Staphylococcus aureus
Scientific classification
Domain: Bacteria Kingdom: Eubacteria Phylum: Firmicutes Class: Bacilli Order: Bacillales Family: Staphylococcaceae Genus: Staphylococcus Species: S. The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have The Firmicutes ( Latin: firmus, strong and cutis, skin referring to the cell wall are a division of bacteria, most of which have Gram-positive Bacilli specifically refers to a taxonomic class of Bacteria. The Bacillales are an order of Gram-positive bacteria, placed within the Firmicutes. The Staphylococcaceae is a family of Gram positive Bacteria that includes the Genus Staphylococcus, noted for encompassing Staphylococcus (in Greek σταφυλη staphyle means bunch of grapes and κοκκος coccos means granule is a genus of Gram-positive aureus
Binomial name
Staphylococcus aureus Rosenbach 1884

Staphylococcus aureus (pronounced /ˌstæfɨləˈkɒkəs ˈɔriəs/, literally "Golden Cluster Seed" and also known as golden staph, is the most common cause of staph infections. Staphylococcus (in Greek σταφυλη staphyle means bunch of grapes and κοκκος coccos means granule is a genus of Gram-positive It is a spherical bacterium, frequently living on the skin or in the nose of a person. The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have Approximately 20–30% of the general population are "staph carriers". ^[1] Staphylococcus aureus can cause a range of illnesses from minor skin infections, such as pimples, impetigo (may also be caused by Streptococcus pyogenes), boils, cellulitis folliculitis, furuncles, carbuncles, scalded skin syndrome and abscesses, to life-threatening diseases, such as pneumonia, meningitis, osteomyelitis endocarditis, Toxic shock syndrome (TSS), and septicemia. An infection is the detrimental Colonization of a host Organism by a foreign Species. A pimple is a result of a blockage of the Skin 's Pore. It can be a Pustule or Papule. Impetigo (sometimes impetaigo) is a superficial Bacterial Skin Infection most common among children 2 to 6 years old Streptococcus pyogenes is a spherical Gram-positive Bacteria that grows in long chains and is the cause of Group A streptococcal infections Boil or furuncle is a skin disease caused by the infection of Hair follicles resulting in the localized accumulation of Pus and dead tissue Cellulitis is an Infection of the deep Subcutaneous tissue of the Skin. A carbuncle is an Abscess larger than a Boil, usually with one or more openings draining Pus onto the Skin. An abscess (abscessus is a collection of Pus (dead Neutrophils) that has accumulated in a cavity formed by the tissue on the basis of an infectious process A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly Pneumonia is an inflammatory illness of the Lung. Frequently it is described as lung Parenchyma / alveolar inflammation and abnormal Meningitis is Inflammation of the protective membranes covering the Brain and Spinal cord, known collectively as the Meninges. Endocarditis is an Inflammation of the inner layer of the Heart, the Endocardium. Toxic shock syndrome ( TSS) is a rare but potentially fatal disease caused by a bacterial toxin. Sepsis is a serious medical condition characterized by a whole-body inflammatory state (called a Systemic inflammatory response syndrome or SIRS caused Its incidence is from skin, soft tissue, respiratory, bone, joint, endovascular to wound infections. It is still one of the four most common causes of nosocomial infections, often causing postsurgical wound infections. Nosocomial infections are Infections which are a result of treatment in a Hospital or a healthcare service unit but secondary to the patient's original condition Abbreviated to S. aureus or Staph aureus in medical literature, S. aureus should not be confused with the similarly named (and also medically relevant) species of the genus Streptococcus. A genus (plural genera from Γένος Latin genus "descent family type gender" is a low-level Taxonomic Streptococcus is a Genus of spherical Gram-positive bacteria belonging to the phylum Firmicutes and the

S. aureus was discovered in Aberdeen, Scotland in 1880 by the surgeon Sir Alexander Ogston in pus from surgical abscesses. Aberdeen ( pronounced; Aiberdeen Obar Dheathain is Scotland 's third most populous city and one of Scotland's 32 local government council Scotland ( Gaelic: Alba) is a Country in northwest Europethat occupies the northern third of the island of Great Britain. In Medicine, a surgeon is a person who performs Surgery. Surgery is a broad category of invasive Medical treatment that involves the cutting of a Sir Alexander Ogston KCVO MB CM MD was a Scottish Surgeon, famous for his discovery of Staphylococcus Pus is a whitish-yellow yellow or yellow-brown substance produced during Inflammatory responses of the body that can be found in regions of Pyogenic bacterial ^[2] Each year some 500,000 patients in American hospitals contract a staphylococcal infection. ^[3]

