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"Runaways" used conventional stage lighting and theatrical fog
"Runaways" used conventional stage lighting and theatrical fog
Classical Spectacular used ordinary stage lighting plus special laser effects
Classical Spectacular used ordinary stage lighting plus special laser effects
An example of a rig including moving head, generic and LED fixtures at 'The Tuesday Club'
An example of a rig including moving head, generic and LED fixtures at 'The Tuesday Club'

Modern stage lighting is a flexible tool in the production of theatre, dance, opera and other performance arts. Theatrical smoke and fog, also known as special effect smoke, fog or haze, is a category of A broader definition of a tool is an entity used to interface between two or more domains that facilitates more effective action of one domain upon the other Theatre (or theater, see spelling differences) is the branch of the Performing arts defined by Bernard Beckerman as what "occurs when one Dance (from French danser, perhaps from Frankish) is an Art form that generally refers to movement of the body usually rhythmic Opera is an art form in which Singers and Musicians perform a Dramatic work (called an opera which combines a text (called a Libretto A performance, in Performing arts, generally comprises an event in which one group of people (the performer or performers behave in a particular way for another group of people Several different types of stage lighting instruments are used in the pursuit of the various principles or goals of lighting. Stage lighting instruments are used in Stage lighting to illuminate theatrical productions rock Concerts

Contents

Functions of lighting

Stage lighting has several functions, although to allow for artistic effect, no hard and fast rules can ever be applied. The functions of lighting include:

While Lighting Design is an art form, and thus no one way is the only way, there is a modern movement that simply states that the Lighting Design helps to create the environment in which the action take place while supporting the style of the piece. "Mood" is arguable while the environment is essential. [3]

Qualities of lighting

The four main qualities or properties of lighting are intensity, color, pattern and focus.

Intensity

Measured in lux, lumens and foot-candles. LUX is the principal centre for the promotion and distribution of experimental Film and Video works in the UK. The lumen (symbol lm) is the SI unit of Luminous flux, a measure of the perceived power of Light. A foot-candle (sometimes foot candle; abbreviated fc lm/ft² or sometimes ft-c is a non- SI unit of Illuminance or Light intensity widely For any given luminaire (lighting instrument or fixture), this depends upon the power of the lamp, the design of the instrument (and its corresponding efficiency), the presence or absence of colour gels or gobos, distance from the area to be lit and the beam or field angle of the fixture, the colour and substance to be lit, and the neuro-optics of the total scene (that is, the relative contrasts to other regions of illumination). See also Photographic filter A color gel or color filter ( UK colour gel or colour filter) or a lighting gel gobo is a template or pattern cut into a circular plate used to create Patterns of projected Light. [4]

Color

Color temperature is measured in Kelvin, and gel colours are organized by several different systems maintained by the colour manufacturing companies. The kelvin (symbol K) is a unit increment of Temperature and is one of the seven SI base units The Kelvin scale is a thermodynamic The apparent colour of a light is determined largely by the gel colour given it, but also in part by the power level the lamp is being run at and the colour of material it is to light. [5] As the percentage of full power a lamp is being run at drops, the tungsten filament in the bulb glows orange instead of more nearly white. Tungsten (ˈtʌŋstən also known as wolfram (/ˈwʊlfrəm/ is a Chemical element that has the symbol W and Atomic number 74 This is known as amber drift or amber shift. Thus a 1000-watt instrument at 50% will appear far more orange than a 500-watt instrument at full. [6]

LED fixtures create colour through additive colour mixing with red, green, and blue LEDs at different intensities. LED stage lights are light fittings that use Light-emitting diodes (LEDs as a light source This type of colour mixing is also used frequently with borderlights and cyclorama lights to create different colours on stage and on the cyclorama. A striplight Lighting fixture is a long row of small lights Usually theaters use roundels (pieces of colored glass or gels to make these lights different colors A cyclorama is a large curtain or wall often concave positioned at the back of the stage area Another form of colour mixing is CMY, or subtractive colour mixing. Cyan, magenta and yellow dichroic filters are used in different percentages to create different colours. Because it is often difficult to create true reds and greens, a green dichroic filter is often added to fixtures using this method of colour mixing.

