Citizendia
Your Ad Here

State terrorism refers to acts of terrorism conducted by governments. Terrorism is the systematic use of terror especially as a means of coercion

Contents

Controversy

Like the definition of terrorism and the definition of state-sponsored terrorism, the definition of state terrorism remains controversial and without international consensus. Terrorism#Definition.--> The word "terrorism" is politically and emotionally charged and this greatly compounds the difficulty of providing The definitions of state-sponsored terrorism, Terrorism, and State terrorism are controversial [1]

It is controversial whether the concept of terrorism can be applied to states. It is usually applied to non-state actors. [1] The Chairman of the United Nations Counter-Terrorism Committee has stated that the Committee was conscious of the 12 international Conventions on the subject, and none of them referred to State terrorism, which was not an international legal concept. If States abused their power, they should be judged against international conventions dealing with war crimes, international human rights and international humanitarian law. War crimes are "violations of the laws or customs of war" including but not limited to "murder the ill-treatment or deportation of civilian residents of an occupied Human rights refers to the "basic Rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled International humanitarian law ( IHL) often referred to as the Laws of war, the laws and customs of war or the law of armed conflict [2] Kofi Annan. Kofi Atta Annan, GCMG (born 8 April 1938 is a Ghanaian Diplomat who served as the seventh Secretary-General of the United Nations at the time United Nations Secretary-General, has said that it is "time to set aside debates on so-called 'state terrorism'. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security See also General Secretary. A number of International organizations, Communist parties and other bodies use the title Secretary The use of force by states is already thoroughly regulated under international law"[3] However, he also made clear that, ". . . regardless of the differences between governments on the question of definition of terrorism, what is clear and what we can all agree on is any deliberate attack on innocent civilians, regardless of one's cause, is unacceptable and fits into the definition of terrorism. And I think this we can all be clear on. "[4]

Definitions

See also: Definition of terrorism

Various analysts have attempted to formulate definitions which are seen as neutral with respect to the perpetrators of the act, thus permitting, according to these analysts, a logically consistent application of the definition to both non-state and state actors:

Terrorism is an anxiety-inspiring method of repeated violent action, employed by (semi-) clandestine individual, group or state actors, for idiosyncratic, criminal or political reasons, whereby - in contrast to assassination - the direct targets of violence are not the main targets. Terrorism#Definition.--> The word "terrorism" is politically and emotionally charged and this greatly compounds the difficulty of providing The immediate human victims of violence are generally chosen randomly (targets of opportunity) or selectively (representative or symbolic targets) from a target population, and serve as message generators. Threat- and violence-based communication processes between terrorist (organization), (imperiled) victims, and main targets are used to manipulate the main target (audience(s)), turning it into a target of terror, a target of demands, or a target of attention, depending on whether intimidation, coercion, or propaganda is primarily sought.

—Alex P. Schmid, [2]

[Terrorism is] the purposeful act or threat of violence to create fear and/or compliant behavior in a victim and/or audience of the act or threat. Alex P Schmid is an internationally renowned Dutch scholar in Terrorism Studies and former Officer-in-Charge of the Terrorism Prevention Branch of the United Nations. . . . this definition helps to distinguish terrorism from other forms of political violence. Not all acts of state violence are terrorism. It is important to understand that in terrorism the violence threatened or perpetrated, has purposes broader than simple physical harm to a victim. The audience of the act or threat of violence is more important than the immediate victim.

—Michael Stohl, Professor of Political Science at Purdue University, [3]

Chomsky and Edward S. Herman, described as pioneers in the concept of State Terrorism, have argued that the distinction between state and non-state terror is morally relativist, and distracts from or justifies state terrorism perpetrated by favored states, typically those of wealthy and developed nations (Chomsky and Herman, 1979). Edward S Herman (born 7 April 1925) is an economist and media analyst with a specialty in corporate and regulatory issues as well as political economy and the media This article attempts to confine itself to discussion of relativism in morals and ethics

The traditional approach views terrorism as a form of random behavior perpetrated by international criminals, treating it as a special type of deviant behavior (Helen Purkitt, "Dealing with Terrorism. ," in Conflict in World Society, 1984, p. 162. ) In contrast, a broader interpretation of the nature of terrorism has been increasingly discussed within the literature that establishes a meaning to account for the concept of state and state-sponsored terrorism. (Michael Stolhl, p. 14). The authors cite former US Secretary of State George Shultz who elaborates on this conceptual framework shift:

"What once may have seemed random, senseless, violent acts of a few crazed individuals has come into focus. George Pratt Shultz (born December 13 1920 served as the United States Secretary of Labor from 1969 to 1970 as the U . . We have learned that terrorism is, above all, a form of political violence. It is neither random nor without purpose. . . The overarching goal of all terrorists is the same: they are trying to impose their will by force. " ("Terrorism and the Modern World," address in Current Policy 626, Oct. 25, 1984).

