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Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy, founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early third century BCE. Hellenistic philosophy is the period of Western philosophy that was developed in the Hellenistic civilization following Aristotle and ending with Neoplatonism Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's Zeno of Citium (Ζήνων ὁ Κιτιεύς Zēnōn ho Kitieŭs) (334 BC - 262 BC was a Greek Philosopher from Citium (Κίτιον It proved to be a popular and durable philosophy, with a following throughout Greece and the Roman Empire from its founding until all the schools of philosophy were ordered closed in 529 CE by the Emperor Justinian I, who perceived their pagan character to be at odds with his Christian faith. Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus ( Greek: Φλάβιος Πέτρος Σαββάτιος Ιουστινιανός; known in English as Justinian I or Paganism (from Latin paganus, meaning "country dweller rustic" is a word used to refer to various religions and religious beliefs from across the world [1] The core doctrine of Stoicism concerns cosmic determinism and human freedom, and the belief that virtue is to maintain a will that is in accord with nature. Determinism is the philosophical Proposition that every event including human cognition and behaviour decision and action is causally determined Will, or willpower is a philosophical concept that is defined in several different ways

In the life of the individual man, virtue is the sole good; such things as health, happiness, possessions, are of no account. Since virtue resides in the will, everything really good or bad in a man's life depends only upon himself. He may become poor, but what of it? He can still be virtuous. A tyrant may put him in prison, but he can still persevere in living in harmony with Nature. He may be sentenced to death, but he can die nobly, like Socrates. Therefore every man has perfect freedom, provided he emancipates himself from mundane desires. [2]

Contents

Basic tenets

Stoicism teaches the development of self-control and fortitude as a means of overcoming destructive emotions; the philosophy holds that becoming a clear and unbiased thinker allows one to understand the universal reason (logos). An emotion is a mental and physiological state associated with a wide variety of feelings thoughts and behaviours grc-Latn Logos (ˈloʊːgɒs ( Greek, logos) is an important term in Philosophy, Analytical psychology, Rhetoric and Religion A primary aspect of Stoicism involves improving the individual’s ethical and moral well-being: "Virtue consists in a will which is in agreement with Nature. "[2] This principle also applies to the realm of interpersonal relationships; "to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy",[3] and to accept even slaves as "equals of other men, because all alike are sons of God. "[4]

The Stoic ethic espouses a deterministic perspective, in regards to those who lack Stoic virtue; Cleanthes once opined that the wicked man is "like a dog tied to a cart, and compelled to go wherever it goes. Determinism is the philosophical Proposition that every event including human cognition and behaviour decision and action is causally determined Cleanthes (Κλέανθης of Assos, lived c 330- c 230 BC was a Stoic Philosopher and the successor to Zeno as the second head ( scholarch "[2] A Stoic of virtue, by contrast, would amend his will to suit the world and remain, in the words of Epictetus, "sick and yet happy, in peril and yet happy, dying and yet happy, in exile and happy, in disgrace and happy. "[3] For positing a "completely autonomous" individual will, and at the same time a universe that is "a rigidly deterministic single whole".

Stoicism became the foremost popular philosophy among the educated elite in the Greco-Roman Empire,[5] to the point where, in the words of Gilbert Murray, "nearly all the successors of Alexander [. George Gilbert Aimé Murray ( January 2, 1866 &ndash May 20 1957) was a British classical scholar and Public intellectual The Diadochi (plural of Latin Diadochus, from Greek Διάδοχοι, Diadokhoi, "successors" were the rival successors . . ] professed themselves Stoics. "[6]