Pattern

Main article: Gobo (lighting)
A gobo of this shape in a fixture with a red gel would produce a pattern like the one shown to the right. gobo is a template or pattern cut into a circular plate used to create Patterns of projected Light.


Pattern refers to the shape, quality and evenness of a lamp's output. The pattern of light an instrument makes is largely determined by three factors. The first are the specifics of the lamp, reflector and lens assembly. A lamp is a replaceable component such as an Incandescent light bulb, which is designed to produce Light from Electricity. A lens is an optical device with perfect or approximate Axial symmetry which transmits and refracts Light, converging or diverging Different mounting positions for the lamp (axial, base up, base down), different sizes and shapes of reflector and the nature of the lens (or lenses) being used can all affect the pattern of light. Secondly, the specifics of how the lamp is focused affect its pattern. In ellipsoidal reflector spotlights (ERS) or profile spotlights, there are two beams of light emitted from the lamp. Ellipsoidal reflector spotlight (abbreviated to ERS, or colloquially ellipsoidal) is the name for a type of Stage lighting instrument, named for the When the cones of both intersect at the throw distance (the distance to the stage), the lamp has a sharply defined 'hard' edge. When the two cones do not intersect at that distance, the edge is fuzzy and 'soft'. Depending on which beam (direct or reflected) is outside the other, the pattern may be 'thin and soft' or 'fat and soft. ' Lastly, a gobo or break up pattern may be applied to ERSs and similar instruments. gobo is a template or pattern cut into a circular plate used to create Patterns of projected Light. This is typically a thin sheet of metal with a shape cut into it. It is inserted into the instrument near its aperture. Gobos come in many shapes, but often include leaves, waves, stars and similar patterns. [7]

Focus, position, and hanging

Many stage lights hung on a batten focused in several directions
Many stage lights hung on a batten focused in several directions

Focus is a term usually used to describe where an instrument is pointed. In theater batten or pipe refers to a long metal pole suspended above the stage or the audience from which lighting fixtures Theatrical scenery The final focus should place the "hot spot" of the beam at the actor's head level when standing the center of the instrument's assigned "focus area" on the stage. Position refers to the location of an instrument in the theater's fly system or on permanent pipes in front-of-house locations. A fly system is a system of ropes counterweights pulleys and other such tools within a Theatre designed to allow a technical crew to quickly move set pieces lights and microphones Hanging is the act of placing the instrument in its assigned position. [8]

In addition to these, certain modern instruments are automated, referring to motorized movement of either the entire fixture body or the movement of a mirror placed in front of its outermost lens. Intelligent lighting refers to Stage lighting that has automated or mechanical abilities beyond those of traditional stationary illumination These fixtures and the more traditional follow spots add Direction and Motion to the relevant characteristics of light. Automated fixtures fall into either the moving head or moving mirror / scanner category. Scanners have a body which contains the lamp, PCBs, transformer, and effects (color, gobo, iris etc. ) devices. A mirror is panned and tilted in the desired position by pan and tilt motors, thereby causing the light beam to move. Moving head fixtures have the effects and lamp assembly inside the head with transformers and other electronics in the base or external ballast. There are advantages and disadvantages to both. Scanners are typically faster and less costly than moving head units but have a narrower range of movement. Moving head fixtures have a much larger range of movement as well as a more natural inertial movement but are typically more expensive. [9]

The above characteristics are not always static, and it is frequently the variation in these characteristics that is used in achieving the goals of lighting.

