In biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions. Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles Reproduction is the Biological process by which new individual Organisms are produced Biological dispersal refers to those processes by which a Species maintains ecosystem Spores form part of the life cycles of many plants, algae, fungi and some protozoans. A life cycle is a period involving 1 Generation of an Organism through means of Reproduction, whether through Asexual reproduction or Sexual Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Algae ( sing. alga are a large and diverse group of simple typically Autotrophic organisms ranging from Unicellular to Multicellular forms A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ Protozoa (in Greek πρῶτον proton "first" and ζῷα zoia "animals" are unicellular Eukaryotes (singular ^[1] A chief difference between spores and seeds as dispersal units is that spores have very little stored food resources compared with seeds. Biological dispersal refers to those processes by which a Species maintains ecosystem

Spores are usually haploid and unicellular and are produced by meiosis in the sporophyte. "Haplo" redirects here For the fictional character see The Death Gate Cycle. A microorganism (also spelled micro organism or micro-organism and also called a microbe) is an Organism that is Microscopic (usually In Biology or life science meiosis (pronounced my-oh-sis is a process of reductional division in which the number of chromosomes per cell is cut in half All land plants and some Algae, have life cycles in which a haploid Gametophyte generation alternates with a Diploid sporophyte, the generation of a Once conditions are favorable, the spore can develop into a new organism using mitotic division, producing a multicellular gametophyte, which eventually goes on to produce gametes. Mitosis is the process in which a Eukaryotic cell separates the Chromosomes in its Cell nucleus, into two identical sets in two daughter nuclei Multicellular organisms are Organisms consisting of more than one cell, and having Differentiated cells that perform specialized functions In Plants and Algae that undergo Alternation of generations, a gametophyte is the multicellular structure or phase that is Haploid, containing A gamete (from Ancient Greek γαμέτης; translated gamete = wife gametes = husband is a cell that fuses with another gamete

Two gametes fuse to create a new sporophyte. A gamete (from Ancient Greek γαμέτης; translated gamete = wife gametes = husband is a cell that fuses with another gamete This cycle is known as alternation of generations, but a better term is "biological life cycle", as there may be more than one phase and so it cannot be a direct alternation. The Alternation of phases (or generations) describes the life cycle of Plants Fungi and Protists A multicellular Diploid phase alternates Haploid spores produced by mitosis (known as mitospores) are used by many fungi for asexual reproduction. Mitosis is the process in which a Eukaryotic cell separates the Chromosomes in its Cell nucleus, into two identical sets in two daughter nuclei Conidia, sometimes termed conidiospores, are asexual, non-motile Spores of a Fungus; they are also called mitospores due

Spores produced in a sporic life cycle.

Spores are the units of asexual reproduction, because a single spore develops into a new organism. By contrast, gametes are the units of sexual reproduction, as two gametes need to fuse to create a new organism.

The term spore may also refer to the dormant stage of some bacteria or archaea; however these are more correctly known as endospores and are not truly spores in the sense discussed in this article. The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have An endospore is a dormant, tough and non-reproductive structure produced by a small number of Bacteria from the Firmicute phylum The term can also be loosely applied to some animal resting stages. Fungi that produce spores are known as sporogenous, and those that do not are asporogenous.

The term derives from the ancient Greek word σπορα ("spora"), meaning a seed. The Ancient Greek language is the historical stage in the development of the Hellenic language family spanning the Archaic (c A seed (in some plants referred to as a kernel) is a small embryonic Plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat usually with some stored

Classification

Spores can be classified in several ways:

By spore-producing structure

In fungi and fungus-like organisms, spores are often classified by the structure in which meiosis and spore production occurs. Since fungi are often classified according to their spore-producing structures, these spores are often characteristic of a particular taxon of the fungi. A taxon (plural taxa) or taxonomic unit, is a name designating an organism or a group of Organisms In Biological nomenclature according to A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ

Fern sori, clusters of meiosporangia on the underside of the leaf. A fern is any one of a group of about 20000 Species of Plants classified in the phylum or division Pteridophyta, also known as Filicophyta "Sori" redirects here For the commune in Italy see Sori Italy; for the villages in Azerbaijan see Soru and Sors Azerbaijan.

In plants, microspores, and in some cases megaspores, are formed from all four products of meiosis. Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. In Biology, a microspore is a small Spore as contrasted to the larger megaspore.