History

Zeno of Citium
Zeno of Citium

Stoicism first appeared in Athens in the Hellenistic period around 301 BC and was introduced by Zeno of Citium. Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's This article focuses on the cultural aspects of the Hellenistic age for the historical aspects see Hellenistic period. Zeno of Citium (Ζήνων ὁ Κιτιεύς Zēnōn ho Kitieŭs) (334 BC - 262 BC was a Greek Philosopher from Citium (Κίτιον He taught in the famous Stoa Poikile (i. e. , "the painted porch"), from which his philosophy got its name. Central to his teachings was the law of morality being the same as nature. Morality (from the Latin la moralitas "manner character proper behavior" has three principal meanings During its initial phase, Stoicism was generally seen as a back-to-nature movement critical of superstitions and taboos. Superstition ( Latin superstitio, literally "standing over" derived perhaps from standing in awe used in Latin as a unreasonable or excessive belief A taboo is a strong Social prohibition (or ban) against words objects actions or discussions that are considered undesirable or offensive by a group culture The philosophical detachment also encompassed pain and misfortune, good or bad experiences, as well as life or death. Zeno often challenged prohibitions, traditions and customs. Another tenet was the emphasis placed on love for all other beings.

Zeno's ideas developed from those of the Cynics, whose founding father, Antisthenes, had been a disciple of Socrates. The Cynics (Κυνικοί Cynici were an influential group of Philosophers from the ancient school of Cynicism Antisthenes (Ἀντισθένης lived ca 445-365 BCE was a Greek philosopher and a pupil of Socrates. SOCRATES is the European Community action programme in the field of Education. Zeno's most influential follower was Chrysippus, who was responsible for the molding of what we now call Stoicism. Chrysippus of Soli (c280&ndashc207 BC (Χρύσιππος ὁ Σολεύς was Cleanthes ' pupil and the eventual successor as the head of Stoic philosophy

The Stoics provided a unified account of the world, consisting of formal logic, non-dualistic physics and naturalistic ethics. Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference. Nondualism implies that things appear distinct while not being separate Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion. This article covers metaphysical naturalism as a worldview Naturalism (philosophy discusses methodological naturalism Ethics is a major branch of Philosophy, encompassing right conduct and good life Of these, they emphasized ethics as the main focus of human knowledge, though their logical theories were to be of more interest for many later philosophers. Later Roman Stoics focused on promoting a life in harmony within the universe, over which one has no direct control. Modern philosophy, contrary to original Stoicism, often associates Stoicism with determinism, as opposed to the Arminian doctrine of free will. Determinism is the philosophical Proposition that every event including human cognition and behaviour decision and action is causally determined Arminianism is a school of soteriological thought within Protestant Christianity based on the theological ideas of the Dutch The question of free will

Stoic logic

The Stoics believed in the certainty of knowledge, which can be attained through the use of reason. A related article is titled Uncertainty. For statistical certainty see Probability. Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding Reason involves the ability to think understand and draw Conclusions in an Abstract way as in Human thinking Truth can be distinguished from fallacy, even if in practice only an approximation can be made. The meaning of the word truth extends from Honesty, Good faith, and Sincerity in general to agreement with Fact or Reality According to the Stoics, the senses are constantly receiving sensations: pulsations which pass from objects through the senses to the mind, where they leave behind an impression (phantasia). Senses are the physiological methods of Perception. The senses and their operation classification and theory are overlapping topics studied by a variety of fields MIND ( Moving In New Directions) (est 1975 is an alternative education high school in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The mind has the ability (synkatathesis) to approve or reject an impression, to enable it to distinguish a representation of reality which is true from one which is false. Reality, in everyday usage means "the state of things as they actually exist" Some impressions can be assented to immediately, but others can only achieve varying degrees of hesitant approval which can be labelled belief or opinion (doxa). Belief is the psychological state in which an individual holds a Proposition or Premise to be true Doxa (δόξα is a Greek word meaning common Belief or popular Opinion, from which are derived the modern terms of Orthodoxy and It is only through the use of reason that we can achieve clear comprehension and conviction (katalepsis). Katalepsis (κατάληψις is a term that originally refers to the Stoic philosophers and was to them a landmark ideological premise regarding one's state of mind as it Certain and true knowledge (episteme), achievable by the Stoic sage, can be attained only by verifying the conviction with the expertise of one's peers and the collective judgement of humankind. A related article is titled Uncertainty. For statistical certainty see Probability. Distinguished from Techne, the word ἐπιστήμη is Greek for Knowledge or Science, coming from the verb Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus

Make for yourself a definition or description of the thing which is presented to you, so as to see distinctly what kind of a thing it is in its substance, in its nudity, in its complete entirety, and tell yourself its proper name, and the names of the things of which it has been compounded, and into which it will be resolved. For nothing is so productive of elevation of mind as to be able to examine methodically and truly every object which is presented to you in life, and always to look at things so as to see at the same time what kind of universe this is, and what kind of use everything performs in it, and what value everything has with reference to the whole. [7]

Stoic physics and cosmology

According to the Stoics, the universe is a material, reasoning, substance, known as God or Nature, which the Stoics divided into two classes, the active and the passive. The Universe is defined as everything that Physically Exists: the entirety of Space and Time, all forms of Matter, Energy God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. Nature, in the broadest sense is equivalent to the natural world, physical universe, material world or material universe. The passive substance is matter, which "lies sluggish, a substance ready for any use, but sure to remain unemployed if no one sets it in motion. Matter is commonly defined as being anything that has mass and that takes up space. "[8] The active substance, which can be called Fate, or Universal Reason (Logos), is a substance, intelligent aether or primordial fire, which acts on the passive matter:

The universe itself is god and the universal outpouring of its soul; it is this same world's guiding principle, operating in mind and reason, together with the common nature of things and the totality which embraces all existence; then the foreordained might and necessity of the future; then fire and the principle of aether; then those elements whose natural state is one of flux and transition, such as water, earth, and air; then the sun, the moon, the stars; and the universal existence in which all things are contained. Destiny refers to a predetermined course of events It may be conceived as a predetermined future whether in general or of an individual grc-Latn Logos (ˈloʊːgɒs ( Greek, logos) is an important term in Philosophy, Analytical psychology, Rhetoric and Religion According to ancient and medieval science, aether (Greek grc αἰθήρ aithēr) also spelled æther or ether, is the material that fills [9]

Everything is subject to the laws of Fate, for the Universe acts only according to its own nature, and the nature of the passive matter which it governs. The souls of people and animals are emanations from this primordial fire, and are, likewise, subject to Fate:

Constantly regard the universe as one living being, having one substance and one soul; and observe how all things have reference to one perception, the perception of this one living being; and how all things act with one movement; and how all things are the cooperating causes of all things which exist; observe too the continuous spinning of the thread and the structure of the web. The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living An English Noun The English noun people has two distinct fields of application as a countable noun, a group of Humans [10]

Individual souls are perishable by nature, and can be "transmuted and diffused, assuming a fiery nature by being received into the Seminal Reason (logos spermatikos) of the Universe. The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living "[11] Since right Reason is the foundation of both humanity and the universe, it follows that the goal of life is to live according to Reason, that is, to live a life according to Nature. Reason involves the ability to think understand and draw Conclusions in an Abstract way as in Human thinking Natural law or the law of nature ( Latin: lex naturalis) is a theory that posits the existence of a law whose content is set by Nature and that

Stoic ethics and virtues

The ancient Stoics are often misunderstood because the terms they used pertained to different concepts in the past than they do today. The word stoic has come to mean unemotional or indifferent to pain, because Stoic ethics taught freedom from passion by following reason. The Stoics did not seek to extinguish emotions, rather they sought to transform them by a resolute askēsis which enables a person to develop clear judgment and inner calm. Ascetic redirects here You might also be looking for Acetic acid. Logic, reflection, and concentration were the methods of such self-discipline. Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference.

Borrowing from the Cynics, the foundation of Stoic ethics is that good lies in the state of the soul itself; in wisdom and self-control. The Cynics (Κυνικοί Cynici were an influential group of Philosophers from the ancient school of Cynicism The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living Stoic ethics stressed the rule: "Follow where reason leads. " One must therefore strive to be free of the passions, bearing in mind that the ancient meaning of passion was "anguish" or "suffering",[12] that is, "passively" reacting to external events — somewhat different from the modern use of the word. Stoic Passions refers to various forms of emotional suffering in Stoicism, a school of Hellenistic philosophy A distinction was made between pathos (plural pathe) which is normally translated as "passion", propathos or instinctive reaction (e. g. turning pale and trembling when confronted by physical danger) and eupathos, which is the mark of the Stoic sage (sophos). The eupatheia are feelings resulting from correct judgment in the same way as the passions result from incorrect judgment.