Stanley McCandless was perhaps the first to define controllable qualities of light used in theater. Stanley McCandless (1897-1967 is considered to be the father of modern Lighting design. In A Method for Lighting the Stage, McCandless discusses color, distribution, intensity and movement as the qualities that can be manipulated by a lighting designer to achieve the desired visual, emotional and thematic look on stage. The McCandless Method, outlined in that book, is widely embraced today. Stanley McCandless (1897-1967 is considered to be the father of modern Lighting design. The method involves lighting an object on the stage from three angles- 2 lights at 45 degrees to the left and right, and one at 90 degrees (perpendicular to the front of the object). [10][11]

The lighting designer

Main article: Lighting designer

The above elements of lighting are primarily the domain of the Lighting Designer (LD). The role of the lighting designer (or LD) within Theatre is to work with the director, Set designer, Costume designer, and sometimes The LD is responsible for using the principles above to achieve "the lighting look" — using lighting to affect the audience's senses and evoke their emotions. The lighting designer is familiar with the various types of lighting instruments and their uses. In consultation with the director and the scenic designer, and after watching sufficient rehearsals, the LD is responsible for providing an Instrument Schedule and a Light Plot. A theatre director or stage director is a practitioner in the Theatre field who oversees and orchestrates the mounting of a theatre production (a play, Scenic design (also known as stage design, set design or production design) is the creation of theatrical, as well as Film or A rehearsal is a preparatory event in Music and Theatre (and in other contexts that is performed before the official public Performance, as a form of The Schedule is a list of all required materials, including color gel, gobos, color wheels, barndoors and other accessories. The light plot is typically a plan view of the theatre in which the performance will take place, with every luminaire marked. A plan is an Orthographic projection of a 3-dimensional object from the position of a horizontal plane through the object This typically includes approximate focus (the direction it should be pointing), a reference number, any accessories required, and the specifics (or channel number) of its connection to the dimmer system or lighting control console. Dimmers are devices used to vary the brightness of a light. By decreasing or increasing the RMS voltage and hence the mean power to the lamp it is possible A lighting control console (also called a lightboard, lighting board, or lighting desk) is an electronic device used in [12]

An LD must be accustomed to working around the demands of the director or head planner. Practical experience is required to know the effective use of different lighting instruments and colour in creating a design. Experience as a general concept comprises Knowledge of or skill in or Observation of some thing or some event gained through involvement in or Many designers start their careers as lighting technicians in theatres or amateur theatre groups. Often, this is followed by training in one of the many vocational colleges or universities around the world that offer theatre courses. A vocation is an occupation for which a person is suited trained or qualified A university is an institution of Higher education and Research, which grants Academic degrees in a variety of subjects Many jobs in larger venues and productions require a degree from a vocational school or college in theatrical lighting, or at least a bachelor’s degree. ATTENTION *** This article is not "Vocational education in the United States"

Lighting instruments

Source Fours in use at the United States Marine Corps museum
Source Fours in use at the United States Marine Corps museum
Main article: Stage lighting instrument

In the context of lighting design, a lighting instrument (also called a luminaire) is a device that produces controlled lighting as part of the effects a lighting designer brings to a show. The Master Electrician (or ME) in a Theatre is responsible for implementing the lighting design for a production drawn up by the Lighting designer. In the performing arts and Stagecraft, the Light Board Operator is the technician in charge of operating all lighting equipment for a performance with the possible The ETC (Electronic Theatre Controls Source Four (also known unofficially as Source 4 or S4) is an Ellipsoidal reflector spotlight, a type of Stage lighting instruments are used in Stage lighting to illuminate theatrical productions rock Concerts The role of the lighting designer (or LD) within Theatre is to work with the director, Set designer, Costume designer, and sometimes The term lighting instrument is preferred to light to avoid confusion between light and light sources.

There are a variety of instruments frequently used in the theater. Although they vary in many ways they all have the following four basic components in one form or other:

Additional features will vary depend on the exact type of fixture.