In contrast, in many seed plants and heterosporous ferns, only a single product of meiosis will become a megaspore (macrospore), with the rest degenerating. The spermatophytes (from the Greek word "Σπερματόφυτα" (also known as phanerogams) comprise those Plants that produce Seeds They are A fern is any one of a group of about 20000 Species of Plants classified in the phylum or division Pteridophyta, also known as Filicophyta Megaspores, also called macrospores, are a type of spores that is present in Heterosporous Plants These types of plants have two spore types megaspores

• Sporangiospores: spores produced by a sporangium in many fungi such as zygomycetes. A sporangium (pl sporangia) is a Plant or fungal structure producing and containing Spores Sporangia occur in angiosperms, A sporangium (pl sporangia) is a Plant or fungal structure producing and containing Spores Sporangia occur in angiosperms, Zygomycota, or zygote fungi are a Phylum of fungi. The name of the phylum comes from zygosporangia, where resistant spherical spores are formed during
• Zygospores: spores produced by a zygosporangium, characteristic of zygomycetes. A zygospore is a reproductive part of a Fungus, a Chlamydospore that is created by the nuclear fusion of Haploid Hyphae of different mating types Zygomycota, or zygote fungi are a Phylum of fungi. The name of the phylum comes from zygosporangia, where resistant spherical spores are formed during
• Ascospores: spores produced by an ascus, characteristic of ascomycetes. An ascospore is a Spore contained in an Ascus or that was produced inside an ascus ascusgif|thumb|right|Ascus of Saccharomyces cerevisiae containing a tetrad of four spores]]An ascus (plural asci) is the sexual spore-bearing cell produced in Ascomycota is a Division / Phylum of Fungi, and subkingdom Dikarya, whose members are commonly known as the Sac Fungi.
• Basidiospores: spores produced by a basidium, characteristic of basidiomycetes. A basidiospore is a reproductive Spore produced by Basidiomycete Fungi. A basidium (pl basidia) is a microscopic spore-producing structure found on the Hymenophore of fruiting bodies of basidiomycete fungi Basidiomycota is one of two large phyla that together with the Ascomycota, comprise the subkingdom Dikarya, which were in general what were called
• Aeciospores: spores produced by a aecium in some fungi such as rusts or smuts. Rusts are Fungi of the order Uredinales. Many of these species are plant Parasites. The smuts are fungi, mostly Ustilaginomycetes (of the class Teliomycetae, subphylum Basidiomycota) that cause Plant disease.
• Urediospores: spores produced by a uredinium in some fungi such as rusts or smuts. Rusts are Fungi of the order Uredinales. Many of these species are plant Parasites. The smuts are fungi, mostly Ustilaginomycetes (of the class Teliomycetae, subphylum Basidiomycota) that cause Plant disease.
• Teliospores: spores produced by a telium in some fungi such as rusts or smuts. Teliospore (sometimes called teleutospore) is the thick-walled resting Spore of some Fungi ( rusts and smuts) from which the Rusts are Fungi of the order Uredinales. Many of these species are plant Parasites. The smuts are fungi, mostly Ustilaginomycetes (of the class Teliomycetae, subphylum Basidiomycota) that cause Plant disease.
• Oospores: spores produced by a oogonium, characteristic of oomycetes. An oospore is a thick-walled sexual Spore that develops from a fertilized Oosphere ( union of oogonium and antheridium in some Algae and Fungi An oogonium (plural oogonia) is an Immature ovum. It is a female Gametogonium. Oomycetes also known as Water molds (or water moulds: see spelling differences) are a group of filamentous unicellular Heterokonts physically
• Carpospores: spores produced by a carposporophyte, characteristic of red algae. The red algae (Rhodophyta ˌroʊdəˈfaɪtə roʊˈdɒfɨtə from Greek: ῥόδον (rhodon = rose + φυτόν (phyton = plant thus red plant are
• Tetraspores: spores produced by a tetrasporophyte, characteristic of red algae. The red algae (Rhodophyta ˌroʊdəˈfaɪtə roʊˈdɒfɨtə from Greek: ῥόδον (rhodon = rose + φυτόν (phyton = plant thus red plant are

By function

• Chlamydospores: thick-walled resting spores of fungi produced to survive unfavorable conditions. A Chlamydospore is the thick-walled big resting Spore of several kinds of Fungi. A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ

By origin during life cycle

• Meiospores: spores produced by meiosis; they are thus haploid, and give rise to a haploid daughter cell(s) or a haploid individual. In Biology or life science meiosis (pronounced my-oh-sis is a process of reductional division in which the number of chromosomes per cell is cut in half "Haplo" redirects here For the fictional character see The Death Gate Cycle. Examples are the precursor cells of gametophytes of seed plants found in flowers (angiosperms) or cones (gymnosperms). In Plants and Algae that undergo Alternation of generations, a gametophyte is the multicellular structure or phase that is Haploid, containing The spermatophytes (from the Greek word "Σπερματόφυτα" (also known as phanerogams) comprise those Plants that produce Seeds They are A flower, also known as a bloom or Blossom, is the reproductive structure found in Flowering plants (plants of the division Magnoliophyta, also The flowering plants or angiosperms ( Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta) are the most widespread group A cone (in formal botanical usage Strobilus, plural strobili is an organ on Plants in the division Pinophyta ( Conifers Gymnosperm (Gymnospermae are a group of Spermatophyte seed-bearing Plants with Ovules on the edge or blade of an open Sporophyll, which are
  • Microspores: meiospores that give rise to a male gametophyte, (pollen in seed plants). In Biology, a microspore is a small Spore as contrasted to the larger megaspore. In Plants and Algae that undergo Alternation of generations, a gametophyte is the multicellular structure or phase that is Haploid, containing Pollen is a fine to coarse powder consisting of microgametophytes ( pollen grains) which produce the male Gametes (sperm cells of
  • Megaspores (or macrospores): meiospores that give rise to a female gametophyte, (an ovule in seed plants). Megaspores, also called macrospores, are a type of spores that is present in Heterosporous Plants These types of plants have two spore types megaspores In Plants and Algae that undergo Alternation of generations, a gametophyte is the multicellular structure or phase that is Haploid, containing Ovule literally means "small egg." In Seed plants the ovule is the structure that gives rise to and contains the female reproductive cells
• Mitospores (or conidia, conidiospores): spores produced by mitosis; they are characteristic of Ascomycetes. Conidia, sometimes termed conidiospores, are asexual, non-motile Spores of a Fungus; they are also called mitospores due Mitosis is the process in which a Eukaryotic cell separates the Chromosomes in its Cell nucleus, into two identical sets in two daughter nuclei Ascomycota is a Division / Phylum of Fungi, and subkingdom Dikarya, whose members are commonly known as the Sac Fungi. Fungi in which only mitospores are found are called “mitosporic fungi” or “anamorphic fungi”, and are previously classified under the taxon Deuteromycota (See Teleomorph, anamorph and holomorph). A taxon (plural taxa) or taxonomic unit, is a name designating an organism or a group of Organisms In Biological nomenclature according to

By motility

Spores can be differentiated by whether they can move or not. Motility is a biological term which refers to the ability to move spontaneously and actively consuming energy in the process

• Zoospores: mobile spores that move by means of one or more flagella, and can be found in some algae and fungi. A zoospore is a motile asexual Spore utilizing a Flagellum for Locomotion. A flagellum ( plural flagella) is a tail-like structure that projects from the Cell body of certain Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells and it Algae ( sing. alga are a large and diverse group of simple typically Autotrophic organisms ranging from Unicellular to Multicellular forms A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ
• Aplanospores: immobile spores that may nevertheless potentially grow flagella.
• Autospores: immobile spores that cannot develop flagella.
• Ballistospores: spores that are actively discharged from the body of the fungal fruiting body. A spore that is shot off In Fungi most types of Basidiospores formed on Basidia are discharged into the air from the tips of sterigmata. The sporocarp of a Basidiomycete is known as a Basidiocarp, while the fruiting body of an Ascomycete is known as an Ascocarp. Most basidiospores are also ballistospores, and another notable example is spores of Pilobolus. A basidiospore is a reproductive Spore produced by Basidiomycete Fungi. This article is about the fungal Genus; for information on the Dance company, see Pilobolus (dance company.
• Statismospores: spores that are not actively discharged from the fungal fruiting body. Examples are puffballs. A puffball is a member of any of a number of groups of fungus in the division Basidiomycota.