Contents 1 Microbiology 2 Role in disease 2.1 Atopic dermatitis 2.2 Toxic shock syndrome 2.3 Mastitis in cows 3 Virulence factors 3.1 Toxins 3.2 Role of pigment in virulence 4 Diagnosis 4.1 Rapid Diagnosis and Typing 5 Treatment and antibiotic resistance 5.1 Mechanisms of antibiotic resistance 6 Infection control 7 Footnotes 8 External links

Microbiology

S. aureus is a Gram-positive coccus, which appears as grape-like clusters when viewed through a microscope and has large, round, golden-yellow colonies, often with hemolysis, when grown on blood agar plates. Gram-positive bacteria are those that are stained dark blue or violet by Gram staining. Staphylococcus aureus Gramjpg|thumb|300px| Staphylococcus bacteria]] Cocci (singular - coccus, from the Latin coccinus (scarlet and derived from the For the Tokyo University supercomputer see Gravity Pipe. GRAPE, or GRA phics P rogramming E nvironment is Hemolysis is the breakdown of Red blood cells. The ability of bacterial colonies to induce hemolysis when grown on Blood agar is used to classify certain Microorganisms An agar plate is a sterile Petri dish that contains a Growth medium (typically Agar plus nutrients used to culture Microorganisms ^[4] The golden appearance is the etymological root of the bacteria's name: aureus means "golden" in Latin. Etymology is the study of the History of Words &mdash when they entered a language from what source and how their form and meaning have changed over time Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome.

S. aureus is a aerobic and opportunistic pathogen. An opportunistic infection is an infection caused by Pathogens that usually do not cause disease in a healthy Immune system.

S. aureus is catalase positive (meaning that it can produce the enzyme "catalase") and able to convert hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) to water and oxygen, which makes the catalase test useful to distinguish staphylococci from enterococci and streptococci. Catalase is a common Enzyme found in nearly all living organisms where it functions to catalyze the decomposition of Hydrogen peroxide to Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2 is a very pale blue liquid which appears colorless in a dilute solution slightly more Viscous than water Enterococcus is a Genus of Lactic acid bacteria of the phylum Firmicutes. Streptococcus is a Genus of spherical Gram-positive bacteria belonging to the phylum Firmicutes and the A large percentage of S. aureus can be differentiated from most other staphylococci by the coagulase test: S. Coagulase is an Enzyme produced by Staphylococcus aureus that converts Fibrinogen to Fibrin. aureus is primarily coagulase-positive (meaning that it can produce the enzyme "coagulase" that causes clot formation) while most other Staphylococcus species are coagulase-negative. ^[4] However, while the majority of S. aureus are coagulase-positive, some may be atypical in that they do not produce coagulase. Incorrect identification of an isolate can impact implementation of effective treatment and/or control measures. ^[5] It is medically important to identify S. aureus correctly, as S. aureus is much more aggressive and likely to be antibiotic-resistant.

Role in disease

S. aureus may occur as a commensal on human skin; it also occurs in the nose frequently (in about a third of the population)^[6] and throat less commonly. In Ecology, commensalism is a kind of symbiotic relationship between two organisms where one benefits and the other is not significantly harmed or helped (like a bird The skin is the outer covering of living tissue of an animal (or plant The occurrence of S. aureus under these circumstances does not always indicate infection and therefore does not always require treatment (indeed, treatment may be ineffective and re-colonisation may occur). It can survive on domesticated animals such as dogs, cats and horses, and can cause bumblefoot in chickens. Bumblefoot ( ulcerative pododermatitis) is a Bacterial infection and Inflammatory reaction on the feet of Birds and Rodents. It can survive for some hours on dry environmental surfaces, but the importance of the environment in spread of S. aureus is currently debated. It can host phages, such as the Panton-Valentine leukocidin, that increase its virulence. This article is about a biological infectious particle for other uses see Phage (disambiguation. Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL is a cytotoxin &mdashone of the &beta-pore forming toxins.

