The sterling silver standard has a minimum millesimal fineness of 925. Silver standards refer to the standards of millesimal fineness for the silver alloy used in the manufacture or crafting of silver objects Millesimal fineness is a system of denoting the purity of Platinum, Gold and Silver Alloys by parts per thousand of pure metal by mass in Sterling is an alloy of silver containing 92. An alloy is a Solid solution or Homogeneous mixture of two or more elements, at least one of which is a Metal, which itself has Silver (ˈsɪlvɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol " Ag " (argentum from the Ancient Greek: ἀργήντος - argēntos gen 5 % pure silver and 7. 5 % other metals, usually copper. Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29

Pair of sterling silver forks

Fine silver (99. 9% pure) is generally too soft for producing large functional objects; therefore, the silver is usually alloyed with copper to give it strength, while at the same time preserving the ductility and beauty of the precious metal. Ductility is a mechanical property used to describe the extent to which materials can be deformed plastically or "stretched" into "wires" without Precious Metal is the eighteenth episode in the of the popular American Crime drama, which is set in Las Vegas, Nevada. Other metals can replace the copper, usually with the intent to improve various properties of the basic sterling alloy such as reducing casting porosity, eliminating firescale, and increasing resistance to tarnish. An alloy is a Solid solution or Homogeneous mixture of two or more elements, at least one of which is a Metal, which itself has Porosity is a measure of the void spaces in a material and is measured as a fraction between 0–1 or as a Percentage between 0–100% Firescale, also known as firestain is a red or purple stain that appears on mixtures of Silver and Copper, such as Sterling silver. Tarnish is a layer of Corrosion that develops over Copper, Brass, Silver, Aluminum as well as a degree of semi-reactive metals as These replacement metals include germanium, zinc and platinum, as well as a variety of other additives, including silicon and boron. Germanium (dʒɚˈmeɪniəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Ge and Atomic number 32 Zinc (ˈzɪŋk from Zink is a Metallic Chemical element with the symbol Zn and Atomic number 30 Platinum (ˈplætɪnəm is a Chemical element with the Atomic symbol Pt and an Atomic number of 78 Silicon (ˈsɪlɪkən or /ˈsɪlɪkɒn/ silicium is the Chemical element that has the symbol Si and Atomic number 14 Boron (ˈbɔərɒn is a Chemical element with Atomic number 5 and the chemical symbol B. A number of alloys have appeared in recent years, formulated to lessen firescale or to inhibit tarnish, and this has sparked heavy competition among the various manufacturers, who are rushing to make claims of having the best formulation. Firescale, also known as firestain is a red or purple stain that appears on mixtures of Silver and Copper, such as Sterling silver. Tarnish is a layer of Corrosion that develops over Copper, Brass, Silver, Aluminum as well as a degree of semi-reactive metals as However, no one alloy has emerged to replace copper as the industry standard, and alloy development is a very active area.

Origin of the alloy metal

Although there is much confusion over the origin of the word "sterling", there is general agreement that the sterling alloy originated in what is now continental Europe, and was being used for commerce as early as the 12th century in the area of what is now northern Germany. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe.

Origin of the word "sterling", used to refer to the silver alloy

The word "sterling", used in reference to the 0. 925 grade of silver, emerged in England by the 13th century. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland The terms "sterling" and "pound sterling", acquired their meaning in more than a century, and from convergent sources. The Pound Sterling ( symbol £; ISO code: GBP) subdivided into 100 pence (singular penny) is the Currency There are three possible origins for the word "sterling", two originate from 12th and 13th century coinage, and one generally discounted, moreover, the word could have derived from the Old English word "stiere", meaning "strong, firm, immovable".

Starling theory, discounted

Although marks of birds have been used in some coins of Edward the Confessor, sterling is not likely to have been derived from starling, as the word for starling at the time was spelt stær. Starlings are small to medium-sized Passerine Birds in the family Sturnidae. If the coin had been named after the bird, it would have been called starling.