The term "Establishment" and "Structural terrorism" is sometimes used to describe state terrorism that posits the existence of 'a form of political violence" in the structure of contemporary international politics. This includes policies or actions by governments that encourage the use of fear and violence in pursuit of political ends. As such, state terrorism is conceived to have become an integral element of many state's foreign policies (Michael Stolhl, p. 15). Academic Conor Cruise O'Brien argument is cited, as an example:

"Those who are described as terrorists. Conor Cruise O'Brien (Conchubhar Crús Ó Briain (also colloquially known as 'The Cruiser' born 3 November 1917 is an Irish politician writer and academic . . make the uncomfortable point that national armed forces, fully supported by democratic opinion, have in fact employed violence and terror on a far vaster scale. . . . "("Liberty and Terrorism," International Security 2 (Fall 1988), pp. 56-57. )

In this view terrorism emanates from legitimate political institutions intent upon creating a state of fear for political ends, and therefore includes the activities of sovereign states themselves. Michael Stohl has argued:

“The use of terror tactics is common in international relations and the state has been and remains a more likely employer of terrorism within the international system than insurgents. Examples that come readily to mind include Germany’s bombing of London and the U. S. atomic destruction of Hiroshima during World War II. (M. Stohl, “The Superpowers and International Terror,” Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association, Atlanta, March 27-April 1, 1984).

Prof. Stolhl and George A. Lopez designate three particular forms of state terrorism exhibited in foreign policy behavior (p. George A Lopez is a founding faculty of the Kroc Institute for International Peace Studies at the University of Notre Dame where he holds the Rev 207-208):

Some scholars argue that a institutionalized form of terrorism carried out by states have occurred as a result of changes that took place following World War ll. In this analysis state terrorism as a form of foreign policy was shaped by the presence and use of weapons of mass destruction, and that the legitimizing of such violent behavior led to an increasingly accepted form of state behavior. The argument is discussed by Professor of Political Science Micahel Stohl and George A. Lopez, in their book "Terrible beyond Endurance? The Foreign Policy of State Terrorism. George A Lopez is a founding faculty of the Kroc Institute for International Peace Studies at the University of Notre Dame where he holds the Rev " 1988.

The earliest use of the word terrorism identified by the Oxford English Dictionary is a 1795 reference to what the author described as the "reign of terrorism" in France. The Oxford English Dictionary ( OED) published by the Oxford University Press (OUP is a comprehensive Dictionary of the English [4] During that part of the French revolutionary period that is now known as the Reign of Terror, or simply The Terror, the Jacobins and other factions used the apparatus of the state to execute and cow political opponents. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an The Jacobin Club was the largest and most powerful political club of the French Revolution. The Oxford English Dictionary still has a definition of terrorism as "Government by intimidation carried out by the party in power in France between 1789-1794". [5]

The Encyclopedia Britannica Online defines terrorism as the "the systematic use of violence to create a general climate of fear in a population and thereby to bring about a particular political objective. Terrorism has been practiced by political organizations with both rightist and leftist objectives, by nationalistic and religious groups, by revolutionaries, and even by state institutions such as armies, intelligence services, and police". [5] The Encyclopedia Britannica also states that "Establishment terrorism, often called state or state-sponsored terrorism, is employed by governments—or more often by factions within governments—against that government's citizens, against factions within the government, or against foreign governments or groups. This type of terrorism is very common but difficult to identify, mainly because the state's support is always clandestine. . "[6]

Linguist and US policy critic Noam Chomsky, described by some as a pioneer in the literature of state terrorism,[6] has equated low-intensity warfare with State Terrorism. Avram Noam Chomsky (noʊm ˈtʃɑmski born December 7 1928 is an American linguist, Philosopher, cognitive scientist, Political Low intensity conflict (LIC is the use of Military forces applied selectively and with restraint to enforce compliance with the policies or objectives of the political He writes: "The U. S. is officially committed to what is called 'low-intensity warfare'. Low intensity conflict (LIC is the use of Military forces applied selectively and with restraint to enforce compliance with the policies or objectives of the political . . . If you read the definition of low-intensity conflict in army manuals and compare it with official definitions of 'terrorism' in army manuals, or the U. S. Code, you find they're almost the same. "[7] See Low intensity conflict for the army definition. Low intensity conflict (LIC is the use of Military forces applied selectively and with restraint to enforce compliance with the policies or objectives of the political