The idea was to be free of suffering through apatheia (απαθεια) (Greek) or apathy, where apathy was understood in the ancient sense — being objective or having "clear judgment" — rather than simple indifference, as apathy implies today. Suffering, or pain, is an individual's basic Affective experience of unpleasantness and aversion associated with harm or threat of harm Objectivity is both an important and very difficult concept to pin down in philosophy Stoic apatheia is rather the maintenance of equanimity in the face of life's highs and lows - getting carried away by neither.

For the Stoics, reason meant not only using logic, but also understanding the processes of nature — the logos, or universal reason, inherent in all things. Reason involves the ability to think understand and draw Conclusions in an Abstract way as in Human thinking grc-Latn Logos (ˈloʊːgɒs ( Greek, logos) is an important term in Philosophy, Analytical psychology, Rhetoric and Religion Living according to reason and virtue, they held, is to live in harmony with the divine order of the universe, in recognition of the common reason and essential value of all people. The four cardinal virtues of the Stoic philosophy are wisdom (Sophia), courage (Andreia), justice (Dikaiosyne), and temperance (Sophrosyne), a classification derived from the teachings of Plato. Wisdom is a concept of personal gaining of Knowledge, Understanding, Experience, discretion and intuitive understanding, along with a capacity Gallantry redirects here Or see Gallant for other meanings Courage, also known as bravery, will, intrepidity JUSTICE is a Human rights and law reform organisation based in the United Kingdom. Temperance ( Sophrosyne in Greek) is the practice of Moderation. Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece

Following Socrates, the Stoics held that unhappiness and evil are the results of ignorance. SOCRATES is the European Community action programme in the field of Education. Evil, in many cultures is used to describe acts or thoughts which are contrary to some particular religion If someone is unkind, it is because they are unaware of their own universal reason. Likewise, if they are unhappy, it is because they have forgotten how nature actually functions. The solution to evil and unhappiness then, is the practice of Stoic philosophy — to examine one's own judgments and behaviour and determine where they have diverged from the universal reason of nature.

The doctrine of "things indifferent"

In philosophical terms, things which are indifferent are outside the application of moral law, that is without tendency to either promote or obstruct moral ends. Moral absolutism is the Meta-ethical view that there are absolute standards against which Moral questions can be Judged, and that certain actions Actions neither required nor forbidden by the moral law, or which do not affect morality, are called morally indifferent. Morality (from the Latin la moralitas "manner character proper behavior" has three principal meanings The doctrine of things indifferent (ἀδιάφορα, adiaphora) arose in the Stoic school as a corollary of its diametric opposition of virtue and vice ( καθήκοντα kathekon and ἁμαρτήματα hamartemata, respectively "convenient actions," or actions in accordance with nature, and mistakes). Adiaphoron (plural adiaphora from the Greek αδιάφορα "indifferent things" was a concept used in Stoic philosophy to indicate things A corollary is a statement which follows readily from a previously proven statement Kathekon ( Greek:Καθήκον (plural kathekonta) is a Greek concept forged by the founder of Stoicism, Zeno of Citium. As a result of this dichotomy, a large class of objects were left unassigned and thus regarded as indifferent. A dichotomy is any splitting of a whole into exactly two non-overlapping parts

Eventually three sub-classes of "things indifferent" developed: things to be preferred because they assisted life according to nature; things to be avoided because they hindered it; and things indifferent in the narrower sense.