S. aureus can infect other tissues when normal barriers have been breached (e. g. , skin or mucosal lining). This leads to furuncles (boils) and carbuncles (a collection of furuncles). Boil or furuncle is a skin disease caused by the infection of Hair follicles resulting in the localized accumulation of Pus and dead tissue A carbuncle is an Abscess larger than a Boil, usually with one or more openings draining Pus onto the Skin. In infants S. aureus infection can cause a severe disease Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome (SSSS). Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome, SSSS also known as Pemphigus neonatorum or Ritter's disease, is a dermatological condition caused by Staphylococcus ^[7]

S. aureus infections can be spread through contact with pus from an infected wound, skin-to-skin contact with an infected person by producing hyaluronidase that destroy tissues, and contact with objects such as towels, sheets, clothing, or athletic equipment used by an infected person.

Deeply situated S. aureus infections can be very severe. Prosthetic joints put a person at particular risk for septic arthritis, and staphylococcal endocarditis (infection of the heart valves) and pneumonia, which may be rapidly spread. Septic arthritis is the invasion of a Joint by an Infectious agent which produces Arthritis. Endocarditis is an Inflammation of the inner layer of the Heart, the Endocardium. Pneumonia is an inflammatory illness of the Lung. Frequently it is described as lung Parenchyma / alveolar inflammation and abnormal

Atopic dermatitis

S. aureus is extremely prevalent in atopic dermatitis patients, who are less resistant to it than other people. Atopic dermatitis, also known as atopic eczema, is a disease characterized by Chronic inflammation of the skin which is atopic, hereditary and non-contagious It often causes complications. The disease is most likely found in fertile active places including, the armpits, hair and scalp. Large pimples in those areas, when popped will cause the worst of the infection.

Toxic shock syndrome

Some strains of S. aureus produce toxic shock syndrome toxin, which are the causative agent for toxic shock syndrome. Toxic shock syndrome ( TSS) is a rare but potentially fatal disease caused by a bacterial toxin. Some strains that produce an enterotoxin are the cause of staphylococcal food poisoning.

Mastitis in cows

S. aureus is one of the causal agents of mastitis in dairy cows. Mastitis is the Inflammation of the Parenchyma of the Mammary gland ( Breast in Primates Udder in other mammals Cattle, colloquially referred to as cows, are domesticated Ungulates a member of the Subfamily Bovinae of the family Its large capsule protects the organism from attack by the cow's immunological defenses. ^[8]

Virulence factors

Toxins

Depending on the strain, S. aureus is capable of secreting several toxins, which can be categorized into three groups. An exotoxin is a soluble Protein excreted by a Microrganism, including bacteria, Fungi, Algae, and Protozoa. Many of these toxins are associated with specific diseases.

Pyrogenic toxin superantigens (PTSAgs) have superantigen activities that induce toxic shock syndrome (TSS). Superantigens (SAgs are secreted proteins ( Exotoxins) that exhibit highly potent lymphocyte-transforming ( Mitogenic activity directed towards T Lymphocytes Toxic shock syndrome ( TSS) is a rare but potentially fatal disease caused by a bacterial toxin. This group includes the toxin TSST-1, which causes TSS associated with tampon use. A tampon is a plug of Cotton or other absorbent material inserted into a Body cavity or Wound to absorb bodily fluid The staphylococcal enterotoxins, which cause a form of food poisoning, are included in this group. Foodborne illness (also foodborne disease) is any Illness resulting from the consumption of food

Exfoliative toxins are implicated in the disease staphylococcal scalded-skin syndrome (SSSS), which occurs most commonly in infants and young children. Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome, SSSS also known as Pemphigus neonatorum or Ritter's disease, is a dermatological condition caused by Staphylococcus It also may occur as epidemics in hospital nurseries. The protease activity of the exfoliative toxins causes peeling of the skin observed with SSSS.

Staphylococcal toxins that act on cell membranes include alpha-toxin, beta-toxin, delta-toxin, and several bicomponent toxins. The bicomponent toxin Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL) is associated with severe necrotizing pneumonia in children. Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL is a cytotoxin &mdashone of the &beta-pore forming toxins. The genes encoding the components of PVL are encoded on a bacteriophage found in community-associated MRSA strains. This article is about a biological infectious particle for other uses see Phage (disambiguation.