Mint mark theory

The 1955 edition of the Oxford English Dictionary states that the early Middle English name sterling was presumably descriptive of small stars that were visible on early Norman pennies. The Oxford English Dictionary ( OED) published by the Oxford University Press (OUP is a comprehensive Dictionary of the English (Old English: steorling. )

"Easterling" theory

An alternative explanation put forth by Walter de Pinchebek circa 1300 is that sterling silver may have been known first as "Easterling Silver". The term "Easterling Silver" is believed to have been used to refer to the grade of silver that had originally been used as the local currency in an area of Germany, known as "The Easterling". A currency is a unit of exchange, facilitating the transfer of Goods and/or services It is one form of Money, where money is Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe.

This "Easterling" area consisted of five towns in northern Germany that banded together in the 12th century under the name Hanseatic League. The Hanseatic League (also known as the Hansa) was an alliance of trading cities and their Guilds that established and maintained trade The Hanseatic League proceeded to engage in considerable commerce with England. In payment for English cattle and grain, the League used their local currency. Cattle, colloquially referred to as cows, are domesticated Ungulates a member of the Subfamily Bovinae of the family This currency was in the form of 92. 5% silver coins. England soon learned that these coins, which they referred to as "the coins of the Easterlings", were of a reliably high quality and hardness.

King Henry II set about to adopt the alloy as the standard for English currency. An alloy is a Solid solution or Homogeneous mixture of two or more elements, at least one of which is a Metal, which itself has He recruited metal refiners from The Easterling and put them to work making silver coins for England. The silver these refiners produced came into usage as currency by 1158 in the form of what are now known as "Tealby Pennies", and was eventually adopted as a standard alloy throughout England. The original name "Easterling Silver" later became known as simply "sterling silver".

The original English silver penny was 22½ troy grains of fine silver (as pure as can readily be made). 22½ Troy grains is equivalent to 30 so called Tower grains or one Tower pennyweight. When Henry II reformed the coinage, he based the now coinage on the then international standard of the troy pound rather than the pre-conquest English standard of the Tower pound. A troy pennyweight is 24 troy grains. To maintain the same amount of silver (and thus the same value) in a coin that weighed more required less silver. It required that the alloy be only 92½% pure.

Though coin weights and silver purity varied considerably (reaching a low point before the reign of Elizabeth I, who reinstated sterling silver coinage for the first time since the early 14th century), the pound sterling was used as currency in England from the 12th century until the middle of the 20th century. The twentieth century of the Common Era began on Specifically this was in the silver coins of the British Empire: Britain, British colonies, and some former British colonies. The British Empire was the largest empire in history and for over a century was the foremost global power. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The British Empire was the largest empire in history and for over a century was the foremost global power. This sterling coin silver is not to be confused with coin silver. Millesimal fineness is a system of denoting the purity of Platinum, Gold and Silver Alloys by parts per thousand of pure metal by mass in

Sterling silver, no longer used in circulating currency, is still used for flatware, jewellery and plate, and is a grade of silver respected for both relatively high purity and sufficient hardness to form durable objects in daily use. Cutlery refers to any hand Implement used in preparing serving and especially eating Food in the Western world. Jewellery (also spelled jewelry, see spelling differences) is a personal Ornament, such as a necklace ring or bracelet made from Gemstones

A century of dining regalia: the silver craze of 1840 to 1940

19th Century Tiffany & Co. Pitcher. Circa 1871. Pitcher has paneled sides, and repousse design with shells, scrolls and flowers. Top edge is repousse arrowhead leaf design

From about 1840 to somewhere around 1940 in the United States and Europe, sterling silver flatware became de rigueur when setting a proper table. Year 1840 ( MDCCCXL) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the de rigueur is a French expression that literally means "of rigor" or "of strictness" In fact, there was a marked increase in the number of silver companies that emerged during that period.

The height of the silver craze was during the 50-year period from 1870 to 1920. Year 1870 ( MDCCCLXX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Year 1920 ( MCMXX) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display 1920 of the Gregorian calendar Flatware lines during this period sometimes included up to 100 different types of pieces. In conjunction with this, the dinner went from three courses to sometimes ten or more. There was a soup course, a salad course, a fruit course, a cheese course, an antipasto course, a fish course, the main course and a pastry or dessert course.