The principle of ἀδιάφορα was also common to the Cynics and Sceptics. In ordinary usage skepticism or scepticism ( Greek 'σκέπτομαι' skeptomai, to look about to consider see also spelling differences The conception of things indifferent is, according to Kant, extra-moral. Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg The doctrine of things indifferent was revived during the Renaissance by Philip Melanchthon. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere Philipp Melanchthon (born Philipp Schwartzerd) ( February 16, 1497 &ndash April 19, 1560) was a German professor and theologian

Spiritual exercise

Philosophy for a Stoic is not just a set of beliefs or ethical claims, it is a way of life involving constant practice and training (or askesis, see ascetic). Ascetic redirects here You might also be looking for Acetic acid. Stoic philosophical and spiritual practices included logic, Socratic dialogue and self-dialogue, contemplation of death, training attention to remain in the present moment (similar to some forms of Eastern meditation), daily reflection on everyday problems and possible solutions, hypomnemata, and so on. Eastern philosophy refers very broadly to the various philosophies of Asia, including Indian philosophy, Chinese philosophy, Persian Hypomnema (Greek υπομνημα plural υπομνηματα hypomnemata) also spelled hupomnema, is a Greek word with several translations into English Philosophy for a Stoic is an active process of constant practice and self-reminder.

In Meditations, Marcus Aurelius defines several such practices. Meditations (Τὰ εἰς ἑαυτόν Ta eis heauton, literally "thoughts/writings addressed to himself" is the title of a series of personal writings Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (often referred to as "the wise" ( April 26, 121 – March 17, 180) was Roman Emperor For example, in Book II, part 1:

Say to yourself in the early morning: I shall meet today ungrateful, violent, treacherous, envious, uncharitable men. All of these things have come upon them through ignorance of real good and ill. . . I can neither be harmed by any of them, for no man will involve me in wrong, nor can I be angry with my kinsman or hate him; for we have come into the world to work together. . .

Social Philosophy

A distinctive feature of Stoicism is its cosmopolitanism. Cosmopolitanism is the idea that all of humanity belongs to a single Moral community. All people are manifestations of the one universal spirit and should, according to the Stoics, live in brotherly love and readily help one another. In the Discourses, Epictetus comments on man's relationship with the world: "Each human being is primarily a citizen of his own commonwealth; but he is also a member of the great city of gods and men, where of the city political is only a copy. The Discourses of Epictetus are a series of extracts of the teachings of the Stoic philosopher Epictetus written down by Arrian c Epictetus ( Greek:; ca 55&ndashca 135 was a Greek Stoic philosopher. "[13] This sentiment echoes that of Socrates, who said "I am not an Athenian or a Greek, but a citizen of the world. SOCRATES is the European Community action programme in the field of Education. Athens (ˈæθənz Αθήνα Athina,) the Capital and largest city of Greece, dominates the Attica periphery as one of the world's "[14]

They held that external differences such as rank and wealth are of no importance in social relationships. Thus, before the rise of Christianity, Stoics advocated the brotherhood of humanity and the natural equality of all human beings. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Stoicism became the most influential school of the Greco–Roman world, and produced a number of remarkable writers and personalities, such as Cato the Younger and Epictetus. Marcus Porcius Catō Uticensis (95 BC&ndash46 BC known as Cato the Younger ( Cato Minor) to distinguish him from his great-grandfather ( Cato the Elder

In particular, they were noted for their urging of clemency toward slaves. A pardon is the forgiveness of a crime and the penalty associated with it As a social-economic system slavery is a legal institution under which a Person (called "a slave" is compelled to work for another Seneca exhorted, "Kindly remember that he whom you call your slave sprang from the same stock, is smiled upon by the same skies, and on equal terms with yourself breathes, lives, and dies. "[15]

They were also early advocates of the idea of equality of the sexes, and believed that wives should be held in common, rather than acquired like possessions. Gender equality (also known as gender equity, gender egalitarianism, or sexual equality) is the goal of the Equality of the Genders A wife is a Female spouse or participant in a Marriage, or Civil union or Civil partnership. [citation needed]