Parlance

In common parlance, the difference between "spore" and "gamete" (both together called gonites) is that a spore will germinate and develop into a sporeling, while a gamete needs to combine with another gamete before developing further. A gamete (from Ancient Greek γαμέτης; translated gamete = wife gametes = husband is a cell that fuses with another gamete A sporeling is a young plant or fungus produced by a germinated Spore, similar to a Seedling derived from a germinated Seed. However, the terms are somewhat interchangeable when referring to gametes.

A chief difference between spores and seeds as dispersal units is that spores have little food storage compared with seeds, and thus require more favorable conditions in order to successfully germinate. Biological dispersal refers to those processes by which a Species maintains ecosystem (This is not without its exceptions, however: many orchid seeds are microscopic and lack endosperm, and spores of some fungi in the Glomeromycota commonly exceed 300µm in diameter. Endosperm is the tissue produced in the Seeds of most Flowering plants around the time of fertilization Glomeromycota (informally glomeromycetes) is one of seven currently recognized phyla within the kingdom Fungi, with approximately 200 described species )^[2] Seeds, therefore, are more resistant to harsh conditions and require less energy to start mitosis. Mitosis is the process in which a Eukaryotic cell separates the Chromosomes in its Cell nucleus, into two identical sets in two daughter nuclei Spores are usually produced in large numbers to increase the chance of a spore surviving.

The endospores of certain bacteria are often incorrectly called spores, as seen in the 2001 anthrax attacks, where the media called anthrax endospores "anthrax spores". An endospore is a dormant, tough and non-reproductive structure produced by a small number of Bacteria from the Firmicute phylum The 2001 Anthrax attacks in the United States, also known as Amerithrax from its Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI case name occurred over Unlike eukaryotic spores, endospores are primarily a survival mechanism, not a reproductive method, and a bacterium only produces a single endospore.

Diaspores

In the case of spore-shedding vascular plants such as ferns, wind distribution of very light spores provides great capacity for dispersal. Vascular plants (also known as tracheophytes or higher plants) are those Plants that have lignified tissues for conducting A fern is any one of a group of about 20000 Species of Plants classified in the phylum or division Pteridophyta, also known as Filicophyta Also, spores are less subject to animal predation than seeds because they contain almost no food reserve; however they are more subject to fungal and bacterial predation. Their chief advantage is that, of all forms of progeny, spores require the least energy and materials to produce.

Vascular plant spores are always haploid and vascular plants are either homosporous or heterosporous. "Haplo" redirects here For the fictional character see The Death Gate Cycle. Plants that are homosporous produce spores of the same size and type. Heterosporous plants, such as spikemosses, quillworts, and some aquatic ferns produce spores of two different sizes: the larger spore in effect functioning as a "female" spore and the smaller functioning as a "male". Spikemoss refers to any plant of the genus Selaginella in the family Selaginellaceae Isoëtes, commonly known as the Quillworts, is the genus of plants in the class Isoetopsida and order Isoetales. Female (♀ is the Sex of an Organism, or a part of an organism which produces ova (egg cells Male (♂ refers to the sex of an organism or part of an organism which produces small mobile Gametes called spermatozoa.

Under high magnification, spores can be categorized as either monolete spores or trilete spores. Magnification is the process of enlarging something only in appearance not in physical size In monolete spores, there is a single line on the spore indicating the axis on which the mother spore was split into four along a vertical axis. In trilete spores, all four spores share a common origin and are in contact with each other, so when they separate, each spore shows three lines radiating from a center pole.

Parasitic Fungal spores

Parasitic fungal spores may be classified into internal spores, which germinate within the host, and external spores, also called environmental spores, released by the host to infest other hosts. ^[3]

See also

• A video of spores being ejected by fungus
• Alternation of generations
• Bioaerosol
• Sporophyte
• Endospore
• Fern
• Auxiliary cell

References

1. ^ Spore FAQ - Aerobiology Research Laboratory
2. ^ INVAM
3. ^ [1]. The Alternation of phases (or generations) describes the life cycle of Plants Fungi and Protists A multicellular Diploid phase alternates A bioaerosol is a biological Aerosol. These particles are very small and range in size from less than one micrometer (0 All land plants and some Algae, have life cycles in which a haploid Gametophyte generation alternates with a Diploid sporophyte, the generation of a An endospore is a dormant, tough and non-reproductive structure produced by a small number of Bacteria from the Firmicute phylum A fern is any one of a group of about 20000 Species of Plants classified in the phylum or division Pteridophyta, also known as Filicophyta The auxiliary cell is a Spore -like structure that forms within the family Gigasporaceae.