Individual eating implements often included forks (dinner fork, place fork, salad fork, pastry fork, shrimp or cocktail fork), spoons (teaspoon, coffee spoon, demitasse spoon, bouillon spoon, gumbo soup spoon, iced tea spoon) and knives (dinner knife, place knife, butter spreader, fruit knife, cheese knife). This was especially true during the Victorian time period, when etiquette dictated that nothing should be touched with one's fingers.

Serving pieces were often elaborately decorated and pierced and embellished with ivory, and could include any or all of the following: carving knife and fork, salad knife and fork, cold meat fork, punch ladle, soup ladle, gravy ladle, casserole serving spoon, berry spoon, lasagna server, macaroni server, asparagus server, cucumber server, tomato server, olive spoon, cheese scoop, fish knife and fork, pastry server, petit four server, cake knife, bon bon spoon, sugar sifter or caster and crumb remover with brush. Cake is a form of Food that is usually sweet and often baked.

Flatware sets were often accompanied by tea services, hot water pots, chocolate pots, trays and salvers, goblets, demitasse cups and saucers, liqueur cups, bouillon cups, egg cups, sterling plates, napkin rings, water and wine pitchers and coasters, candelabra and even elaborate centerpieces. Cutlery refers to any hand Implement used in preparing serving and especially eating Food in the Western world.

In fact, the craze with sterling even extended to business (sterling page clips, mechanical pencils, letter openers, calling card boxes, cigarette cases), to the boudoir (sterling dresser trays, mirrors, hair and suit brushes, pill bottles, manicure sets, shoehorns, perfume bottles, powder bottles, hair clips) and even to children (cups, flatware, rattles, christening sets). A mechanical pencil or propelling pencil is a Pencil containing an internal mechanism which pushes or propels the thin Graphite lead through the tip A cigarette case or cigarette box is a sturdy most commonly metal container to store small amounts of Cigarettes safely from crushing A shoehorn is a Tool that allows the user to put on a Shoe more easily Hairpin can mean A long device used to hold a person's hair in place see below Hairpin bend A Stem-loop in biochemistry Cutlery refers to any hand Implement used in preparing serving and especially eating Food in the Western world. RATTLE is an award-winning poetry magazine based in Los Angeles, California

A number of factors converged to make sterling fall out of favor around the time of World War II. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The cost of labor rose (sterling pieces were all still mostly hand-made, with only the basics being done by machine). Only the wealthy could afford the large number of servants required for fancy dining with ten courses. And changes in aesthetics resulted in people desiring simpler dinnerware that was easier to clean.

Hallmarks

Over the years, most countries in the world have developed their own systems of hallmarking silver. A Sterling silver object that is to be sold commercially is in most countries stamped with one or more silver hallmarks indicating the purity of the silver the mark of the The purpose of hallmark application is manifold:

• To indicate the purity of the silver alloy used in the manufacture or hand-crafting of the piece. A hallmark is a mark or series of marks struck on items made of precious metals &mdash Platinum, Gold, Silver and in some nations Palladium

• To identify the silversmith or company that made the piece.

• To note the date and/or location of the manufacture.

Miscellaneous

In addition to the uses of sterling silver mentioned above, there are some little known uses of sterling:

• Medical instruments: Evidence of silver and/or silver-alloy surgical and medical instruments has been found in civilisations as early as Ur, Hellenistic-era Egypt and Rome, and their use continued until largely replaced in Western countries in the mid to late 20th century by cheaper, disposable plastic items. Its natural malleability is an obvious physical advantage, but it also exhibits medically-specific utility, including the fact that it is naturally aseptic, and, in respect of modern medical practices, it is resistant to antiseptics, heat sterilisation and body fluids.