Stoicism and Eastern Philosophical Traditions

The Stoic teachings concerning passion and apatheia bear a remarkable similarity to the ethical teaching of Siddhartha Gautama who lived more than a century before Zeno of Citium. Siddhārtha Gautama ( Sanskrit; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual Teacher from Ancient India and the founder The noble truths state that: 1) All life has suffering (Dukkha); 2) Suffering is rooted in passion and desire (Samudaya); 3) Happiness is freedom from the passions (ie. Background Why the Buddha is said to have taught in this way is illuminated by the social context of the time in which he lived Dukkha ( Pāli दुक्ख Sanskrit दुःख duḥkha; according to grammatical tradition derived from dus-kha "uneasy" Background Why the Buddha is said to have taught in this way is illuminated by the social context of the time in which he lived when they have ceased - Nirodha); 4) Moral restraint and self-discipline (Marga) is the means by which one becomes free from suffering. Background Why the Buddha is said to have taught in this way is illuminated by the social context of the time in which he lived

Similar parallels could be drawn with certain of the teachings of Confucius, who also lived more than a century before Zeno, however the correspondence is not as central as in the case of Buddhism, and the primary parallel is between these two figures and Socrates, all of whom were rough contemporaries. Confucius ( lit " Master Kung " September 28, 551 BC - 479 BC) was a Chinese thinker and social philosopher Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices SOCRATES is the European Community action programme in the field of Education.

One also finds analogous teachings in the Bhagavad Gita, a Hindu scripture, which stresses rising above the dualities such as pleasure-pain, win-lose, to perform one's duties. A Hindu ( Devanagari: हिन्दू is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of Hinduism, a set of religious, Philosophical [16]

Stoicism and Christianity

Due to being non-Abrahamic in its outlook and historically prior to the Incarnation, Stoicism was naturally regarded by the Fathers of the Church as 'pagan philosophy' (as was Plato). The Incarnation is the belief in Christianity that Jesus Christ is the God of Israel in the flesh The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, or Fathers of the Church are the early and influential theologians and writers in the Christian Church Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece [citation needed] Nonetheless, some of the central philosophical concepts of Stoicism were employed by the early Christian writers. Examples include the terms "logos", "virtue", "Spirit", and "conscience". grc-Latn Logos (ˈloʊːgɒs ( Greek, logos) is an important term in Philosophy, Analytical psychology, Rhetoric and Religion [17] But the parallels go well beyond the sharing (or borrowing) of terminology. Both Stoicism and Christianity assert an inner freedom in the face of the external world, a belief in human kinship with Nature (or God), and a sense of the innate depravity—or "persistent evil"—of humankind. [17] Both encourage askesis with respect to the passions and inferior emotions (viz. lust, envy and anger) so that the higher possibilities of one's humanity can be awakened and developed. The major difference between the two philosophies is Stoicism's pantheism where God is never fully transcendent but always immanent. God as the world-creating entity is personalised in Christian thought but Stoicism equates God with the totality of the universe. Also, Stoicism, unlike Christianity, posits no beginning or end to the universe, and no continued individual existence beyond death. [17] Even so, Stoic writings such as the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius have been highly regarded and widely read by Christians throughout the centuries. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (often referred to as "the wise" ( April 26, 121 – March 17, 180) was Roman Emperor St. Ambrose of Milan was known for applying Stoic philosophy to his theology. Saint Ambrose (c 338 &ndash 4 April 397) was a bishop of Milan who became one of the most influential ecclesiastical figures of the fourth century

The central Stoic idea of logos had an encounter with early Orthodox Christianity through Arius and his supporters. grc-Latn Logos (ˈloʊːgɒs ( Greek, logos) is an important term in Philosophy, Analytical psychology, Rhetoric and Religion The ecumenical rejection of this belief was evidenced and deemed heretical at the Council at Nicea. [18] Stoicism influenced Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius's Consolation of Philosophy, which was highly influential in the Middle Ages in its promotion of Christian morality via secular philosophy. Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (480&ndash524 or 525 was a Christian philosopher of the 6th century Consolation of Philosophy ( Consolatio Philosophiae) is a philosophical work by Boethius, written in about the year AD 524.

For example, the Serenity Prayer:

God, give us grace to accept with serenity the things that cannot be changed, courage to change the things that should be changed, and the wisdom to distinguish the one from the other. The Serenity Prayer is the common name for an originally untitled Prayer, most commonly attributed to the theologian Reinhold Niebuhr.