Most theatrical light bulbs (or lamps, the term usually preferred) are Tungsten-Halogen (or Quartz-Halogen), an improvement on the original incandescent design that uses a halogen gas instead of an inert gas to increase lamp life and output. The incandescent light bulb, incandescent lamp or incandescent light globe is a source of electric Light that works by Incandescence, (a general Fluorescent lights are rarely used other than as worklights because, although they are far more efficient, they cannot be dimmed (run at less than full power) without using specialised dimmer ballasts and they will not dim to very low levels. In theater a worklight is a high-intensity lamp which is used to illuminate the stage for the benefit of technicians. An electrical ballast (sometimes called control gear) is a device intended to limit the amount of current in an electric They also do not produce light from a single point or easily concentrated area, and have a warm-up period, during which they emit no light or do so intermittently. High-intensity discharge lamps (or HID lamps), however, are now common where a very bright light output is required, - for example in large follow spots, HMI (Hydrargyrum medium-arc iodide) floods, and modern automated fixtures. A High-intensity discharge (HID lamp is a type of electrical lamp which produces light by means of an electric arc between Tungsten Electrodes Hydrargyrum medium-arc iodide, or HMI, is a mercury - Halide gas discharge medium arc-length lamp When dimming is required, it is done by mechanical dousers or shutters, as these types of lamps also cannot be electrically dimmed.

Most instruments are suspended or supported by a "U" shaped yoke, or 'trunion arm' fixed to the sides of the instrument, normally near its center of gravity. On the end of such, a clamp (known as a hook-clamp, C-clamp, or pipe clamp - pipe referring to battens) is normally fixed, made in a "C" configuration with a screw to lock the instrument onto the pipe or batten from which it is typically hung. In theater batten or pipe refers to a long metal pole suspended above the stage or the audience from which lighting fixtures Theatrical scenery Once secured, the fixture can be panned and tilted using tension adjustment knobs on the yoke and clamp. An adjustable c-wrench (US) or spanner (UK) is often used to assist the technician in adjusting the fixture. List of theatre personnel A theatrical technician, tech, Techie, theatre tech or theatre technician is a person who operates technical

All lights are loosely classified as either floodlights (wash lights) or spotlights. Stage lighting instruments are used in Stage lighting to illuminate theatrical productions rock Concerts The distinction has to do with the degree to which one is able to control the shape and quality of the light produced by the instrument, with spotlights being controllable, sometimes to an extremely precise degree, and floodlights being completely uncontrollable. Instruments that fall somewhere in the middle of the spectrum can be classified as either a spot or a flood, depending on the type of instrument and how it is used. In general, spotlights have lenses while floodlights are lensless, although this is not always the case.

Please note: In the UK the nomenclature is slightly different from North America. This article primarily uses the North American terminology. Although there is some adoption of the former naming conventions it has been normal to categorise lanterns by their lens type, so that what in the US is known as a spotlight is known as a Profile or a Fresnel/PC (Pebble/Plano/Prism Convex) in the UK. A Fresnel lantern (or merely Fresnel) is a spotlight used in Theatre, which employs a Fresnel lens to wash light over an area of the A Spotlight in the UK often refers to a Followspot. A followspot, sometimes known as a Spot Light, is a powerful stage light which can be controlled by a human Spotlight operator to "follow" actors The following definitions are from a North American point of view, and would be confusing when used, without further clarification, in the UK. UK naming conventions are considered to be correct in most of the world, in fact most North American theatres will also use the UK terms except when talking in a more general sense (ie get a spotlight to focus on that set piece, or 'flood this area')

Also note: In Australia and many other places, the lamps inside a theatrical fixture are referred to as bubbles. The incandescent light bulb, incandescent lamp or incandescent light globe is a source of electric Light that works by Incandescence, (a general In North American English, a bubble refers to the protrusion that occurs when one's body (or other oily substance) contacts the lamp. Oil will cause the portion of the lamp which has oil on it to expand when it is on (lamps generate a lot of heat), creating the bubble, and causing the lamp to explode. That is why one should never directly touch the glass portion of a lamp. Cleaning with rubbing alcohol will remove the oil. Rubbing alcohol USP / BP is a liquid prepared and used primarily for Topical application

Lighting controls

Main article: Lighting console
Entertainment Technology's Marquee lighting console.
Entertainment Technology's Marquee lighting console. A lighting control console (also called a lightboard, lighting board, or lighting desk) is an electronic device used in