Scholars Emizet Kisangani and Wayne Nafziger argue that democide is equivalent to state terrorism. Definition According to Rummel Genocide has three different meanings [8]

Analysis

Philosopher Igor Primoratz provides four reasons why he believes that state terrorism is typically morally worse than non-state terrorism. First, because of the nature of the modern state and "the amount and variety of resources" available even for small states, the state mode of terrorism claims vastly more victims than does terrorism by non-state actors. Secondly, because "state terrorism is bound to be compounded by secrecy, deception and hypocrisy," terrorist states typically act with clandestine brutality while publicly professing adherence to "values and principles which rule it out. " Thirdly, because unlike non-state actors, states are signatories in international laws and conventions prohibiting terrorism, when a state commits acts of terrorism it is "in breach of its own solemn international commitments. " Finally, while there may be circumstances where non-state actors are in such an oppressed situation that there may be no alternative but terrorism, Primoratz argues that "it seems virtually impossible that a state should find itself in such circumstances where it has no alternative to resorting to terrorism. " [9]

In his university-level textbook, "Understanding Terrorism:Challenges, Perspectives, and Issues", Gus Martin argues that the work of organizations such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International are among the "approaches to the analyses of state terrorism [that] are useful for evaluating different types of state-sponsored violence" arguing further that during the late 1970s and 80's “in its annual global human rights reports Amnesty International has extensively documented the escalation in state terror…Amnesty International identified the main forms of state terror as arbitrary detention, unfair trial, torture, and political murder or extrajudicial execution. Human Rights Watch is a United States -based international Non-governmental organization that conducts research and advocacy on Human rights. Amnesty International (commonly known as Amnesty or AI) is a Western based international Non-governmental organization which defines its mission as "to Amnesty International (commonly known as Amnesty or AI) is a Western based international Non-governmental organization which defines its mission as "to Torture, according to the United Nations Convention Against Torture, is "any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental is intentionally AssassiNation is the sixth album by Krisiun, released in 2006 on Century Media. For extrajudicial executions see also Assassination Extra-judicial killings are the illegal killing of leading political trades union dissidents "[10]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ POLITICS: U.N. Member States Struggle to Define Terrorism
  2. ^ Definitions of Terrorism. Since the 1979 Iranian Revolution when the American -backed Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was overthrown and replaced by an Islamic Republic led by Ayatollah Khomeini The governments of Russia, and its predecessor state the Soviet Union, have been accused of acts of State terrorism on many occasions Various Non-governmental organizations and individuals have accused the Sri Lankan government of committing state terrorism The United States government has been accused of having directly committed acts of State terrorism, as well as funding training and harboring individuals For scholars and historians the primary Ethics Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, relate to whether the use of nuclear weapons were justified United Nations. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security Archived from the original on 2007-01-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 904 - Sergius III comes out of retirement to take over the papacy from the deposed Antipope Christopher. Retrieved on 2007-07-10. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 48 BC - Battle of Dyrrhachium, Julius Caesar barely avoids a catastrophic defeat to Pompey in Macedonia.
  3. ^ Stohl, National Interests and State Terrorism, The Politics of Terrorism, Marcel Dekker 1988, p. 275
  4. ^ Oxford English Dictionary 2nd Edition, CD Version 3, 2002, Oxford University Press
  5. ^ Jenny Teichman (October 1989). "How to define terrorism". Philosophy 64 (250).  
  6. ^ Death Squad: The Anthropology of State Terror, Sluka, Jeffrey (ed), Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000, p. 8
  7. ^ Barsamian, David (2001). David Barsamian is an Armenian American radio broadcaster writer and the founder and director of Alternative Radio, the Boulder Colorado -based "The United States is a Leading Terrorist State An Interview with Noam Chomsky". Monthly Review. Monthly Review is an independent Marxist journal published in New York City.  
  8. ^ Kisangani, E. (2007). "The Political Economy Of State Terror". Defence and Peace Economics 18 (5): 405-414. doi:10.1080/10242690701455433. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.  
  9. ^ Primoratz, Igor. State Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism, in Terrorism: The Philosophical Issues, Igor Primoratz, ed. Palgrave Macmillan, 2004,119-120
  10. ^ Martin, Gus. Understanding Terrorism: Understanding Terrorism. Challenges, Perspectives, and Issues. Sage Publications,2006, 83

References

Further reading

External links

Prevention of terrorism

© 2009 citizendia.org; parts available under the terms of GNU Free Documentation License, from http://en.wikipedia.org
 Dapyx Software network: MP3 Explorer | Ebook Manager | Zenithic