Modern usage

The word "stoic" now commonly refers to someone indifferent to pain, pleasure, grief, or joy. The modern usage as "person who represses feelings or endures patiently" is first cited in 1579 as a noun, and 1596 as an adjective. In Grammar, an adjective is a word whose main syntactic role is to modify a Noun or Pronoun, giving more information about the [19] In contrast to the term "epicurean", the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy's entry on Stoicism notes, "the sense of the English adjective ‘stoical’ is not utterly misleading with regard to its philosophical origins. "[20]

Stoic quotations

Below is a selection of quotations by major Stoic philosophers illustrating major Stoic beliefs:

Epictetus:

Marcus Aurelius:

Seneca the Younger:

Stoic philosophers

See also: Category:Stoic philosophers

Books

Primary Sources

Studies

See also

References

  1. ^ Agathias, Histories, 2. The Cynics (Κυνικοί Cynici were an influential group of Philosophers from the ancient school of Cynicism The ekpyrotic universe, or ekpyrotic scenario, is a cosmological model about the origin and shape of the Universe. Kathekon ( Greek:Καθήκον (plural kathekonta) is a Greek concept forged by the founder of Stoicism, Zeno of Citium. Neostoicism was a syncretic Philosophical movement, joining Stoicism and Christianity. In Ethics, the plank of Carneades is a Thought experiment first proposed by Carneades of Cyrene; it explores the concept of Self-defense Stoic Passions refers to various forms of emotional suffering in Stoicism, a school of Hellenistic philosophy Agathias or Agathias Scholasticus (c AD 536-582/594 of Myrina, an Aeolian city in western Asia Minor, was a Greek Poet and the 31.
  2. ^ a b c Russell, Bertrand. A History of Western Philosophy. p. 254
  3. ^ a b Russell, Bertrand. A History of Western Philosophy. p. 264
  4. ^ Russell, Bertrand. A History of Western Philosophy. p. 253
  5. ^ H. D. Amos and A. G. P. Lang, "These Were the Greeks"
  6. ^ Gilbert Murray, The Stoic Philosophy (1915), p. 25. In Bertrand Russell, History of Western Philosophy (1946). Bertrand Arthur William Russell 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970 was a British Philosopher, Historian
  7. ^ Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, iii. 11.
  8. ^ Seneca, Epistles, lxv. 2.
  9. ^ Chrysippus, in Cicero, de Natura Deorum, i.
  10. ^ Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, iv. 40.
  11. ^ Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, iv. 21.
  12. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - passion
  13. ^ Epictetus, Discourses, ii. 5. 26
  14. ^ Epictetus, Discourses, i. 9. 1
  15. ^ Seneca, Epistles, xlvii. 10
  16. ^ The relationship and mutual influence between ancient Indian and Greek thought has been persuasively argued by Indologist and Philologist Thomas McEvilley in his important book, The Shape of Ancient Thought: Comparative Studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies, Allworth Press, 2002
  17. ^ a b c Ferguson, Everett. Backgrounds of Early Christianity. 2003, page 368.
  18. ^ Jaroslav Pelikan, The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100-600), pp 193-203
  19. ^ Harper, Douglas (November 2001). Online Etymology Dictionary - Stoic. Retrieved on 2006-09-02. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 44 BC - Pharaoh Cleopatra VII of Egypt declares her son co-ruler as Ptolemy XV Caesarion.
  20. ^ Baltzly, Dirk (2004-12-13). "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " Events 1294 - Saint Celestine V abdicates the papacy after only five months Celestine hoped to return to his previous life Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Stoicism. Retrieved on 2006-09-02. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 44 BC - Pharaoh Cleopatra VII of Egypt declares her son co-ruler as Ptolemy XV Caesarion.

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Dictionary

stoicism

-noun

  1. school of philosophy during the Roman Empire that emphasized reason as a means of understanding the natural state of things, or logos, and as a means of freeing oneself from emotional distress.
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