people learned how to use fire to create quicklime, plasters, and mortars. The Neolithic Revolution was the first Agricultural revolution &mdashthe transition from hunting and gathering communities and bands to Agriculture and Domestication (from Latin domesticus) refers to the process whereby a Population of Animals Calcium oxide ( CaO) commonly known as burnt lime, lime or quicklime, is a widely used Chemical compound. The term plaster can refer to plaster of Paris Lime plaster, or Cement plaster. They used these to fashion homes for themselves with mud, straw, or stone, and masonry was born.
The Ancients heavily relied on the stonemason to build the most impressive and long lasting monuments to their civilizations. The Egyptians built their pyramids, the civilizations of Central American had their step pyramids, the Persians their palaces, the Greeks their temples, and the Romans their public works and wonders (See Roman Architecture. Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now A pyramid is a Building where the upper surfaces are triangular and converge on one point Mesoamerican pyramids, pyramid-shaped structures are an important part of ancient Mesoamerican architecture. The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca The Architecture of Ancient Rome adopted the external Greek architecture for their own purposes which were so different from Greek buildings as to create a new ) Among the famous ancient stonemasons is Sophroniscus, the father of Socrates, who was a stone-cutter. Sophroniscus, ( Greek Σωφρονίσκος) husband of Phaenarete, was the father of the philosopher Socrates. SOCRATES is the European Community action programme in the field of Education.
When the Western Roman Empire fell, building in dressed stone decreased in much of Western Europe, and there was a resulting increase in timber based construction. The Western Roman Empire refers to the western half of the Roman Empire, from its division by Diocletian in 285 the other half of the Roman Empire was the Eastern Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' Stone work experienced a resurgence in the ninth and tenth centuries in Europe, and by the twelfth century religious fervor resulted in the construction of thousands of impressive churches and cathedrals in stone across Western Europe.
Medieval stonemasons' skills were in high demand, and members of the guild, gave rise to three classes of stonemasons: apprentices, journeymen, and master masons. A guild is an association of craftsmen in a particular trade The earliest guilds were formed as confraternities of workers Apprenticeship is a system of Training a new generation of practitioners of a skill A journeyman is a trader or crafter who has completed an Apprenticeship. Apprentices were indentured to their masters as the price for their training, journeymen had a higher level of skill and could go on journeys to assist their masters, and master masons were considered freemen who could travel as they wished to work on the projects of the patrons. Patronage is the support encouragement privilege and often financial aid given by a person or an organization During the Renaissance, the stonemason's guild admitted members who were not stonemasons, and eventually evolved into the Society of Freemasonry; fraternal groups which observe the traditional culture of stonemasons, but are not typically involved in modern construction projects.
A medieval stonemason would often carve a personal symbol onto their block to help differentiate their work from that of other stonemasons. A mason's mark is a symbol often found on Dressed stone in buildings and other public structures This also provided a simple ‘quality assurance’ system.
The Renaissance saw stonemasonry return to the prominence and sophisication of the Classical age. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere Classical antiquity (also the classical era or classical period) is a broad term for a long period of cultural History centered on the Mediterranean The rise of the Humanism philosophy gave people the ambition to create marvelous works of art. Humanism is a broad category of ethical philosophies that affirm the dignity and worth of all people based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appealing to universal The centre stage for the Renaissance would prove to be Italy, where city-states such as Florence erected great stoneworks, including the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, the Fountain of Neptune, and the Laurentian Library which was planned and built by Michelangelo Buonarroti, a famous stonemason of the Renaissance. Florence ( Italian: Firenze Florentia and Fiorenza) is the Capital City of the Italian region of Tuscany The Basilica di Santa Maria del Fiore is the Cathedral church ( Duomo) of Florence, Italy. The Fountain of Neptune is a fountain in Florence, Italy, situated on the Piazza della Signoria (Signoria square in front of the Palazzo Vecchio The Laurentian Library ( Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana) in Florence, Italy is famous as a repository of more than 11000 Manuscripts and 4500 Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni Two biographies were published of him during his lifetime One of them by Giorgio Vasari, proposed that he was the pinnacle of all
When Europeans settled the Americas, they brought the stonemasonry techniques of their respective homelands with them. Settlers used what materials were available, and in some areas stone was the material of choice. In the first waves, building mimicked that of Europe, to eventually be replaced by unique architecture later on. sexy
In the 20th century stonemasonry has seen its most radical changes in the way the work is accomplished. The twentieth century of the Common Era began on Prior to the first half of the century, most heavy work was executed by draft animals or human muscle power. A draft horse, draught horse or dray horse (from the Anglo-Saxon dragan meaning to draw or haul is a large Horse bred for hard heavy tasks With the arrival of the internal combustion engine, many of these hard aspects of the trade have been made simpler and easier. The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the Combustion of Fuel and an Oxidizer (typically air occurs in a confined space called a Cranes and forklifts have made moving and laying heavy stones relatively easy for the stonemasons. Motor powered mortar mixers have saved much in time and energy as well. Compressed-air powered tools have made working of stone less time-intensive. Pneumatics, Pressurized gas to affect mechanical motion Pneumatic power is used in Industry, where it is common to have factory units plumbed for Compressed Petrol and electric powered abrasive saws can cut through stone much faster and with more precision than chiseling alone. A diamond tool is a Cutting tool which contains Diamond segments bonded to a base material for cutting through a wide variety of non-ferrous materials Carbide-tipped chisels can stand up to much more abuse than older steel and iron chisels made by blacksmiths of old. blacksmith is a person who creates objects from Iron or Steel by Forging the Metal; i
See also
External links
The NIST stone test wall is an experiment by the United States National Institute of Standards and Technology to determine how different types of Construction Stone walls are a kind of Masonry construction which have been made by man for thousands of years Dry stone is a building method by which structures are constructed from stones without any mortar to bind them together This article is about the history and organisation of the cathedral A castle is a defensive structure seen as one of the main symbols of the Middle Ages. See also List of cities with defensive walls A defensive wall is a Fortification used to defend a city or settlement from potential aggressors Masonry is the building of structures from individual units laid in and bound together by mortar, and the term "masonry" can also refer to the units themselves The term architecture (from Greek αρχιτεκτονικήarchitektoniki) can be used to mean a process a profession or documentationDapyx Software network: MP3 Explorer | Ebook Manager | Zenithic