• Musical instruments: Due to sterling silver having a very special characteristic in sound resonance, some brasswind instrument manufacturers use 92. In Physics, resonance is the tendency of a system to Oscillate at maximum Amplitude at certain frequencies, known as the system's 5% sterling silver as the material for making their instruments, including the flute and saxophones. For example, some leading saxophone manufactuers such as Selmer and Yanagisawa have crafted some of their saxophones from sterling silver, which they believe will make the instruments more resonant and colorful in timbre. The Selmer Company was a manufacturer of Musical instruments started in Paris France in the early 1900s Yanagisawa Wind Instruments is a Japanese woodwind company known for its range of student intermediate and professional grade Saxophones Along with Yamaha they are

Tarnish and corrosion

As the purity of the silver decreases, the problem of corrosion or tarnishing also increases. Corrosion means the breaking down of essential properties in a material due to Chemical reactions with its surroundings

Chemically, silver is not very reactive — it does not react with oxygen or water at ordinary temperatures, so does not easily form a silver oxide. Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the However, the other metal in the alloy, usually copper, may react with oxygen in the air.

The black silver sulfide (Ag₂S) is among the most insoluble salts in aqueous solution, a property that is exploited for separating silver ions from other positive ions. Silver sulfide (or Silver sulphide in British English Ag2S is the Sulfide of Silver. Solubility is the characteristic Physical property referring to the ability of a given substance the Solute, to dissolve in a Solvent. In Chemistry, a solution is a Homogeneous Mixture composed of two or more substances An ion is an Atom or Molecule which has lost or gained one or more Valence electrons giving it a positive or negative electrical charge An ion is an Atom or Molecule which has lost or gained one or more Valence electrons giving it a positive or negative electrical charge

Sodium Chloride (NaCl) or common table salt is known to corrode silver-copper alloy, typically seen in silver salt shakers where corrosion appears around the holes in the top.

Several products have been developed for the purpose of polishing silver that serve to remove sulfur from the metal without damaging or warping it. Sulfur or sulphur (ˈsʌlfɚ see spelling below) is the Chemical element that has the Atomic number 16 Because harsh polishing and buffing can permanently damage and devalue a piece of antique silver, valuable items are typically hand-polished to preserve the unique patinas of older pieces. Patina is a coating of various chemical compounds such as Oxides or Carbonates formed on the surface of metal during exposure to Weathering. Techniques such as wheel polishing, which are typically performed by professional jewelers or silver repair companies, are reserved for extreme tarnish or corrosion. See also Tarnish, Removal. Tarnish is a layer of Corrosion that develops over Copper, Brass, Silver, Aluminum as well as a degree of semi-reactive metals as

References

• All About Antique Silver with International Hallmarks, 2nd printing (2007), by Diana Sanders Cinamon, AAA Publishing, San Bernardino, CA. Paperback, sewn pages, contains 269 pages, 154 pictures (most in color), silver hallmarks for 24 countries including England, France, Germany, Italy and Russia. Also includes British design registry numbers, U. S. Design and Utility patent numbers and metric conversion tables. An outstanding silver reference book that gives identification and dating clues for hollowware and flatware.
• Origins: A Short Etymological Dictionary of Modern English, by lexicographer Eric Partridge.
• The Oxford English Dictionary, by John Simpson and Edmund Weiner.
• Silver in America, 1840 - 1940: A Century of Splendor, third edition (1997), by Charles L. Venable; Harry N. Abrams, Inc. , New York, NY.
• Tiffany Silver Flatware, 1845 - 1905: When Dining Was an Art, by William P. Hood, Jr. ; 1999; published by the Antique Collectors Club Ltd. , Suffolk, England.
• The Encyclopedia of American Silver Manufacturers, revised fourth edition (1998), by Dorothy T. Rainwater and Judy Redfield; Schiffer Publishing Ltd. , Atglen, PA.
• The Book of Old Silver, English - American - Foreign, With All Available Hallmarks Including Sheffield Plate Marks, by Seymour B. Wyler; 1937; Crown Publishers, Inc. , New York, NY.
• International Hallmarks on Silver Collected by Tardy, 5th English Language reprint (2000); original publication date unknown, date of first softcover publication 1985; author unknown; publisher unknown.

External links

• British and Other Worldwide Sterling Marks
• A Small Collection of Antique Silver and Objects of vertu, created by Italian Giorgio B.
• Online Encyclopedia of Silver Marks, Hallmarks & Maker's Marks, an award-winning site.
• specialtyappraisals.com/webpages/elementarytips.htm