Lighting control tools might best be described as anything that changes the quality of the light. Historically this has been done by the use of intensity control. Technological advancements have made intensity control relatively simple - solid state dimmers are controlled by one or more lighting controllers. Controllers are commonly lighting consoles designed for sophisticated control over very large numbers of dimmers or luminaires, but may be simpler devices which play back stored sequences of lighting states with minimal user interfaces. Consoles are also referred to as lighting desks or light-boards. [13]

For larger shows or installations, multiple consoles are often used together and in some cases lighting controllers are combined or coordinated with controllers for sound, automated scenery, pyrotechnics and other effects to provide total automation of the entire show. See show control. Show control is the use of Technology to link together and operate multiple Entertainment control systems in a coordinated manner

The lighting controller is connected to the dimmers (or directly to automated luminaires) using a control cable (e. g. DMX512) or network, allowing the dimmers which are bulky, hot and sometimes noisy, to be positioned away from the stage and audience and allowing automated luminaires to be positioned wherever necessary. DMX512-A is an EIA-485 based Communications protocol that is most commonly used to control Stage lighting and effects In addition to DMX512, newer control connections include RDM (Remote Device Management) which adds management and status feedback capabilities to devices which use it while maintaining compatibility with DMX512; and ACN (Architecture for Control Networks) which is a fully featured multiple controller networking protocol. R emote D evice M anagement or RDM is a protocol enhancement to USITT DMX512 that will allow bi-directional communication between a lighting or Architecture for Control Networks ( ACN) is a suite of Network protocols for theatrical control being developed by ESTA (Entertainment Services and Technology These allow the possibility of feedback of position, state or fault conditions from units, whilst allowing much more detailed control of them. [14]

Dimming

Main article: Dimmer
A pair of modern 2.4k dimmers by Electronic Theatre Controls
A pair of modern 2. Dimmers are devices used to vary the brightness of a light. By decreasing or increasing the RMS voltage and hence the mean power to the lamp it is possible 4k dimmers by Electronic Theatre Controls

A dimmer is a device used to vary the electrical power delivered to the instrument’s lamp. Electronic Theatre Controls ( ETC) is a privately held corporation with global headquarters in Middleton Wisconsin, United States As power to the lamp decreases, the light fades or dims. It is important to note that some color change also occurs as a lamp is dimmed, allowing for a limited amount of color control through the dimmer. Fades can be either UP or DOWN, that is increasing or decreasing the intensity. Today, most dimmers are solid state, although many mechanical dimmers still exist. [15]

Dimmers are often found in large racks that draw large amounts of three-phase electrical power. This article deals with where how and why "three phase" is used The dimmers themselves are often removable modules that range from a 20-amp, 2. 4 Kilowatt unit to a 50-amp or even a 100-amp unit. The watt (symbol W) is the SI derived unit of power, equal to one Joule of energy per Second. They can often be replaced by a Constant Power Module which is basically a 20- or 50-amp breaker in a dimming module casing. Constant Power Modules are used to supply non-dimming current to other electrical devices (like smoke machines, chain winches, or scenic motors). When a Constant Power Module is installed, the corresponding circuit is energized as long as the dimming pack is on, independent of the lighting console. [16]

Increasingly, with the growth of digital technology, modern lighting instruments are available which allow remote control, not just of intensity, but of direction, color, beam shape, projected image, beam angle and a wealth of other effects. The ability to move an instrument ever more quickly and quietly has become the industry goal. Such automated lights frequently have built-in dimming and so are connected directly to the control cable or network and are independent of external dimmers.