Role of pigment in virulence

The vivid yellow pigmentation of S. For the drug referred to as "pigment" see Black tar heroin. aureus may be a factor in its virulence. When comparing a normal strain of S. aureus with a strain modified to lack the yellow coloration, the pigmented strain was more likely to survive dousing with an oxidizing chemical such as hydrogen peroxide than the mutant strain was. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2 is a very pale blue liquid which appears colorless in a dilute solution slightly more Viscous than water

Colonies of the two strains were also exposed to human neutrophils. Neutrophil granulocytes, generally referred to as neutrophils, are the most abundant type of White blood cells in humans and form an essential part of the The mutant colonies quickly succumbed while many of the pigmented colonies survived. Wounds on mice were swiped with the two strains. The pigmented strains created lingering abscesses. An abscess (abscessus is a collection of Pus (dead Neutrophils) that has accumulated in a cavity formed by the tissue on the basis of an infectious process Wounds with the unpigmented strains healed quickly.

These tests suggest that the yellow pigment may be key to the ability of S. aureus to survive immune system attacks. Drugs that inhibit the bacterium's production of the carotenoids responsible for the yellow coloration may weaken it and renew its susceptibility to antibiotics. Carotenoids are organic Pigments that are naturally occurring in Chromoplasts of plants and some other photosynthetic Organisms ^[9]

Diagnosis

Depending upon the type of infection present, an appropriate specimen is obtained accordingly and sent to the laboratory for definitive identification by using biochemical or enzyme-based tests. A Gram stain is first performed to guide the way, which should show typical gram-positive bacteria, cocci, in clusters. Gram staining (or Gram's method) is an empirical method of differentiating bacterial species into two large groups ( Gram-positive and Secondly, culture the organism in Mannitol Salt Agar, which is a selective medium with 7–9% NaCl that allows S. Mannitol Salt Agar or MSA is a commonly used Growth medium in Microbiology. For sodium chloride in the diet see Salt. Sodium chloride, also known as common salt, table salt, or Halite, is a aureus to grow producing yellow-colored colonies as a result of salt utilization and subsequent drop in the medium's pH. pH is the measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a Solution. Furthermore, for differentiation on the species level, catalase (positive for all species), coagulase (fibrin clot formation), DNAse (zone of clearance on nutrient agar), lipase (a yellow color and rancid odor smell), and phosphatase (a pink color) tests are all done. Catalase is a common Enzyme found in nearly all living organisms where it functions to catalyze the decomposition of Hydrogen peroxide to Coagulase is an Enzyme produced by Staphylococcus aureus that converts Fibrinogen to Fibrin. A deoxyribonuclease ( DNase, for short is any Enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolytic cleavage of phosphodiester linkages in the DNA A lipase is a Water-soluble Enzyme that Catalyzes the Hydrolysis of Ester bonds in water–insoluble Lipid A phosphatase is an Enzyme that removes a Phosphate group from its Substrate by hydrolysing Phosphoric acid mono Esters into For staphylococcal food poisoning, phage typing can be performed to determine if the staphylococci recovered from the food to determine the source of infection.

Rapid Diagnosis and Typing

Diagnostic microbiology laboratories and reference laboratories are key for identifying outbreaks and new strains of S. aureus. Recent genetic advances have enabled reliable and rapid techniques for the identification and characterization of clinical isolates of S. aureus in real-time. These tools support infection control strategies to limit bacterial spread and ensure the appropriate use of antibiotics. These techniques include Real-time PCR and Quantitative PCR and are increasingly being employed in clinical laboratories. In Molecular biology, real-time polymerase chain reaction, also called quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR or kinetic polymerase chain reaction In Molecular biology, real-time polymerase chain reaction, also called quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR or kinetic polymerase chain reaction ^[10][11]

Treatment and antibiotic resistance

For more details on this topic, see Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.

Staph infection that is not antibiotic resistant can be treated in about a month (depending on severity) using antibiotics.

Antibiotic resistance in S. aureus was almost unknown when penicillin was first introduced in 1943; indeed, the original petri dish on which Alexander Fleming observed the antibacterial activity of the penicillium mould was growing a culture of S. Sir Alexander Fleming (6 August 1881 &ndash 11 March 1955 was a Scottish Biologist and Pharmacologist. Penicillium chrysogenum is a mold that is widely distributed in nature and is often found living on foods and in indoor environments aureus. By 1950, 40% of hospital S. aureus isolates were penicillin resistant; and by 1960, this had risen to 80%. ^[12]

Mechanisms of antibiotic resistance

Staphylococcal resistance to penicillin is mediated by penicillinase (a form of β-lactamase) production: an enzyme which breaks down the β-lactam ring of the penicillin molecule. Penicillin (sometimes abbreviated PCN or pen) is a group of Beta-lactam antibiotics used in the treatment of Bacterial Infections Beta-lactamases are Enzymes ( produced by some bacteria and are responsible for their resistance to Beta-lactam antibiotics like Penicillins Beta-lactamases are Enzymes ( produced by some bacteria and are responsible for their resistance to Beta-lactam antibiotics like Penicillins Penicillinase-resistant penicillins such as methicillin, oxacillin, cloxacillin, dicloxacillin and flucloxacillin are able to resist degradation by staphylococcal penicillinase. Meticillin ( INN, BAN) or methicillin ( USAN) is a narrow spectrum Beta-lactam antibiotic of the Penicillin class Oxacillin sodium (trade name Bactocill) is a narrow spectrum Beta-lactam antibiotic of the Penicillin class Cloxacillin is a semisynthetic Antibiotic in the same class as Penicillin. Dicloxacillin ( INN) is a narrow spectrum Beta-lactam antibiotic of the Penicillin class Flucloxacillin ( INN) or floxacillin ( USAN) is a narrow spectrum Beta-lactam antibiotic of the Penicillin class

The mechanism of resistance to methicillin is mediated via the mec operon, part of the staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec). An operon is a functioning unit of key Nucleotide sequences including an operator, a common Promoter, and one or more structural Genes, Resistance is conferred by the mecA gene, which codes for an altered penicillin-binding protein (PBP2a or PBP2') that has a lower affinity for binding β-lactams (penicillins, cephalosporins and carbapenems). Penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs are a group of Proteins that are characterized by their affinity for and binding of Penicillin. Penicillin (sometimes abbreviated PCN or pen) is a group of Beta-lactam antibiotics used in the treatment of Bacterial Infections The cephalosporins (ˌsɛfələˈspɔrən/ /ˌkɛfə- are a class of β-lactam antibiotics. Carbapenems are a class of Beta-lactam antibiotics with a broad spectrum of antibacterial activity and have a structure which renders them highly resistant to Beta-lactamases This allows for resistance to all β-lactam antibiotics and obviates their clinical use during MRSA infections. As such the glycopeptide, vancomycin, is often deployed against MRSA. Glycopeptide antibiotics are a class of Antibiotic drugs. The class is composed of a glycosylated cyclic or polycyclic Nonribosomal peptides Vancomycin ( INN) (ˌvæŋkoʊˈmaɪsɪn is a Glycopeptide Antibiotic used in the Prophylaxis and treatment of infections caused by

Glycopeptide resistance is mediated by acquisition of the vanA gene. The vanA gene originates from the enterococci and codes for an enzyme that produces an alternative peptidoglycan to which vancomycin will not bind. Enterococcus is a Genus of Lactic acid bacteria of the phylum Firmicutes. Not to be confused with Glycoprotein. Peptidoglycan, also known as murein, is a Polymer consisting of sugars and amino Vancomycin ( INN) (ˌvæŋkoʊˈmaɪsɪn is a Glycopeptide Antibiotic used in the Prophylaxis and treatment of infections caused by