See also

References

  1. ^ McCandless, Stanley (1958). High-key lighting is a style of lighting for Film, Television, or Photography that aims to reduce the Low-key lighting is a style of lighting for Photography, Film or Television. Stage lighting instruments are used in Stage lighting to illuminate theatrical productions rock Concerts A Method of Lighting the Stage, Fourth Edition. New York: Theatre Arts Books, 9-10. ISBN 978-0878300822.  
  2. ^ Gillette, J. Michael (2003). Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Designing With Light: An Introduction to Stage Lighting, Fourth Edition". McGraw Hill, 9-10. The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc, ( is a Publicly traded corporation headquartered in Rockefeller Center in New York City. ISBN 0-7674-2733-5.  
  3. ^ Gillette, J. Michael (2003). Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Designing With Light: An Introduction to Stage Lighting, Fourth Edition". McGraw Hill, 10. The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc, ( is a Publicly traded corporation headquartered in Rockefeller Center in New York City. ISBN 0-7674-2733-5.  
  4. ^ Gillette, J. Michael (2003). Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Designing With Light: An Introduction to Stage Lighting, Fourth Edition". McGraw Hill, 7. The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc, ( is a Publicly traded corporation headquartered in Rockefeller Center in New York City. ISBN 0-7674-2733-5.  
  5. ^ Gillette, J. Michael (2003). Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Designing With Light: An Introduction to Stage Lighting, Fourth Edition". McGraw Hill, 7. The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc, ( is a Publicly traded corporation headquartered in Rockefeller Center in New York City. ISBN 0-7674-2733-5.  
  6. ^ Gillette, J. Michael (2003). Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Designing With Light: An Introduction to Stage Lighting, Fourth Edition". McGraw Hill, 50. The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc, ( is a Publicly traded corporation headquartered in Rockefeller Center in New York City. ISBN 0-7674-2733-5.  
  7. ^ Gillette, J. Michael (2003). Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Designing With Light: An Introduction to Stage Lighting, Fourth Edition". McGraw Hill, 62-64. The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc, ( is a Publicly traded corporation headquartered in Rockefeller Center in New York City. ISBN 0-7674-2733-5.  
  8. ^ Gillette, J. Michael (2003). Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Designing With Light: An Introduction to Stage Lighting, Fourth Edition". McGraw Hill, 181. The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc, ( is a Publicly traded corporation headquartered in Rockefeller Center in New York City. ISBN 0-7674-2733-5.  
  9. ^ Gillette, J. Michael (2003). Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Designing With Light: An Introduction to Stage Lighting, Fourth Edition". McGraw Hill, 152-158. The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc, ( is a Publicly traded corporation headquartered in Rockefeller Center in New York City. ISBN 0-7674-2733-5.  
  10. ^ Lampert-Gréaux, Ellen. "Remember Stanley McCandless?", Live Design Online, Penton Media, Inc, 2007-05-01. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 305 - Diocletian and Maximian retire from the office of Roman Emperor. Retrieved on 2008-01-29. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 904 - Sergius III comes out of retirement to take over the papacy from the deposed Antipope Christopher.  
  11. ^ McCandless, Stanley (1958). A Method of Lighting the Stage, Fourth Edition. New York: Theatre Arts Books, 55-56. ISBN 978-0878300822.  
  12. ^ Gillette, J. Michael (2003). Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Designing With Light: An Introduction to Stage Lighting, Fourth Edition". McGraw Hill, 12-13. The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc, ( is a Publicly traded corporation headquartered in Rockefeller Center in New York City. ISBN 0-7674-2733-5.  
  13. ^ Gillette, J. Michael (2003). Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Designing With Light: An Introduction to Stage Lighting, Fourth Edition". McGraw Hill, 95, 97, 100-102. The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc, ( is a Publicly traded corporation headquartered in Rockefeller Center in New York City. ISBN 0-7674-2733-5.  
  14. ^ Gillette, J. Michael (2003). Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Designing With Light: An Introduction to Stage Lighting, Fourth Edition". McGraw Hill, 96. The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc, ( is a Publicly traded corporation headquartered in Rockefeller Center in New York City. ISBN 0-7674-2733-5.  
  15. ^ Gillette, J. Michael (2003). Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Designing With Light: An Introduction to Stage Lighting, Fourth Edition". McGraw Hill, 89. The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc, ( is a Publicly traded corporation headquartered in Rockefeller Center in New York City. ISBN 0-7674-2733-5.  
  16. ^ Gillette, J. Michael (2003). Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Designing With Light: An Introduction to Stage Lighting, Fourth Edition". McGraw Hill, 92. The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc, ( is a Publicly traded corporation headquartered in Rockefeller Center in New York City. ISBN 0-7674-2733-5.  

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