Today, S. aureus has become resistant to many commonly used antibiotics. Antibiotic resistance is the ability of a Microorganism to withstand the effects of Antibiotics. In the UK, only 2% of all S. aureus isolates are sensitive to penicillin with a similar picture in the rest of the world, due to a penicillinase (a form of β-lactamase). Penicillin (sometimes abbreviated PCN or pen) is a group of Beta-lactam antibiotics used in the treatment of Bacterial Infections Beta-lactamases are Enzymes ( produced by some bacteria and are responsible for their resistance to Beta-lactam antibiotics like Penicillins Beta-lactamases are Enzymes ( produced by some bacteria and are responsible for their resistance to Beta-lactam antibiotics like Penicillins The β-lactamase-resistant penicillins (methicillin, oxacillin, cloxacillin and flucloxacillin) were developed to treat penicillin-resistant S. Penicillin (sometimes abbreviated PCN or pen) is a group of Beta-lactam antibiotics used in the treatment of Bacterial Infections Meticillin ( INN, BAN) or methicillin ( USAN) is a narrow spectrum Beta-lactam antibiotic of the Penicillin class Oxacillin sodium (trade name Bactocill) is a narrow spectrum Beta-lactam antibiotic of the Penicillin class Cloxacillin is a semisynthetic Antibiotic in the same class as Penicillin. Flucloxacillin ( INN) or floxacillin ( USAN) is a narrow spectrum Beta-lactam antibiotic of the Penicillin class aureus and are still used as first-line treatment. Methicillin was the first antibiotic in this class to be used (it was introduced in 1959), but only two years later, the first case of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) was reported in England. Meticillin ( INN, BAN) or methicillin ( USAN) is a narrow spectrum Beta-lactam antibiotic of the Penicillin class The year 1959 ( MCMLIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. ^[13]

Despite this, MRSA generally remained an uncommon finding even in hospital settings until the 1990s when there was an explosion in MRSA prevalence in hospitals where it is now endemic. Year 1990 ( MCMXC) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar) In Epidemiology, an Infection is said to be endemic (from Greek en- in or within + demos people in a Population when ^[14]

MRSA infections in both the hospital and community setting are commonly treated with non-β-lactam antibiotics such as clindamycin (a lincosamine) and co-trimoxazole (also commonly known as trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole). Clindamycin ( rINN; klɪndəˈmaɪsɨn is a lincosamide Antibiotic. Co-trimoxazole (abbreviated SXT TMP-SMX TMP-SMZ or TMP-sulfa is an Sulphonamide, Antibacterial combination of Trimethoprim and Sulfamethoxazole Resistance to these antibiotics has also led to the use of new, broad-spectrum anti-Gram positive antibiotics such as linezolid because of its availability as an oral drug. Linezolid ( INN) (lɪˈnɛzəlɪd is a synthetic Antibiotic of the Oxazolidinone class used for the treatment of infections caused by multi-resistant First-line treatment for serious invasive infections due to MRSA is currently glycopeptide antibiotics (vancomycin and teicoplanin). Glycopeptide antibiotics are a class of Antibiotic drugs. The class is composed of a glycosylated cyclic or polycyclic Nonribosomal peptides Vancomycin ( INN) (ˌvæŋkoʊˈmaɪsɪn is a Glycopeptide Antibiotic used in the Prophylaxis and treatment of infections caused by Teicoplanin is an Antibiotic used in the Prophylaxis and treatment of serious infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria, including methicillin-resistant There are number of problems with these antibiotics, mainly centred around the need for intravenous administration (there is no oral preparation available), toxicity and the need to monitor drug levels regularly by means of blood tests. There are also concerns that glycopeptide antibiotics do not penetrate very well into infected tissues (this is a particular concern with infections of the brain and meninges and in endocarditis). The meninges (singular meninx) is the system of membranes which envelops the Central nervous system. Endocarditis is an Inflammation of the inner layer of the Heart, the Endocardium. Glycopeptides must not be used to treat methicillin-sensitive S. aureus as outcomes are inferior. ^[15]

Because of the high level of resistance to penicillins, and because of the potential for MRSA to develop resistance to vancomycin, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention have published guidelinesfor the appropriate use of vancomycin. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (or CDC) is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services based in unincorporated In situations where the incidence of MRSA infections is known to be high, the attending physician may choose to use a glycopeptide antibiotic until the identity of the infecting organism is known. In modern usage an antibiotic is a Chemotherapeutic agent with activity against Microorganisms such as Bacteria, fungi or Protozoa When the infection is confirmed to be due to a methicillin-susceptible strain of S. aureus, then treatment can be changed to flucloxacillin or even penicillin as appropriate. Flucloxacillin ( INN) or floxacillin ( USAN) is a narrow spectrum Beta-lactam antibiotic of the Penicillin class Penicillin (sometimes abbreviated PCN or pen) is a group of Beta-lactam antibiotics used in the treatment of Bacterial Infections

Vancomycin-resistant S. aureus (VRSA) is a strain of S. Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (VRSA is a strain of Staphylococcus aureus that has become resistant to the Glycopeptide antibiotic aureus that has become resistant to the glycopeptides. The first case of vancomycin-intermediate S. aureus (VISA) was reported in Japan in 1996;^[16] but the first case of S. Year 1996 ( MCMXCVI) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display full 1996 Gregorian calendar) aureus truly resistant to glycopeptide antibiotics was only reported in 2002. See also 2002 (disambiguation Year 2002 ( MMII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. ^[17] Three cases of VRSA infection have been reported in the United States as of 2005. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. ^[18]

Infection control

Spread of S. aureus (including MRSA) is through human-to-human contact, although recently some vets have discovered that the infection can be spread through pets, with environmental contamination thought to play a relatively unimportant part. Emphasis on basic hand washing techniques are therefore effective in preventing the transmission of S. Hand washing is the act of cleansing the Hands with Water or another Liquid, with or without the use of Soap or other Detergents aureus. The use of disposable aprons and gloves by staff reduces skin-to-skin contact and therefore further reduces the risk of transmission. Please refer to the article on infection control for further details. Infection control and health care epidemiology is the discipline concerned with preventing the spread of infections within the health-care setting

Recently, there have been a myriad of reported cases of S. aureus in hospitals across America. The incredibly hardy pathogen has had facilitated transportation in medical facilities mainly because of insufficient healthcare worker hygiene. S. aureus is an incredibly hardy bacterium, as was shown in a study where it survived on a piece of polyester for just under three months, polyester being the main material used in hospital privacy curtains.

The bacterium is able to transport itself on the hands of healthcare workers who, for instance, get the bacteria from a seemingly healthy patient carrying a "benign" or commensal strain of the pathogen and then pass it on to the next patient being cared for. Introduction of the bacterium into the bloodstream can lead to various complications including, but not limited to, endocarditis, meningitis, and, if it is widespread, sepsis - toxins infecting the entire body.

Because of these infections in hospitals, as of February 14th, 2008, all California medical facilities must now report S. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common aureus infections that are checked into the hospitals, in the hope of starting a trend to aid disease trackers and pathologists in their search for a cure. Alcohol has proven to be an effective topical sanitizer against MRSA. In Chemistry, an alcohol is any Organic compound in which a Hydroxyl group ( - O[[hydrogen H]]) is bound to a Carbon Quaternary ammonium can be used in conjunction with alcohol to increase the duration of the sanitizing action. Quaternary ammonium cations, also known as quats, are positively charged Polyatomic ions of the structure NR4+ with R being The prevention of nosocomial infections involve routine and terminal cleaning. Nosocomial infections are Infections which are a result of treatment in a Hospital or a healthcare service unit but secondary to the patient's original condition Terminal Cleaning describes a cleaning method used in healthcare environments to control the spread of infections Nonflammable alcohol vapor in CO₂ NAV-CO2 systems have an advantage as they do not attack metals or plastics used in medical environments, and do not contribute to antibacterial resistance. Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single Non-flammable Alcohol Vapor in Carbon Dioxide ( NAV-CO2) systems were developed in Japan in the 1990s to sanitize hospitals and ambulances

An important and previously unrecognized means of community-associated methicillin-resistant S. aureus colonization and transmission is during sexual contact. ^[19]

Staff or patients who are found to carry resistant strains of S. aureus may be required to undergo "eradication therapy" which may include antiseptic washes and shampoos (such as chlorhexidine) and application of topical antibiotic ointments (such as mupirocin or neomycin) to the anterior nares of the nose. Chlorhexidine is a chemical Antiseptic.It kills (is bactericidal to both Gram-positive and Gram-negative Microbes although it is less effective Mupirocin ( Bactroban or Centany) is an Antibiotic originally isolated from Pseudomonas fluorescens NCIMB 10586 Neomycin is an Aminoglycoside Antibiotic that is found in many topical medications such as creams ointments and eyedrops

In March 2007, BBC reported that a vaporizer spraying some essential oils into the atmosphere reduced airborne bacterial counts by 90% and kept MRSA infections at bay and may hold promise in MRSA infection control. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ^[20]

Footnotes

Editing resource: Burton, Gwendolyn R. W. "Microbiology for the Health Sciences"

External links

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